Celebration of Mahurrum.--The Tazia.--Mussulmaun Cemeteries.--An
Emaum-baarah.--Piety of the ladies.--Self-inflicted abstinence and
privations endured by each sex.--Instances of the devotional zeal of
the Mussulmauns.--Attempted infringement on their religious
formalities.--The Resident at Lucknow.--Enthusiastic ardour of the
poor.--Manner of celebrating the Mahurrum in opposition to the
precepts of the Khoraun.--Mosque and Emaum-baarah contrasted.--The
supposition of Mussulmauns practising idolatry confuted.
My former Letter prepares you for the celebration of Mahurrum, the
observance of which is at this time going forward here (at Lucknow) with
all that zealous emulative spirit and enthusiasm which I have before
remarked the Mussulmaun population of India entertain for their Emaums
(leaders), and their religion.
This annual solemn display of the regret and veneration they consider due
to the memory of departed excellence, commences on the first day of the
Moon (Mahurrum). The Mussulmaun year has twelve moons; every third year
one moon is added, which regulation, I fancy, renders their years, in a
chronological point of view, very nearly equal with those of Europe. Their
day commences and ends when the stars are first visible after sunset.
The first day of Mahurrum invariably brings to my recollection the
strongly impressed ideas of 'The Deserted Village'. The profound quiet and
solemn stillness of an extensively populated native city, contrasted with
the incessant bustle usual at all other times, are too striking to
Europeans to pass by unheeded. This cessation of the animated scene,
however, is not of long duration; the second day presents to the view vast
multitudes of people parading backwards and forwards, on horseback, in
palkies, and on foot, through the broad streets and roadways, arrayed in
their several mourning garbs, speeding their way to the Emaum-baarahs[1]
of the great men, and the houses of friends, to pay the visit of respect
(zeearut), wherever a Tazia is set up to the remembrance of Hasan and
Hosein.
The word Tazia[2] signifies grief. The term is applied to a representation
of the mausoleum at Kraabaallah, erected by their friends and followers,
over the remains of Hasan and Hosein. It is formed of every variety of
material, according to the wealth, rank, or preference, of the person
exhibiting, from the purest silver down to bamboo and paper, strict
attention being always paid to preserve the model of Kraabaallah, in the
exact pattern with the original building. Some people have them of ivory,
ebony, sandal-wood, cedar, &c., and I have seen some beautifully wrought
in silver filigree. The handsomest of the kind, to my taste, is in the
possession of his Majesty the King of Oude, composed of green glass, with
brass mouldings, manufactured in England (by whom I could not learn). All
these expensive Tazias are fixtures, but there are temporary ones required
for the out-door ceremony, which, like those available to the poor and
middling classes, are composed of bamboo frames, over which is fixed
coloured uberuck[3] (lapis specularum, or tulk); these are made in the
bazaar, of various sizes and qualities, to suit the views of purchasers,
from two rupees to two hundred each.
The more common Tazias are conveyed in the procession on the tenth day,
and finally deposited with funeral rites in the public burial-grounds, of
which there are several outside the town. These cemeteries are denominated
Kraabaallah,[4] and the population of a large city may be presumed on by
the number of these dispersed in the suburbs. They do not bury their dead
in the vicinity of a mosque, which is held too sacred to be allowed the
pollution. Any one having only touched a dead body, must bathe prior to
entering the mosque, or performing their usual prayer-service at
home;--such is the veneration they entertain for the name of God.
The opulent people of Mussulmaun society have an Emaum-baarah erected in
the range of buildings exclusively denominated murdanah[5] (men's abode).
The habitation of all Mussulmauns being composed of separate departments
for the males and the females, communicating by private entrances, as will
be explained hereafter.
The Emaum-baarah is a sacred place, erected for the express purpose of
commemorating Mahurrum; the founder not unfrequently intends this also as
the mausoleum for himself and family. But we generally find Mukhburrahs[6]
(mausoleums) built in conspicuous situations, for the remains of kings,
princes, nobles, and sainted persons. Of the latter, many are visited, at
stated periods, by the multitude, with religious veneration, the
illiterate attaching considerable importance to the annual pilgrimage to
them; and where--to secure the influence of the particular saint's spirit,
in furthering their views--mothers present their children, in numbers
beyond all calculation; and each having something to hope for who visits
the shrine, presents offerings of money and sweetmeats, which become the
property of the person in charge of the tomb, thus yielding him a
profitable sinecure, in proportion as the saint is popular amongst the
ignorant.
An Emaum-baarah is a square building, generally erected with a cupola top,
the dimensions guided by the circumstances of the founder. The floor is
matted with the date-leaf mats, in common use in India, on which is spread
a shutteringhie[7] (cotton carpet), and over this a clean white calico
covering, on which the assembled party are seated, during the several
periods of collecting together to remember their leaders: these meetings
are termed Mudgelluss[8] (mourning assemblies). It would be esteemed
indecorous or disrespectful to the Emaums, if any one in error called
these assemblies Moollakhaut,[9] the usual term for mere worldly visiting.
The Tazia is placed against the wall on the side facing Mecca, under a
canopy of rich embroidery. A reading-desk or pulpit (mhembur[10]) is
placed in a convenient situation, for the reader to face Mecca, and his
voice to be heard by the whole assembly of people; it is constructed of
silver, ivory, ebony, &c. to correspond with the Tazia, if possible: the
steps are covered sometimes with gold-cloth, or broad-cloth of black, or
green,[11] if a Syaad's property, being the colour worn by that race for
mourning. The shape of a mhembur is a flight of steps with a flat top,
without any railing or enclosed place; the reader, in his recitings,
occasionally sitting on the steps, or standing, as may be most convenient
to himself.
On the walls of the Emaum-baarah, mirrors and looking-glasses are fixed in
suitable situations to give effect to the brilliant display of light, from
the magnificent chandeliers suspended from the cupola and cornices. The
nobles and the wealthy are excited with a desire to emulate each other in
the splendour of their display on these occasions;--all the mirrors, glass,
lustres, chandeliers, &c. are brought together to this place, from their
several stations in the mansion; and it is due to them to admit the effect
to be often imposingly grand, and the blaze of light splendid. I have
frequently been reminded in these scenes of the visionary castles conjured
to the imagination, whilst reading 'The Arabian Nights' Entertainments'.
On each side the Tazia--the whole length of the wall--banners are ranged,
in great variety of colour and fabric; some of them are costly and
splendid. I have seen many constructed of the richest embroidery, on silk
grounds, of gold and silver, with massy gold fringes, cords, and tassels;
the staff is cased with gold or silver, worked into figures of birds and
other animals, in every variety; the top of which has a crest, in some a
spread hand,[12] in others a sort of plume, and not unfrequently a crest
resembling a grenade, formed of the precious metals, and set with stones
of great value.
On the base of the Tazia the several articles are placed conceived likely
to have been used by Hosein at Kraabaallah; a turban of gold or silver
tissue, a splendid sword and belt, the handle and hilt set with precious
stones, a shield, the Arabian bow and arrows. These ancient emblems of
royalty are indispensable in order to do honour to Hosein, in the view
they take of his sovereign right to be the head or leader of the true
Mussulmauns. Wax lights, red and green, are also placed in great numbers
about its base, in silver or glass candlesticks; and censers of gold and
silver, burning incense perpetually during Mahurrum. Many other minor
tributes to the Emaums are discovered near the Tazia, as choice fruits and
garlands of sweet-scented flowers, the offerings of ladies of the family
to their relative's Tazia.
Amongst the poorer classes of the people an equal proportion of zealous
spirit is evinced; and according to their several abilities, so they
commemorate the period, interesting alike to all. Those who cannot compass
the real splendour of an Emaum-baarah, are satisfied with an imitative one
in the best hall their habitation affords; and, where mirrors and
chandeliers are not available, they are content to do honour to the Emaums
with lamps of uberuck, which in truth are pleasing substitutes at a small
price: these lamps are made in a variety of pretty shapes, curiously
painted, and ingeniously ornamented with cut paper; they burn oil in them,
and, when well arranged, and diversified with their wonted taste, produce
a good light, and pleasing effect.
The banners of Hosein, in the houses of the poor, are formed of materials
according to their humble means, from tinsel imitations down to dyed
muslin; and a similar difference is to be perceived in their selection of
the metal of which their crests are made.
Mourning assemblies are held in the Emaum-baarahs twice every day during
Mahurrum; those of the evening, however, are the most attractive, and have
the fullest attendance of visitors. The master of the house, at the
appointed hour, takes his seat on the floor near the pulpit, surrounded by
the males of his family and intimate friends, and the crowd of strangers
arrange themselves--wherever there is sitting room--without impeding the
view of the Tazia.
One of the most popular Maulvees[13] of the age is engaged to recite the
particular portion appointed for each day, from the manuscript documents,
called Dhie Mudgelluss,[14] in the Persian language. This work is in ten
parts and contains a subject for each day's service, descriptive of the
life and sufferings of the Emaums, their friends, and children,
particularly as regards the eventful period of Mahurrum in which they were
engaged. It is, I am assured, a pathetic, fine composition, and a faithful
narrative of each particular circumstance in the history of their leaders,
the heroic bravery of their friends, &c. They are particularly anxious to
engage an eloquent reader for this part of the performance, who by his
impressive manner compels his hearers to sympathise in the affecting
incidents which are recited by him.
I have been present when the effect produced by the superior oratory and
gestures of a Maulvee has almost terrified me, the profound grief, evinced
in his tears and groans, being piercing and apparently sincere. I have
even witnessed blood issuing from the breast of sturdy men, who beat
themselves simultaneously as they ejaculated the names 'Hasan!'
'Hosein!'[15] for ten minutes, and occasionally during a longer period, in
that part of the service called Mortem.[16]
The portion of Dhie Mudgelluss concluded, sherbet is handed round to the
assembly; and as they voluntarily abstain from luxuries at this season, a
substitute for pawn[17]--the green leaf in general use amongst the
natives--has been introduced, consisting of dried coffee, cocoa-nut shreds,
betel-nut, cardimuns,[18] dunyah,[19] and a proportionate quantity of
tobacco-leaf and lime; these are mixed together and handed to the
visitors, on small silver trays. The hookha[20] is introduced to the
superiors of the assembly; you are perhaps aware that inferiors do not
smoke in the presence of superiors without their command or permission.
This ceremony terminated, the Murseeah[21] is chanted, by several
well-practised voices, with good effect. This part of the service is,
perhaps, the most impressive, as the very ignorant, even, can comprehend
every word,--the Murseeah being in the Hindoostanic tongue, a poetical
composition of great merit, and embracing all the subjects they meet to
commemorate. The whole assembly rise up afterwards, and, as with one voice,
recount the names of the lawful leaders after Mahumud, entreating
blessings and peace to their souls. They then repeat the names of the
hated usurpers (Caliphas), on whose memory they invoke curses, &c. Mortem
follows, beating of breasts in unison with the voices, and uttering the
names of Hasan and Hosein; this performance concludes each day's
Mudgelluss, either of the morning or evening.
The ladies celebrate the returning season of Mahurrum with as much spirit
and zeal as the confinement, in which they exist, can possibly admit of.
There are but few, and those chiefly princesses, who have Emaum-baarahs at
command, within the boundary of the zeenahnah; the largest and best
apartment in their establishment is therefore selected for the purpose of
an Emaum-baarah, into which none but females are admitted, excepting the
husband, father, son, or brother, of the lady; who having, on this
occasion, full liberty to invite her female acquaintance, those who are
her nearest male relatives even are not admitted until previous notice is
given, in order that the female guests may secrete themselves from the
sight of these relatives of their hostess.
In commemorating this remarkable event in Mussulmaun history, the
expressions of grief, manifested by the ladies, are far greater, and
appear to me more lasting than with the other sex; indeed, I never could
have given credit to the extent of their bewailings, without witnessing,
as I have done for many years, the season for tears and profound grief
return with the month of Mahurrum. In sorrowing for the martyred Emaums,
they seem to forget their private griefs; the bereavement of a beloved
object even is almost overlooked in the dutiful remembrance of Hasan and
Hosein at this period; and I have had opportunities of observing this
triumph of religious feeling in women, who are remarkable for their
affectionate attachment to their children, husbands, and parents;--they
tell me, 'We must not indulge selfish sorrows of our own, whilst the
Prophet's family alone have a right to our tears'.
The religious zeal of these people is evinced, likewise, in a stern,
systematic, line of privations, during the period of Mahurrum; no one is
obliged by any law or command; it is voluntary abstinence on the part of
each individual--they impose it on themselves, out of pure pity and
respect for their Emaums' well-remembered sufferings. Every thing which
constitutes comfort, luxury, or even convenience at other times, on these
occasions are rigidly laid aside. The pallungh and the charpoy[22] (the
two descriptions of bedsteads in general use), on which the females love
to lounge for some hours in the day and night, are removed from their
standings, and, in lieu of this comfort, they take their rest on a common
date mat, on the floor. The musnud,[23] and all its cushioned luxuries,
give place, on this occasion, to the simply matted floor. The indulgence
in choice dainties, at other times so necessary to their happiness, is now
foregone, and their meal limited, throughout Mahurrum, to the coarsest
food--such as barley bread, rice and peas boiled together (called
kutcher),[24] without even the usual additions to make it palatable
ketcherie,[25] as ghee, salt, pepper, and spices; these ingredients being
considered by the zealous females too indulgent and luxurious for humble
mourners during Muhurrum.
The pawn leaf, another luxury of no small moment to Asiatic tastes, is now
banished for the ten days' mourning. A very poor substitute has been
adopted, in the mixture described at the gentlemen's assembly--it is
called goattur.[26] The truth is, their health would suffer from any long
disuse of tobacco-leaf, lime, and a bitter gum,[27] which are in general
use with the pawn; the latter is of a warm aromatic nature, and imparts a
fine flavour to the other ingredients; but, as it is considered a great
indulgence to eat pawn, they abstain from it altogether during
Mahurrum;--the mixture, they say, is only allowed for health's sake.
When visitors call on the Mussulmaun ladies at Mahurrum, the goattur is
presented on trays, accompanied by bags, neatly embroidered in silver and
gold, of many different shapes and patterns, mostly their own work and
invention; they are called buttooah[28] and jhaumdanies.[29]
The variety of ornaments, which constitute the great delight of all
classes of females in India, are entirely laid aside, from the first hour
of Mahurrum, until the period for mourning concludes. I never heard of any
people so thoroughly attached to ornaments as the females of India are
generally. They are indulged in this foible--pardonable it may be--by
their husbands and parents. The wealthiness of a family may often be
judged by a single glance at the principal lady of the zeenahnah, who
seldom omits doing honour to her husband, by a full display of the
precious metals, with a great variety of gems or jewels on ordinary
occasions. The men of all ranks are proud of their wives' finery; even the
poorest hold in derision all ornament that is not composed of sterling
metal, of which they seem excellent judges. The massy chains of gold or
silver, the solid bangles for the arms and ancles, the nut[30] (nose-ring)
of gold wire, on which is strung a ruby between two pearls, worn only by
married women; the joshun[31] (armlet), of silver or gold, often set with
precious stones; the many rings for the fingers, thumbs, and toes, form
the daily dress of a lady;--but I must not digress further. These are all
removed from the person, as soon as the moon is seen, when the first day
of Mahurrum commences; the hair is unloosed from its usual confinement,
and allowed to flow in disorder about the person; the coloured
pyjaamahs[32] and deputtahs[33] are removed, with every other article of
their usual costume, for a suit that, with them, constitutes
mourning--some choose black, others grey, slate, or green, and the widow
wears white from the day her husband dies.
A widow never alters her style of dress, neither does she wear a single
ornament, during her widowhood, which generally lasts with her life. I
never heard of one single instance, during my twelve years' residence
amongst them, of a widow marrying again--they have no law to prohibit it;
and I have known some ladies, whose affianced husbands died before the
marriage was concluded, who preferred a life of solitude and prayer,
although many other overtures were made.[34]
Many of the rigidly zealous, among the females, mortify themselves by
wearing their suit of mourning, during the ten days, without changing; the
dress is worn next the skin, and, in very warm weather, must be
comfortless after the first day--but so it is; and so many are the
varieties of self-inflicted privations, at this period, that my letter
might be filled with the observations I have made. I cannot, however, omit
to mention my old woman-servant (ayah[35]), whose mode of abstinence, in
remembrance of Hosein, is rigidly severe; my influence does not prevail in
dissuading her, although I fear the consequences to her health will be
seriously felt if she persist in the fulfilment of her self-imposed trial.
This poor old creature resolves on not allowing one drop of water, or any
liquid, to pass her lips during the ten days' mourning; as she says, 'her
Emaum, Hosein, and his family, suffered from thirst at Kraabaallah, why
should such a creature as she is be indulged with water?' This shows the
temper of the people generally; my ayah is a very ignorant old woman, yet
she respects her Emaum's memory.[36]
The Tazia, you are to understand, graces the houses of all good
Mussulmauns in India, who are not of the sect called Soonies. This model
of their Emaum's tomb is an object of profound respect. Hindoos, even, on
approaching the shrine, bow their heads with much solemn gravity; I often
fancied they mistook the Tazia for a Bootkhanah[37] (the house of an idol).
It is creditable to the Mussulmauns, that they do not restrict any
profession of people from visiting their assemblies; there is free
admission granted when the Emaum-baarah is first lighted up, until the
hour of performing the service, when strangers, that is the multitude, are
civilly requested to retire. Every one is expected, on entering the
outward verandah, to leave their shoes at the threshold of the
sanctuary;[38] none but Europeans have any occasion to be reminded of this,
as it is a well known and general observance with all degrees of natives
in Asia. The servants, in charge of the Emaum-baarah, are responsible for
the due observance of respect to the place, and when any foreigners are
advancing, they are politely requested to leave their shoes outside; which
must be complied with, or they cannot possibly be admitted.
Some few years since, a party of young gentlemen, from cantonments, had
made up their minds to evade the necessity for removing their boots, on
the occasion of a visit to one of the great men's Emaum-baarahs, at a
Native city; they had provided themselves with white socks, which they
drew over their boots before leaving their palkies. The cheat was
discovered by the servants in attendance, after they had been admitted;
they made a precipitate retreat to avoid the consequences of a
representation to the Resident, by the proprietor of the Emaum-baarah; who,
hearing of the circumstance, made all possible inquiry, without, however,
discovering the names of the gentlemen, who had thus, in his opinion,
violated the sanctuary.
The Natives are aware that the Resident sets the bright example of
conforming to the observances of the people, over whom he is placed as
governor and guardian; and that he very properly discountenances every
attempt of his countrymen to infringe on their rights, prejudices, or
privileges; and they have, to my knowledge, always looked up to him as to
a parent and a friend, from the first to the last day of his exalted
station amongst them. Many a tear marked the regret of the Natives, when
their best, their kindest, earthly friend quitted the city he had blessed
by his presence; and to the latest page of their history, his memory will
doubtless be cherished with sincere veneration and respectful
attachment.[39]
The poor people vie with their rich neighbours, in making a brilliant
light in their little halls containing the Tazia; the very poorest are
liberal in the expenditure of oil and tallow candles--I might say
extravagantly so, but for the purity of their intentions, supposing it to
be a duty--and they certainly manifest their zeal and respect to the
utmost of their power; although many, to my knowledge, live all the year
round on the very coarsest fare, to enable them to show this reverence to
their Emaum's memory.
The ladies assemble, in the evening, round the Tazia they have set up in
their purdahed privacy--female friends, slaves, and servants, surrounding
the mistress of the house, in solemn gravity.
The few females who have been educated are in great request at this season;
they read the Dhie Mudgelluss, and chant the Musseeah with good effect.
These women, being hired for the purpose, are detained during the ten days;
when the Mahurrum ceases, they are dismissed to their own homes, loaded
with the best gifts the good lady their employer can conveniently spare,
commensurate with the services performed. These educated females are
chiefly daughters of poor Syaads, who have not been married for the lack
of a dowry; they live devoutly in the service of God, according to their
faith. They are sometimes required, in the families of the nobility, to
teach the Khoraun to the young ladies, and, in that capacity, they are
called Oustaardie, or more familiarly Artoojee.[40]
As I have mentioned before, the Musseeah narrative of the sufferings at
Kraabaallah is a really pathetic and interesting composition; the work
being conveyed in the language of the country, every word is understood,
and very deeply felt, by the females in all these assemblies, who, having
their hearts softened by the emphatic chantings of the readers, burst into
violent tears and sobbings of the most heart-rending description. As in
the gentlemen's assembly, they conclude with Mortem, in which they
exercise themselves until they are actually exhausted; indeed, many
delicate females injure their health by the violence and energy of their
exertions, which they nevertheless deem a most essential duty to perform,
at all hazards, during the continuance of Mahurrum.
This method of keeping Mahurrum is not in strict obedience to the
Mahumudan laws; in which code may be found prohibitions against all
violent and excessive grief--tearing the hair, or other expressions of
ungovernable sorrow.[41]
I have observed that the Maulvees, Moollahs,[42] and devoutly religious
persons, although mixing with the enthusiasts on these occasions, abstain
from the violent exhibition of sorrows which the uninformed are so prone
to indulge in. The most religious men of that faith feel equal, perhaps
greater sympathy, for the sufferings of the Emaums, than those who are
less acquainted with the precepts of the Khoraun; they commemorate the
Mahurrum without parade or ostentatious display, and apparently wear
mourning on their hearts, with their garb, the full term of forty
days--the common period of mourning for a beloved object; but these
persons never join in Mortem, beating breasts, or other outward show of
sadness, although they are present when it is exercised; but their quiet
grief is evidently more sincere.
I have conversed with many sensible men of the Mussulmaun persuasion on
the subject of celebrating Mahurrum, and from all I can learn, the pompous
display is grown into a habit, by a long residence amongst people, who
make a merit of showy parades at all their festivals. Foreign Mussulmauns
are equally surprised as Europeans, when they visit Hindoostaun, and first
see the Tazia conveyed about in procession, which would be counted
sacrilegious in Persia or Arabia; but here, the ceremony is not complete
without a mixture of pageantry with, the deeply expressed and public
exposure of their grief.[43]
The remarkable plainness of the mosque, contrasted with the superb
decorations of an Emaum-baarah, excited my surprise. I am told by the most
venerable of Syaads, 'The Mosque is devoted only to the service of God,
where it is commanded no worldly attractions or ornaments shall appear, to
draw off the mind, or divert the attention, from that one great object for
which the house of prayer is intended'. An Emaum-baarah is erected for the
purpose of doing honour to the memory of the Emaums, and of late years the
emulative spirit of individuals has been the great inducement to the
display of ornamental decorations.
It is rather from their respect to the Founder of their religion and his
descendants, than any part of their profession of faith, that the
Mussulmaun population of Hindoostaun are guided by in these displays,
which are merely the fashion of other people whom they imitate; and with
far different motives to the weak-minded Hindoos, who exalt their idols,
whilst the former thus testify their respect to worthy mortals only. This
is the explanation I have received from devout Mussulmauns, who direct me
to remark the strong similarity--in habit only, where 'the faith' is not
liable to innovations--between themselves and the Hindoo population;--the
out-of-door celebrations of marriage festivals, for instance, which are so
nearly resembling each other, in the same classes of society, that
scarcely any difference can be discovered by the common observer.
Idolatry is hateful to a Mussulmaun, who acknowledges 'one only true God',
and 'Him alone to be worshipped'.[44] They respect, venerate, love, and
would imitate, their acknowledged Prophet and the Emaums (who succeeded
Mahumud in the mission), but they never worship them, as has been often
imagined. On the contrary, they declare to me that their faith compels
them 'to believe in one God, and that He alone is to be worshipped by the
creature; and that Mahumud is a creature, the Prophet sent by God to make
His will known, and declare His power. That to bow down and worship
Mahumud would be gross idolatry; and, although he is often mentioned in
their prayers, yet he is never prayed to. They believe their Prophet is
sensible of whatever passes amongst his true disciples; and that, in
proportion as they fulfil the commands he was instructed by God to leave
with them, so will they derive benefit from his intercession, on that
great and awful day, when all mankind shall appear before the judgment
seat of God.'
[1] _Imambara_, 'enclosure of the Imam', the place where the
Muharram rites are performed, as contrasted with Masjid, a mosque, and
'Idgah, where the service at the 'Id festivals is conducted.
[2] _Ta'ziya_, 'consoling'. The use of these miniature tombs is said to
date from the time of Amir Taimur (A.D. 1336-1405), who on his
return from Karbala made a model of Husain's tomb. See a good account
of them in Sir G. Birdwood, _Sva_, 173 ff.
[3] _Abrak_, tale.
[4] From Karbala, the place of pilgrimage.
[5] _Mardanah_.
[6] _Maqbarah_, 'place of graves'.
[7] _Shatranj[-i]_, a chequered cloth, from _shatrang_, the game of chess.
[8] _Majlis_.
[9] _Mulaqat_.
[10] _Mimbar_, sometimes a wooden structure, sometimes of masonry.
[11] Green is the Sayyid colour (E.W. Lane, _Modern Egyptians_, i. 38).
But it is an innovation in Islam, and Sayyids in Al-Hijaz, as a
general rule, do not wear a green turban (Burton, _Pilgrimage_, ii. 4).
[12] The spread hand designates the Sheah sect. There are times when
holding up the spread hand declares the Sheah, whilst the Soonie is
distinguished by his holding up three fingers only. In villages, the
spread hand is marked on the walls where Sheahs reside during Mahurrum.
[_Author_.]
[The five spread fingers are regarded as emblematical of the Prophet,
Fâtimah, 'Ali, Hasan, and Husain. The Sunnis prefer three
fingers, signifying the first three Caliphs. In its ultimate origin,
the spread hand is a charm against demons and evil spirits.]
[13] _Maulavi_, a Muhammadan doctor of law, a judge.
[14] From Dhie, ten; Mudgelluss, assembling together for sacred purposes.
[_Author_.] or [_Dah_, or _Dahha majlis_ denotes the ten days of
Muharram; see Sir L. Pelly, _The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain_,
i. 74.]
[15] Corrupted by Anglo-Indians into _Hobson-Jobson_, the title of Sir H.
Yule's _Anglo-Indian Glossary_.
[16] _Matam_, 'mourning'.
[17] _Pan_, 'betel leaf'.
[18] Cardamom.
[19] _Dhaniya_ (_Coriandrum sativitm_).
[20] _Huqqah_, 'a water tobacco pipe'.
[21] _Marsiyah_, 'a funeral elegy'.
[22] _Palang_, a more pretentious piece of furniture than the
_charpai_, or common 'cot'.
[23] _Masnad_, 'a thing leaned on', a pile of cushions; the throne of a
sovereign.
[24] _Khichar_.
[25] _Khichri_, the 'Kedgeree' of Anglo-Indians.
[26] _Gota_.
[27] Catechu, Hindi _Kath_.
[28] _Batua_.
[29] _Jamdani_, properly a portmanteau for holding clothes
(_Jama_): a kind of flowered cloth.
[30] _Nath_.
[31] _Joshan_, an ornament worn on the upper arm.
[32] _Pa[~e]jama_, 'leg clothing', drawers.
[33] _Dopatta_, a sheet made of two breadths of cloth.
[34] Amongst the Muhammadans the proportion of widows has declined
steadily since 1881, and is now only 143 per mille compared with 170
in that year. It would seem that the prejudices against
widow-marriages are gradually becoming weaker.--_Report Census of
India_, 1911, i. 273.
[35] [~A]y[~a], from Portuguese _aia_, 'a nurse'.
[36] After much, entreaty, this humble zealot was induced to take a sweet
lime, occasionally, to cool her poor parched mouth. She survived the
trial, and lived many years to repeat her practised abstinence at the
return of Mahurrum. [_Author_.]
[37] _Butkhanah_.
[38] This was a primitive Semitic taboo (Exodus iii. 5; Joshua v. 15, &c.).
The reason of this prohibition is that shoes could not be easily
washed.--W.R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_[2], 453.
[39] Mordaunt Ricketts was Resident at Lucknow between 1821 and 1830, when
he was 'superannuated' owing to financial scandals, for the details of
which see Sir G. Trevelyan, _Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay_, cap.
x; H.G. Keene, _Here and There_, 10; on November 1, 1824, he was
married at Lucknow by Bishop Heber to the widow of George Ravenscroft,
the civilian who was Collector of Cawnpore, and there embezzled large
sums of money, the property of Government. He fled with his wife and
child to Bhinga in Oudh, where, on May 6, 1823, he was murdered by
Dacoits. The strange story is well told by Sleeman, _A Journey through
the Kingdom of Oudh_, i. 112 ff.
[40] Persian _ustad, ustadji_, 'an instructor'.
[41] Lamentation for the dead was strictly prohibited by the Prophet; but,
like all orientals, the Indian Musalmans indulge in it.
(_Mishkat_, i, chap, vii.)
[42] _Mulla_, the Persian form of Maulavi, 'a doctor of law'.
[43] It is a mistake to suppose that the procession of the Ta'ziya or
Tabut is peculiar to India. It is practised in Persia and Egypt.
[44] The Prophet was obliged to make some compromise with idolatry, as in
the case of the Black Stone at Mecca. But he protested against idols
in one of the earliest Suurahs of the Koraan (lii 35-43), and in
other passages.