Introductory Remarks.--The characteristic simplicity of manners
exhibited in Native families.--Their munificent charity.--The
Syaads.--Their descent, and the veneration paid to them.--Their pride
of birth.--Fast of Mahurrum.--Its origin.--The Sheahs and
Soonies.--Memorandum of distances.--Mount Judee (Judea), the
attributed burying-place of Adam and Noah.--Mausoleum of Ali.--The
tomb of Eve.--Meer Hadjee Shaah.
I have promised to give you, my friends, occasional sketches of men and
manners, comprising the society of the Mussulmauns in India. Aware of the
difficulty of my task, I must entreat your kind indulgence to the
weaknesses of a female pen, thus exercised for your amusement, during my
twelve years' domicile in their immediate society.
Every one who sojourns in India for any lengthened period, will, I believe,
agree with me, that in order to promote health of body, the mind must be
employed in active pursuits. The constitutionally idle persons, of either
sex, amongst Europeans, are invariably most subject to feel distressed by
the prevailing annoyances of an Indian climate: from a listless life
results discontent, apathy, and often disease. I have found, by experience,
the salutary effects of employing time, as regards, generally, healthiness
of body and of mind. The hours devoted to this occupation (tracing remarks
for the perusal of far distant friends) have passed by without a murmur or
a sigh, at the height of the thermometer, or the length of a day during
the season of hot winds, or of that humid heat which prevails throughout
the periodical rains. Time flies quickly with useful employment in all
places; in this exhausting climate every one has to seek amusement in
their own resources, from sunrise to sunset, during which period there is
no moving from home for, at least, eight months out of the twelve. I have
not found any occupation so pleasant as talking to my friends, on paper,
upon such subjects as may admit of the transfer for their acceptance--and
may I not hope, for their gratification also?
The patriarchal manners are so often pictured to me, in many of the
every-day occurrences exhibited in the several families I have been most
acquainted with in India, that I seem to have gone back to that ancient
period with my new-sought home and new friends. Here I find the master and
mistress of a family receiving the utmost veneration from their slaves and
domestics, whilst the latter are permitted to converse and give their
opinions with a freedom (always respectful), that at the first view would
lead a stranger to imagine there could be no great inequality of station
between the persons conversing. The undeviating kindness to aged servants,
no longer capable of rendering their accustomed services; the remarkable
attention paid to the convenience and comfort of poor relatives, even to
the most remote in consanguinity; the beamings of universal charity; the
tenderness of parents; and the implicit obedience of children, are a few
of those amiable traits of character from whence my allusions are drawn,
and I will add, by which my respect has been commanded. In their
reverential homage towards parents, and in affectionate solicitude for the
happiness of those venerated authors of their existence, I consider them
the most praiseworthy people existing.
On the spirit of philanthropy exhibited in their general charity, I may
here remark, that they possess an injunction from their Lawgiver, 'to be
universally charitable'.[1] This command is reverenced and obeyed by all
who are his faithful followers. They are persuaded that almsgiving
propitiates the favour of Heaven, consequently this belief is the inducing
medium for clothing the naked, feeding the hungry, supporting the weak,
consoling the afflicted, protecting the fatherless, sheltering the
houseless traveller, and rendering the ear and the heart alive to the
distresses of the poor in all situations. A good Mussulmaun never allows
the voice to pass unheeded where the suppliant applies, 'In the name of
God', or 'For the love of God'.
I have often been obliged to hear the Mussulmauns accused of an
ostentatious display of their frequent acts of charity. It may be so in
some instances; human nature has failings common to all complexions. Pride
may sometimes open the purse of the affluent to the poor man's petition;
but when the needy benefit by the rich, it is unjust to scrutinize the
heart's motive, where the act itself alleviates the present sufferings of
a fellow-creature.
Imposition is doubtless often practised with success by the indolent, who
excite the good feelings of the wealthy by a tale of woe; the sin rests
with him who begs unworthily, not with him who relieves the supposed
distresses of his poorer neighbour. The very best of human beings will
acknowledge they derive benefits from the bounty of their Maker, not
because they are deserving, but that 'He is merciful'.
I shall have occasion to detail in my Letters some of the Mussulmaun
observances, festivals, &c., which cannot be accomplished without feeding
the poor; and, in justice to their general character, be it acknowledged,
their liberality is not confined to those stated periods.
The Syaads[2] (Meers[3]) are descendants from Mahumud, the acknowledged
Prophet and Lawgiver of the Mussulmauns; and, as might be expected, are
peculiar objects of respect and favour amongst the true believers (as
those who hold their faith are designated). 'The poor Syaad's family' are
the first to be considered when the rich have determined on dispensing
gifts in charity. The Syaads, however, are under peculiar restrictions as
regards the nature of those gifts which they are permitted to accept.
Money obtained by unlawful means, as forbidden in the Khoraun[4] (usury
for instance[5]), is deemed polluted, and must neither be offered to, nor
accepted by, these 'children of the Prophet'.
The Syaads are the Lords of Mussulmaun society, and every female born to
them is a Lady (Begum[6]). Heralds' offices they have none, but genealogy
is strictly kept in each Mussulmaun family, who can boast the high
privilege of bearing the Prophet's blood in their veins. The children of
both sexes are taught, from the time of their first speaking intelligibly,
to recount their pedigree, up to Hasan, or Hosein, the two sons of Ali, by
his cousin Fatima, the daughter of their Prophet: this forms a striking
part of their daily education, whilst they continue in their mother's
zeenahnah[7] (lady's apartment); and, from the frequent repetition, is so
firmly fixed in the memory, that they have no difficulty in tracing their
pedigree whenever called upon to do so, unaided by the manuscript
genealogy kept with care in the parental treasury.
This method of retaining lineage is not always a check against impostors;
many have taken upon themselves the honourable distinction of the Syaad,
without having the slightest claim to the title; but when the cheat is
discovered such persons are disgraced, and become aliens to the
respectable. So many advantages are enjoyed by Syaads, that it is not
surprising there should be some, which have no right, anxious to be
numbered with those who are truly the Mussulmaun lords; though such men
are taught to believe that, by the usurpation, they shut themselves out
from the advantages of their Prophet's intercession at the great day of
judgment.
The Syaads are very tenacious in retaining the purity of their race
unsullied, particularly with respect to their daughters; a conscientious
Syaad regards birth before wealth in negotiations for marriage: many a
poor lady, in consequence of this prejudice, lives out her numbered days
in single blessedness, although--to their honour be it told--many
charitably disposed amongst the rich men of the country have, within my
recollection of Indian society, granted from their abundance sufficient
sums to defray the expenses of a union, and given the marriage portion,
unsolicited, to the daughters of the poorer members of this venerated race.
A Syaad rarely speaks of his pecuniary distresses, but is most grateful
when relieved.
I am intimately acquainted with a family in which this pride of birth
predominates over every advantage of interest. There are three unmarried
daughters, remarkable for their industrious habits, morality, and strict
observance of their religious duties; they are handsome, well-formed women,
polite and sensible, and to all this they add an accomplishment which is
not by any means general amongst the females of Hindoostaun, they have
been taught by their excellent father to read the Khoraun in Arabic--it is
not allowed to be translated,[8]--and the Commentary in Persian. The fame
of their superiority has brought many applications from the heads of
families possessing wealth, and desirous to secure for their sons wives so
eminently endowed, who would waive all considerations of the marriage
dowry, for the sake of the Begum who might thus adorn their untitled house.
All these offers, however, have been promptly rejected, and the young
ladies themselves are satisfied in procuring a scanty subsistence by the
labour of their hands. I have known them to be employed in working the
jaullie[9] (netting) for courties[10] (a part of the female dress), which,
after six days' close application, at the utmost could not realize three
shillings each; yet I never saw them other than contented, happy, and
cheerful,--a family of love, and patterns of sincere piety.
The titles and distinctions conferred by sovereigns, or the Hon. East
India Company in India, as Khaun,[11] Bahadhoor,[12] Nuwaub,[13] &c., are
not actually hereditary honours, though often presumed on, and indulged in,
by successors. The Syaads, on the contrary, are the Meers and Begums
(nobility) throughout their generations to the end of time, or at any rate,
with the continuance of the Mussulmaun religion.
Having thus far explained the honourable distinction of the Syaads, I
propose giving you some account of the Mahurrum,[14] a celebrated mourning
festival in remembrance of their first martyrs, and which occupies the
attention of the Mussulmauns annually to a degree of zeal that has always
attracted the surprise of our countrymen in India; some of whom, I trust,
will not be dissatisfied with the observations of an individual, who
having spent many years of her life with those who are chief actors in
these scenes, it may be expected, is the better able to explain the nature
of that Mahurrum which they see commemorated every year, yet many, perhaps,
without comprehending exactly why. Those strong expressions of grief--the
sombre cast of countenance,--the mourning garb,--the self-inflicted
abstinence, submitted to by the Mussulmaun population, during the ten days
set apart for the fulfilment of the mourning festival, all must have
witnessed who have been in Hindoostaun for any period.
I must first endeavour to represent the principal causes for the observance
of Mahurrum; and for the information of those who have witnessed its
celebration, as well as for the benefit of others who have not had the same
opportunity, describe the manner of celebrating the event, which occurred
more than twelve hundred years ago.
Hasan and Hosein were the two sons of Fatima and Ali, from whom the whole
Syaad race have generated; Hasan was poisoned by an emissary of the
usurping Calipha's;[15] and Hosein, the last sad victim of the family to
the King Yuzeed's[16] fury, suffered a cruel death, after the most severe
trials, on the plains of Kraabaallah,[17] on the tenth day of the Arabian
month Mahurrum; the anniversary of which catastrophe is solemnized with
the most devoted zeal.
This brief sketch constitutes the origin of the festival; but I deem it
necessary to detail at some length the history of that period, which may
the better explain the motives assigned by the Mussulmauns, for the deep
grief exhibited every year, as the anniversary of Mahurrum returns to
these faithful followers of their martyred leaders, Hasan and Hosein, who,
with their devoted families, suffered innocently by the hands of the
guilty.
Yuzeed, the King of Shawm,[18] it appears, was the person in power,
amongst the followers of Mahumud, at that early period of Mussulmaun
history. Of the Soonie sect,[19] his hatred to the descendants of Mahumud
was of the most inveterate kind; jealousy, it is supposed, aided by a very
wicked heart, led him to desire the extirpation of the whole race,
particularly as he knew that, generally, the Mussulmaun people secretly
desired the immediate descendants of their Prophet to be their rulers.
They were, however, intimidated by Yuzeed's authority; whilst he, ever
fearing the possibility of the Syaads' restoration to their rights,
resolved, if possible, on sacrificing the whole family, to secure himself
in his illegal power.
Ali had been treacherously murdered through the contrivances of the
usurping Calipha; after his death, the whole family removed from Shawm,
the capital, to Medina, where they lived some years in tranquillity,
making many converts to their faith, and exercising themselves in the
service of God and virtuous living. Unostentatious in their habits and
manners, they enjoyed the affection of their neighbours, their own good
name increasing daily, to the utter dismay of their subtle enemy.
In the course of time, the devout people of Shawm, being heartily tired of
Yuzeed's tyrannical rule, and fearing the true faith would be defamed by
the excesses and abuses of power committed by him, they were desirous of
calling to their aid a leader from the Prophet's family, who would secure,
in its original purity, the performance of that religion which Mahumud had
taught. Some thousands of respectable Mussulmauns, it is related, signed a
petition to Hosein, requesting his immediate presence at Shawm, in order,
as the petition stated, 'that the religion his grandsire taught might be
supported and promoted'; and declaring 'the voluptuousness and infamy of
Yuzeed's life to be so offensive and glaring, that the true faith was
endangered by his vicious examples'; and entreating him to accept his
lawful rights as 'Emaum'[20] (Leader of the Faithful).
Hosein received the petition, but declined accepting the proposed
restitution of his family's rights at that time; yet he held out hopes in
his reply, that he might eventually listen to their entreaties, should he
be convinced his presence was essential to their welfare; and, as a
prelude to this, he sent his cousin Moslem,[21] on whom he could rely, to
make personal observation of the real state of things at Shawm; expecting
to learn, from his matured knowledge, the real causes of complaint, and
the wishes of the people, and by whose report he would be guided, as to
his final acceptance or rejection of the proposed measure for his becoming
their leader.
Moslem, accompanied by his two sons, mere youths, left Medina on this
important mission, and having accomplished the tedious march without
accident or interruption, he delivered Hosein's letters to those persons
of consequence in Shawm, who were at the head of the party petitioning his
appearance there, and who proffered their influence and support for the
recovery of the rights and privileges so long withheld from the
descendants of Mahumud.
Moslem was kindly greeted by them, and multitudes flocked to his quarters,
declaring Hosein the lawful leader of true Mussulmauns. Elated with these
flattering indications, he too promptly despatched his messengers to
Hosein, urging his immediate return to Shawm.
In the mean time, and long before the messengers could reach Medina,
Yuzeed, learning the state of things in the capital, was seriously alarmed
and greatly enraged; he issued orders for the seizure of Moslem and his
children, and desiring to have them brought to his presence, offered
immense sums of money for their capture. The friends of Moslem, however,
succeeded, for a time, in secreting his person from King Yuzeed's
emissaries, trusting the darkness of night would enable him to escape. But
the slaves and dependants of the tyrant being despatched into all quarters
of the city, Moslem's retreat was eventually discovered; and, through the
influence of a purse of gold, his person was given up to the King's
partizans.
The unfortunate agent of Hosein had confided the charge of his two sons to
the Kauzy[22] of the city, when the first report reached him of the tyrant
Yuzeed's fury. This faithful Kauzy, as the night advanced, intended to get
the poor boys conveyed to the halting place of a Kaarawaun,[23] which he
knew was but a few miles off, on their route for Medina. The guide, to
whom the youths were intrusted, either by design or mistake, took the
wrong road; and, after wandering through the dreary night, and suffering
many severe trials, they were taken prisoners by the cruel husband of a
very amiable female, who had compassionately, at first, given them shelter
as weary travellers only; but, on discovering whose children they were,
she had secreted them in her house. Her husband, however, having
discovered the place of their concealment, and identified them as the sons
of Moslem, cruelly murdered the innocent boys for the sake of the reward
offered for their heads. In his fury and thirst for gold, this wicked
husband of the kind-hearted woman spared not his own wife and son, who
strove by their united efforts, alternately pleading and resisting, to
save the poor boys from his barbarous hands.
This tragic event is conveyed into pathetic verse, and as often as it is
repeated in the families of the Mussulmauns, tears of fresh sympathy are
evinced, and bewailings renewed. This forms the subject for one day's
celebration during Mahurrum; the boys are described to have been most
beautiful in person, and amiable in disposition.
After enduring ignominy and torture, and without even being brought to
trial, Moslem was cast from a precipice, by Yuzeed's orders, and his life
speedily terminated, to glut the vengeance of the tyrant King.
As the disastrous conclusion of Moslem's mission had not reached the ear
of Hosein, he, elated with the favourable reception of his cousin, and the
prospect of being received at Shawm in peace and good will, had without
delay commenced his journey, accompanied by the females of his family, his
relations, and a few steady friends who had long devoted themselves to his
person and cause. The written documents of that remarkable period notice,
that the whole party of Hosein, travelling from Medina towards Shawm,
consisted only of seventy-two souls: Hosein having no intention to force
his way to the post of leader, had not deemed it necessary to set out with
an army to aid him, which he undoubtedly might have commanded by his
influence with the people professing 'the Faith'.
Yuzeed, in the mean time, having by his power destroyed Moslem and the two
youths his sons, and receiving positive intelligence that Hosein had
quitted Medina to march for Shawm, as his fears suggested, with an army of
some magnitude, he ordered out an immense force to meet Hosein on the way,
setting a price on his head, and proclaiming promises of honours and
rewards, of the most tempting nature, to the fortunate man who should
succeed in the arduous enterprise.
The first detachment of the Shawmies (as they are designated in the
manuscript of Arabia), under a resolute chief named Hurrh,[24] fell in
with Hosein's camp, one day's march beyond the far-famed ground, amongst
Mussulmauns, of Kraabaallah, or Hurth Maaree,[25] as it was originally
called.
Hurrh's heart was subdued when he entered the tent of the peaceable Hosein,
in whose person he discovered the exact resemblance of the Prophet; and
perceiving that his small camp indicated a quiet family party journeying
on their way, instead of the formidable force Yuzeed's fears had
anticipated, this chief was surprised and confounded, confessed his shame
to Hosein that he had been induced to accept the command of the force
despatched against the children of the Prophet, and urged, in mitigation
of his offences, that he had long been in Yuzeed's service, whose
commission he still bore; but his heart now yearning to aid, rather than
persecute the Prophet's family, he resolved on giving them an opportunity
to escape the threatened vengeance of their bitterest enemy. With this
view, he advised Hosein to fall with his party into the rear of his force,
until the main body of the Shawmies had passed by; and as they were then
on the margin of a forest, there to separate and secrete themselves till
the road was again clear, and afterwards to take a different route from
the proposed one to Shawm.
Hosein felt, as may be supposed, grateful to his preserver; and, following
his directions, succeeded in reaching the confines of Kraabaallah
unmolested.
The ancient writings of Arabia say, Mahumud had predicted the death of
Hosein, by the hands of men professing to be of 'the true faith', at this
very place Kraabaallah, or Hurth Maaree.
Hosein and his family having concluded their morning devotions, he first
inquired and learned the name of the place on which their tents were
pitched, and then imparted the subject of his last night's dream, 'that
his grandsire had appeared to him, and pronounced that his soul would be
at peace with him ere that day closed'. Again he fell on his knees in
devout prayer, from which he rose only to observe the first warnings of an
approaching army, by the thick clouds of dust which darkened the horizon;
and before the evening closed upon the scene, Hosein, with every male of
his small party capable of bearing arms, had been hurried to their final
rest. One son of Hosein's, insensible from fever at the time, was spared
from the sacrifice, and, with the females and young children, taken
prisoners to the King's palace at Shawm.
The account given by historians of this awful battle, describes the
courage and intrepidity of Hosein's small band, in glowing terms of praise;
having fought singly, and by their desperate bravery 'each arm (they say)
levelled his hundreds with their kindred dust ere his own gave way to the
sway of death'.
Amongst the number of Hosein's brave defenders was a nephew, the son of
Hasan: this young man, named Cossum,[26] was the affianced husband of
Hosein's favourite daughter, Sakeena Koobraah;[27] and previous to his
going to the combat on that eventful day, Hosein read the marriage lines
between the young couple, in the tent of the females. I mention this here,
as it points to one particular part of the celebration of Mahurrum, which
I shall have occasion to mention in due order, wherein all the outward
forms of the wedding ceremony are strictly performed, annually.
During the whole of this terrible day, at Kraabaallah, the family party of
Hosein had been entirely deprived of water; and the river Fraught[28]
(Euphrates) being blockaded by their enemies, they suffered exceedingly
from thirst. The handsome Abass,[29] another nephew of Hosein, and his
standard-bearer, made many efforts to procure water for the relief of the
almost famishing females; he had, at one attempt, succeeded in filling the
mushukh,[30] when, retreating from the river, he was discovered by the
enemy, was pursued and severely wounded, the mushukh pierced by arrows,
and the water entirely lost ere he could reach the camp.
In remembrance of this privation of the sufferers at Kraabaallah, every
good Mussulmaun, at Mahurrum, distributes sherbet in abundance, to all
persons who choose to accept this their favourite beverage (sugar and
water, with a little rosewater, or kurah,[31] to flavour it); and some
charitable females expend large sums in milk, to be distributed in the
public streets; for these purposes, there are neat little huts of
sirrakee[32] (a reed, or grass, resembling bright straw) erected by the
road side of the Mussulmauns' houses; they are called saabeels,[33] where
the red earthen cups of milk, sherbet, or pure water are seen ranged in
rows, for all who choose to call for drink.
Hosein, say their historians, was the last of the party who suffered on
the day of battle; he was surrounded in his own camp--where, by the usage
of war, at that time, they had no right to enter--and when there was not
one friendly arm left to ward the blow. They relate 'that his body was
literally mangled, before he was released from his unmerited sufferings'.
He had mounted his favourite horse, which, as well as himself, was pierced
by arrows innumerable; together they sank on the earth from loss of blood,
the cowardly spearmen piercing his wounded body as if in sport; and whilst,
with his last breath, 'Hosein prayed for mercy on his destroyers,
Shimeear[34] ended his sufferings by severing the already prostrate head
from the mutilated trunk'.--'Thus they sealed (say those writers) the
lasting disgrace of a people, who, calling themselves Mussulmauns, were
the murderers of their Prophet's descendants.'
This slight sketch gives but the outline of those events which are every
year commemorated amongst the zealous followers of Ali, the class
denominated Sheahs.
The Mussulmaun people, I must here observe, are divided into two distinct
sects, viz. the Sheahs and the Soonies. The former believe Ali and his
descendants were the lawful leaders after Mahumud; the latter are
persuaded that the Caliphas, as Aboubuker, Omir, &c., were the leaders to
be accredited 'lawful'; but of this I shall speak more fully in another
Letter.
Perhaps the violence of party spirit may have acted as an inducement to
the Sheahs, for the zealous annual observance of this period, so
interesting to that sect; whatever the motive, we very often find the two
sects hoard up their private animosities and dislikes until the return of
Mahurrum, which scarcely ever passes over, in any extensively populated
city of Hindoostaun, without a serious quarrel, often terminating in
bloodshed.[35]
I could have given a more lengthened account of the events which led to
the solemnization of this fast, but I believe the present is sufficient to
explain the motives by which the Mussulmauns are actuated, and my next
Letter must be devoted to the description of the rites performed upon the
celebration of these events in India.
P.S. I have a memorandum in my collection which may here be copied as its
proper place.
From Mecca, 'The Holy City', to Medina the distance is twelve stages (a
day's march is one stage, about twenty miles of English measurement). From
Medina to Kraabaallah there are twenty-one stages; this distance is
travelled only by those who can endure great difficulties; neither water
nor provisions are to be met with on the whole journey, excepting at one
halt, the name of which is Shimmaar. From Kraabaallah to Koofah is two
stages.
In the vicinity of Koofah[36] stands Mount Judee[37] (Judea), on which is
built, over the remains of Ali, the mausoleum called Nudghiff Usheruff.[38]
On this Mount, it is said, Adam and Noah were buried. Ali being aware of
this, gave directions to his family and friends, that whenever his soul
should be recalled from earth, his mortal remains were to be deposited
near those graves venerated and held sacred 'by the faithful'. The ancient
writers of Arabia authorise the opinion that Ali's body was entombed by
the hands of his sons, Hasan and Hosein, who found the earth open to
receive their sire, and which closed immediately on his remains being
deposited.
Here, too, it is believed Noah's ark rested after the Deluge. When
pilgrims to Mecca make their zeearut[39] (all sacred visits are so called)
to this Mount, they offer three prayers, in memory of Adam, Noah, and All.
The grave of Eve is also frequently visited by pilgrims, which is said to
be situated near Jeddah; this, however, is not considered an indispensable
duty, but, as they say, prompted by 'respect for the Mother of men'.[40]
These remarks, and many others of an interesting nature, I have been
favoured with from the most venerable aged man I ever knew, Meer Hadjee
Shaah,[41] the revered father of my excellent husband; who having
performed the Hadje[42] (pilgrimage) three several times, at different
periods of his eventful life--returning after each pilgrimage to his home
in Lucknow--and being a person of strict veracity, with a remarkably
intelligent mind and retentive memory, I have profited largely by his
information, and derived from it both amusement and instruction, through
many years of social intercourse. When he had numbered more than eighty
years he dwelt with hope on again performing the Hadje, where it was his
intention to rest his earthly substance until the great day of restitution,
and often expressed his wishes to have me and mine to share with him the
pilgrimage he desired to make. But this was not allowed to his prayer; his
summons arrived rather unexpectedly to those who loved and revered him for
virtues rarely equalled; happily for him, his pure soul was prepared to
meet his Creator, in whose service he had passed this life, with all
humility, and in whose mercy alone his hopes for the future were centred.
[1] 'Whatsoever alms ye shall give, of a truth God knoweth it.... Give ye
your alms openly? it is well. Do ye conceal them and give them to the
poor? This, too, will be of advantage to you, and will do away your
sins: and God is cognizant of your actions' (_Koran_, ii. 274-5).
[2] _Sayyid_, 'lord', 'chief, the class of Musalmans who claim descent
from Fatimah, daughter of the Prophet, and 'Ali, his
cousin-german and adopted son; they are divided into two branches
descended from Hasan and Husain, sons of 'Ali and Fatimah.
[3] _Mir_, a contraction of _Amir_, 'lord'.
[4] _Koran, Qur'an_.
[5] 'They who swallow down usury shall arise in the resurrection only as
he ariseth whom Satan hath infected by his touch' (_Koran_, ii.
276). But this is rather theory than practice, and many ingenious
methods are adopted to avoid the prohibition.
[6] _Begam_, feminine of _Beg_, 'lord', used to denote a Sayyid lady, like
Khanam among Pathans.
[7] Here, as elsewhere, _zenanah, zananah_, Persian _zan_, 'woman'.
[8] This is incorrect. The Koran has been translated into various
languages, but the translation is always interlineary with the
original text. In Central Asia the Musalman conquerors allowed the
Koran to be recited in Persian, instead of Arabic, in order that it
might be intelligible to all (Arnold, _The Preaching of Islam_, 183).
[9] _Jali_.
[10] _Kurti_, a loose, long-sleeved jacket of muslin or net, among rich
women embroidered on the neck and shoulders with gold, and draped down
to the ankles in full, loose folds. It is made of red or other
light-coloured fabrics for girls and married women; dark blue, bronze,
or white for old ladies; bronze or black for widows.
[11] _Khan_, 'lord', 'prince', specially applied to persons of Mughal
or Pathan descent.
[12] _Bahadur_, 'champion', a Mongol term; see Yule,
_Hobson-Jobson_[2], 48 ff.
[13] _Nawab_, 'a deputy, delegate': the Anglo-Indian Nabob (ibid.,
610 ff.).
[14] _Muharram_, 'that which is forbidden', the first month of the
Musalman year, the first ten days of which are occupied with this
mourning festival.
[15] By his wife Ja'dah, who was suborned to commit the deed by Yazid.
[16] Yazid, son of Mu'awiyah, the second Caliph of the house of
Umaiyah, who reigned from A.D. 679 to 683. Gibbon (_Decline and Fall_,
ed. W. Smith, vi. 278) calls him 'a feeble and dissolute youth'.
[17] Kerbala, Karbala, a city of Iraq, 50 miles south-west of Baghdad,
and about 6 miles from the Euphrates.
[18] Syria.
[19] _Sunni_, Ahlu's-Sunnah, 'one of the Path', a traditionalist. The
Sunnis accept the first four Caliphs, Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Usman,
'Ali, as the rightful successors of Muhammad, and follow the six
authentic books of the traditions. The Shi'ahs, 'followers' of
'Ali, maintain that he was the first legitimate Imam or Caliph,
i.e. successor of the Prophet. For a full account of the martyrdom of
Husain see Simon Ockley, _History of the Saracens_ (1848), 287 ff.;
Sir L. Pelly, _The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain_ (1879), Preface,
v ff.
[20] _Imam._
[21] Muslim.
[22] _Qazi_, a Muhammadan law officer.
[23] _Karwan_, a caravan.
[24] al-Hurr.
[25] This term is obscure. Jaffur Shurreef (_Qanoon-e-Islam_, 107) says
the plain of the martyrdom was called 'Mareea'. For 'Hurth' Prof. E.G.
Browne suggests _hirth_, 'a ploughed field', or _ard_, 'land'. Sir C.
Lyall suggests Al-hirah, the old Arabian capital which stood near
the site of the later Kufah.
[26] Qasim.
[27] Sakinah, Hebrew Shechinah; Koobraah, _Kibriya_, 'noble'.
[28] The Euphrates is called in Sumerian _pura-num_, 'Great water', whence
Purat, Purattu in Semitic Babylonian; Perath in Hebrew; Frat or
Furat in Arabic.
[29] 'Abbas, son of 'Ali.
[30] _Mashk_, _Mashak_, the Anglo-Indian Mussuck, a leathern skin for
conveying water, in general use amongst Musalmans at this day in
India; it is composed of the entire skin of a goat, properly prepared.
When filled with water it resembles a huge porpoise, on the back of
the beeshtie [Bhishti] (water-carrier). [_Author._]
[31] _Kora_, the fresh juice of _Aloe vera_, said to be cathartic and
cooling.
[32] _Sirki_ (_Saccharum ciliare_).
[33] _Sabil_: see Burton, _Pilgrimage_, Memorial ed., i. 286.
[34] Shimar, whose name now means 'contemptible' among Shi'ahs.
[35] This statement is too wide. 'Among Muhammadans themselves there is
very little religious discussion, and Sunnis and Shi'ahs, who
are at such deadly feud in many parts of Asia, including the Punjab
and Kashmir, have, in Oudh, always freely intermarried' (H.C. Irwin,
_The Garden of India_, 45).
[36] Kufah, four miles from Najaf, the capital of the Caliph 'Ali,
which fell into decay when the government was removed to Baghdad.
[37] Confused with Al-judi, Mt. Ararat, on which the Ark
rested.--_Koran_, xi. 46.
[38] Najaf al Sharif, or Mashhad 'Ali, 50 miles south of Karbala,
the tomb and shrine of 'Ali.
[39] _Ziyarat_, 'visitation', especially to the tomb of the Prophet or
that of a Muhammadan saint. The pilgrim says, not 'I have visited the
Prophet's tomb', but 'I have visited the Prophet'. (Burton,
_Pilgrimage_, i. 305.)
[40] The grave is said to be nine yards long: according to others, much
longer. See the flippant remark of Burton, ibid., ii. 273 ff.
[41] Mir Haji Shah.
[42] _Hajj_, 'setting out'.