HORSES
One of the greatest difficulties with which the cavalry had to contend
throughout the operations arose from the constant struggle to keep the
horses sufficiently fit to carry on. This is, of course, always the
case in war time, but the difficulties in the Syrian campaign were
probably greater than in any previous one in which the British Army had
taken part.
_Climate._--To begin with, the climate encountered included every
extreme of heat, cold, drought, and rain. For the first three weeks
from the commencement of the 1917 campaign, the weather was extremely
hot, the temperature running up to 110° in the shade. For two days,
November the 10th and 11th, matters were rendered worse by a burning
hot east wind, which raised clouds of suffocating dust. Then the rains
broke, and, for the next six weeks, constant wet, deep mud and piercing
cold winds were the order of the day. After a short period of good
weather, the cavalry moved to the Jordan Valley, where they spent the
summer of 1918, under conditions of heat and discomfort which have
already been described. Finally, in the following winter, the horses
found themselves sometimes standing in six inches of snow.[28]
_Condition._--In the second place, the health of the horses was in an
unsatisfactory state when the cavalry operations commenced.
Whatever their outward appearance might have been, and it varied
considerably in different units, their internal condition was by no
means good. The great bulk of them had taken part in the advance across
Sinai, and had been in Egypt for a long time prior to that. Two years
of unaccustomed and indifferent forage, added to the large quantities
of sand they had consumed in their food while in the desert, had more
or less permanently injured their digestive organs. It is true that
sand colic, that scourge of the desert, had almost ceased to trouble
the force by the end of the summer of 1917, but the dire effects of
the sand were evident in every post-mortem. In a large number of cases
the membrane of the stomach and intestines was freely marked with the
scars of old ulcers, and in some instances large portions of it had
sloughed away. Sand muzzles were almost universally employed up to the
commencement of the advance on Beersheba, but it was impossible to
prevent sand getting into the forage; indeed quantities of it had been
purposely placed there by the dishonest native merchants, in order to
increase the weight of bales and sacks.
It is probable that 90 per cent. of the draught horses of the artillery
and transport had strained their hearts to some extent during the
terrible work in the heavy sands of the desert. The writer carried out,
or was present at, upwards of twenty post-mortems on draught horses
that died during the advance across Sinai, and, in every case, found
an enlargement of the heart greater than could possibly be accounted
for by the age of the horse. In one instance, the wall of the heart was
ruptured right through. This horse had been led four miles back to
camp after first showing signs of extreme distress. On arriving in camp
he drank well, ate a bran mash, and lived for six hours afterwards, a
wonderful example of endurance.
The experience of the campaign proved that horses cannot be in too
'big' condition at the commencement of operations, provided they have
been kept adequately exercised while being conditioned. The really fat,
round horses finished both series of operations in better condition
than those which had looked harder and more muscular, but not so fat,
at the beginning. This was especially the case in the first series,
during which the shortage of water was so acute.
_Forage._--During both campaigns the forage was of very poor quality
and woefully scanty. Up to the commencement of the 1917 operations,
the daily issue had consisted of 10 lb. of barley, gram or maize and
10 lb. of tibben (chopped barley straw) and bursȳm (a kind of hay made
of a coarse species of lucerne, of good feeding value and much liked
by the horses). The food value of the whole daily ration was about 23
per cent. below that of an average horse in England doing the same
work. The barley and tibben, being produced in Egypt, were very dusty,
and contained a large proportion of earth and small stones. The gram
and maize were of fair quality, but the latter was sometimes issued
whole, and, when issued crushed, was often very dusty. The daily ration
during operations in both campaigns was 9-1/2 lb. of grain per day,
and nothing else. So that the horses were called upon to do very much
harder work on less than half the amount of food to which they had been
accustomed, and only about 36 per cent. of the normal ration for such
horses in England.
For the first month of the 1917 campaign this ration was exclusively
gram. As the horses had previously only been accustomed to a small
proportion of this grain in their daily feeds, it caused them to
scour badly, thus increasing the weakness engendered by hard work and
starvation. It is difficult to understand why gram was decided upon in
preference to barley, of which there was plenty available, but, at all
events, the lesson was taken to heart, and, for the remainder of the
campaign, the marching ration was always barley.
From the 25th September 1918 till the cavalry left the country in
November 1919, all forage was bought locally. It was generally of good
quality, and there was a certain amount of grazing available.
_Water._--The water difficulties during the 1917 operations have been
referred to before. Prior to this campaign it was generally accepted
that cavalry horses could continue to work for a maximum period of
about sixty hours without water, after which it would be necessary to
give them some days' rest; Arab ponies were thought to be able to last
about ten hours longer. During the Darfur Campaign, Kelly Pasha[29]
marched ninety miles in three nights and two days with a mounted
infantry regiment equipped with the hardy little mules of Abyssinia.
All these estimates were proved to have been erroneous. It has already
been pointed out that one battery of the Corps marched and fought for
nine consecutive days, during which period its horses were only watered
three times,[30] and this was no isolated example. Even when water was
obtainable, the difficulty of raising it from very deep wells, and the
pressing need for haste, often resulted in many horses being unable to
drink their fill.
During the advance across the Sinai desert a number of experiments had
been carried out, both by the Royal Army Veterinary Corps and by the
commanders of different units, with a view to ascertaining whether
horses would do better, under the existing conditions, with two drinks
a day or three. The usual plan was to select a large number of horses
of the same type and of about equal condition, and put half of these on
two waterings and half on three. The result of these experiments was
conclusively in favour of the two drinks a day. Not only did the horses
on this _régime_ improve in condition quicker than those which were
watered three times, but it was proved by actual measurement that they
drank more water in the day. By the time the force arrived at El Arish,
watering twice a day was generally accepted as the standard.
Later on, during the period between the second battle of Gaza and the
commencement of General Allenby's operations (May to October 1917
inclusive) many of the horses of the cavalry division in the line had
so far to go for water that they could only be watered once a day.
It is probable that this resulted in some loss of condition, though,
as there were other contributory causes, such as the periodical long
reconnaissances, the heat, dust and flies, it is not possible to
apportion the blame exactly. During operations, so long as the horses
got water once a day, they kept fairly fit, and, given anything in
the nature of bulk food, such as might be got in many countries by
grazing, there seemed no reason why they should not have been able to
continue indefinitely on this _régime_. During the Beersheba-Jerusalem
operations, however, the average number of waterings per horse in the
Corps was only one every thirty-six hours.
During the 1918 campaign there was no lack of water, except for the few
days during which the 4th Cavalry Division was advancing on Damascus
east of the Jordan. At all other times, water was always available for
horses at least once a day.
When marching in waterless country, the writer used to have a large
biscuit tin full of water (or, better still, a petrol tin, when it
could be 'acquired') carried on the dash-board of every gun and wagon.
At each hourly halt the horses' mouths, nostrils, and eyes used to
be wiped with a wet--not merely damp--cloth, and this always seemed
to refresh them greatly, and to relieve the symptoms of distress
due to thirst. A little water was also mixed with the feeds, and,
when the grain was crushed, or there was any bran available, it was
found that horses which were off their feed owing to exhaustion would
often eat well if fed by hand with small balls made of grain slightly
moistened with water. This plan was suggested to the writer by the
late Brigadier-General Paul Kenna, V.C., 21st Lancers, who had used it
successfully in the Sudan Campaign.
Much has been said and written about the ability of horses to scent
water afar off. The experience of this campaign seems to prove that
this ability does not extend to water in deep wells, even when the
supply is plentiful. There were many instances of horses, which had
been without water for a long period, passing quite close to wells,
without evincing any signs of knowledge of the proximity of water. That
they can, and do, scent water lying in large pools or rivers was made
clear on several occasions, but this power was shared by many of the
Australian soldiers and by a few Englishmen. Brigadier-General Grant,
Commanding the 4th A.L.H. Brigade, a noted 'bushman,' had this useful
sense highly developed. The 'sensation' of water, once experienced,
is quite unmistakable, though it is difficult to describe. The sense
of smell undoubtedly plays a part, but the sensation is more one of a
sudden freshness and sweetness of the atmosphere than a scent. It is
noticeable particularly just after sunset, when the presence of water
lying in pools may often be detected several miles away. Unfortunately,
damp ground, from which water has recently evaporated, produces the
same sensation, and frequently deceived horses as well as men.
_Remounts._--The last horses shipped to Egypt arrived in May or June
1917, and most of these were issued to units before the commencement
of the Beersheba-Gaza operations. From that date till the end of the
war, no more horses arrived in the country; 8000 remounts, which had
been bought by the British Government in Australia, could never be
moved, owing to the shortage of shipping. When the stock of remounts in
Palestine was exhausted, casualties were replaced by horses that had
already seen service, and had been sent, sick or wounded, to remount
hospitals, and reissued as soon as they were reasonably fit for further
work. At the commencement of the advance in September 1918 the remount
depots were emptied, and there was scarcely a single fit horse left
behind the fighting troops.
Such remounts as reached the country, nearly all from Australia or
Canada, were of a good type, sound and reliable. The depots were
admirably managed, and the whole remount service was a model of
efficiency.
Some 1500 Arab ponies and a considerable number of mules and camels
were captured from the Turks in 1917. They were nearly all in wretched
condition and covered with galls, but, after being well fed and looked
after for a few weeks, fetched the most astonishing prices. £50 was
the average price paid at Jerusalem for a pony, £40 for a small mule,
and £35 for a camel. We were able to make use of the camels, and a few
of the stouter ponies were issued to the infantry as 'cobs,' but the
great majority of ponies and mules were of no use to us. During the
1918 operations about 2000 enemy animals fell into our hands, and these
realised even higher prices in northern Syria and the Lebanon.
_Horsemastership._--In the early days in Egypt the standard of
horsemastership was not high. Among the English troops there was a
large proportion in the mounted branches, both of officers and men,
who had had little previous experience of horses, and none at all
under the severe conditions of active service. The Australian Light
Horsemen, though fine riders and thoroughly experienced with horses,
were unaccustomed to having to use the same horse day after day, and
did not at first realise the necessity of saving their mounts in every
possible way, _e.g._ by dismounting at every halt, however short,
off-saddling whenever possible, etc. But they have the same, almost
instinctive, love of horses as the Irish, and they very soon realised
the difference between active service conditions and those in their
own country. The Territorials, too, gained valuable experience during
the advance across Sinai and in the Western Desert, and, by the time
General Allenby arrived in Egypt, the standard of horsemastership in
the force had reached a high level. As an indication of this fact, it
may be mentioned that, at the end of each series of operations, there
was hardly a sore back in the force. A striking contrast to this
record was afforded by the French cavalry regiment which took part in
the 1918 operations. On arrival at Damascus, nearly every horse in the
regiment had a sore back. The Frenchmen carried an astonishing quantity
of kit on their saddles, and, though it was all put on in a very neat
and soldierlike manner, the weight was undoubtedly far too great. Owing
to the difficulty of removing the saddle without taking off all this
kit, the horses were scarcely ever off-saddled. The men, too, were far
too prone to remain mounted when halted.
_Type._--Some remarks on type have already been made in Chapter VIII.
The experience of the latter part of the campaign served but to confirm
the conclusion as to the superiority of well-bred, fairly lightly-built
horses over those of coarser fibre. Well-bred horses will go farther
and faster, eat less, and recover condition more quickly than the
coarse-bred ones. In this connection, when is the dismal practice of
subdividing the horses of a battery into 'Riders' and 'Draught Horses'
going to be abandoned? Every gunner wants to have practically nothing
but light draught horses, so that every horse in the battery shall be
capable of taking its turn in a gun team if necessary. The result of
classifying nearly half the horses in a horse artillery battery as
'riders' too often results in all the weedy, fifteen hand ponies in the
remount depots being issued to the gunners. Such horses are even more
useless in a battery than they would be in a cavalry regiment. In the
latter they might carry a trumpeter; in the former even the trumpeter's
horse is expected to be able to take his turn in draught. On more than
one occasion in 1917 even officers' chargers were used in the teams.
_Diseases._--The horses of the Corps were remarkably free from disease.
In the summer of 1918 there were a few sporadic cases of anthrax. The
disease is found here and there among the native horses and cattle all
over Palestine. The spores are deposited on the ground by the infected
animals, with the result that there is always a danger of picking
it up. Prompt destruction of all horses affected with the disease,
and the removal to a fresh piece of ground of the unit in which the
case occurred, leaving the old ground clearly labelled as 'unclean,'
prevented any outbreak of the disease. Except for these few cases,
there was an almost entire absence of disease throughout the campaign,
which may be considered somewhat remarkable, in view of the fact that
glanders, anthrax, lymphangitis, and other diseases are rife among the
beasts of the native population. Our immunity from these scourges may
be attributed to the facts that our horses were seldom camped for long
in the same place; that they were never camped near villages if it
could be avoided; and that no native animals were ever allowed in or
near our camps, or to drink where our horses drank.
The 5th Cavalry Division suffered somewhat from laminitis in September
1918, as a result of the rather unnecessarily fast pace the division
had set on the morning of the 19th. Thirty or forty horses had to be
destroyed on the following day. Neither of the other two divisions,
however, had any trouble of this sort.
_Equipment._--Leather muzzles proved a necessity in all units whose
horses were picketed on ropes stretched between wagon wheels instead of
on ground lines. Otherwise the hungry brutes ate the woodwork of the
wheels voraciously. It was only necessary to muzzle the two or three
horses picketed next to the wheels. The nostril holes of the service
pattern muzzle are much too small, and should be enlarged downwards and
outwards to an oval shape at least three inches long.
The steel wire picketing ropes issued to the artillery were very much
superior in every way to the old pattern hemp ropes, whether 5 feet 9
inch or 66 feet. It is suggested that the 5 feet 9 inch ropes, with
loop and toggle, and the heel peg ropes might also in future be made of
wire instead of hemp. The wire rope is much stronger and no heavier,
and is not so likely to gall horses that get their feet over it. The
great objection to it is, of course, its high initial cost, but against
this may be set the fact that it is practically indestructible, and
lasts indefinitely. Active service head ropes might also be made of
wire with a spring hook at each end. A few raw hide head ropes were
issued at one time, and these were excellent, except for the fact that
the horses ate them wholesale when really hungry.
In the Australian Light Horse regiments neither manes nor tails were
ever cut or pulled. During operations there was little time to care
for manes and tails, and they looked somewhat untidy, but there is no
doubt that in a hot country, it is preferable to let them grow freely.
Not only does a mane assist the horse to rid itself of flies, but it
appears to give some protection from the fierce rays of the sun, and a
long thick tail is unquestionably a very great blessing to a horse in a
fly country.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 28: Snow lay on the ground in the Baalbek-Rayak area for
a considerable part of the winter, and on the western side of the
Lebanon, in the Beirût-Tripoli area, for short periods from time to
time.]
[Footnote 29: Brigadier-General P.J.V. Kelly, C.M.G., D.S.O., commanded
5th Mounted Brigade in 1917 operations and 13th Cavalry Brigade in
1918.]
[Footnote 30: See p. 94.]