THE LATER EMPIRE
THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE THIRD CENTURY
=Military Anarchy.=--After the reigns of the Antonines the civil wars
commenced. There were in the empire, beside the praetorian guard in
Rome, several great armies on the Rhine, on the Danube, in the East,
and in England. Each aimed to make its general emperor. Ordinarily the
rivals fought it out until there was but one left; this one then
governed for a few years, after which he was assassinated,[168] or if,
by chance, he could transmit his power to his son, the soldiers
revolted against the son and the war recommenced. The following, for
example, is what occurred in 193. The praetorians had massacred the
emperor Pertinax, and the army conceived the notion of putting up the
empire at auction; two purchasers presented themselves, Sulpicius
offering each soldier $1,000 and Didius more than $1,200. The
praetorians brought the latter to the Senate and had him named emperor;
later, when he did not pay them, they murdered him. At the same time
the great armies of Britain, Illyricum, and Syria proclaimed each its
own general as emperor and the three rivals marched on Rome. The
Illyrian legions arrived first, and their general Septimius Severus
was named emperor by the Senate. Then commenced two sanguinary wars,
the one against the legions of Syria, and the other against the
legions of Britain. At the end of two years the emperor was
victorious. It is he who states his policy as follows, "My son,
content the soldiers and you may despise the rest." For a century
there was no other form of government than the will of the soldiers.
They killed the emperors who displeased them and replaced them by
their favorites.
Strange emperors, therefore, occupied the throne: Elagabalus, a Syrian
priest, who garbed himself as a woman and had his mother assemble a
senate of women; Maximin, a soldier of fortune, a rough and
bloodthirsty giant, who ate, it was said, thirty pounds of food and
drank twenty-one quarts of wine a day. Once there were twenty emperors
at the same time, each in a corner of the empire (260-278). These have
been called the Thirty Tyrants.
The Cult of Mithra.--This century of wars is also a century of
superstitions. The deities of the Orient, Isis, Osiris, the Great
Mother, have their devotees everywhere. But, more than all the others,
Mithra, a Persian god, becomes the universal god of the empire. Mithra
is no other than the sun. The monuments in his honor that are found in
all parts of the empire represent him slaughtering a bull, with this
inscription: "To the unconquerable sun, to the god Mithra." His cult
is complicated, sometimes similar to the Christian worship; there are
a baptism, sacred feasts, an anointing, penances, and chapels. To be
admitted to this one must pass through an initiatory ceremony, through
fasting and certain fearful tests.
At the end of the third century the religion of Mithra was the
official religion of the empire. The Invincible God was the god of the
emperors; he had his chapels everywhere in the form of grottoes with
altars and bas-reliefs; in Rome, even, he had a magnificent temple
erected by the emperor Aurelian.
=The Taurobolia.=--One of the most urgent needs of this time was
reconciliation with the deity; and so ceremonies of purification were
invented.
The most striking of these was the Taurobolia. The devotee, clad in a
white robe with ornaments of gold, takes his place in the bottom of a
ditch which is covered by a platform pierced with holes. A bull is led
over this platform, the priest kills him and his blood runs through
the holes of the platform upon the garments, the face, and the hair of
the worshipper. It was believed that this "baptism of blood" purified
one of all sins. He who had received it was born to a new life; he
came forth from the ditch hideous to look upon, but happy and envied.
=Confusion of Religions.=--In the century that preceded the victory of
Christianity, all religions fell into confusion. The sun was adored at
once under many names (Sol, Helios, Baal, Elagabal, and Mithra). All
the cults imitated one another and sometimes copied Christian forms.
Even the life of Christ was copied. The Asiatic philosopher,
Apollonius of Tyana, who lived in the first century (3-96), became in
legend a kind of prophet, son of a god, who went about surrounded by
his disciples, expelling demons, curing sicknesses, raising the dead.
He had come, it was said, to reform the doctrine of Pythagoras and
Plato. In the third century an empress had the life of Apollonius of
Tyana written, to be, as it were, a Pythagorean gospel opposed to the
gospel of Christ. The most remarkable example of this confusion in
religion was given by Alexander Severus, a devout emperor, mild and
conscientious: he had in his palace a chapel where he adored the
benefactors of humanity--Abraham, Orpheus, Jesus, and Apollonius of
Tyana.
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE LATER EMPIRE
=Reforms of Diocletian and Constantine.=--After a century of civil
wars emperors were found who were able to stop the anarchy. They were
men of the people, rude and active, soldiers of fortune rising from
one grade to another to become generals-in-chief, and then emperors.
Almost all arose in the semi-barbarous provinces of the Danube and of
Illyria; some in their infancy had been shepherds or peasants. They
had the simple manners of the old Roman generals. When the envoys of
the king of Persia asked to see the emperor Probus, they found a bald
old man clad in a linen cassock, lying on the ground, who ate peas and
bacon. It was the story of Curius Dentatus repeated after five
centuries.
Severe with their soldiers, these emperors reestablished discipline in
the army, and then order in the empire. But a change had become
necessary. A single man was no longer adequate to the government and
defence of this immense territory; and so from this time each emperor
took from among his relatives or his friends two or three
collaborators, each charged with a part of the empire. Usually their
title was that of Caesar, but sometimes there were two equal emperors,
and both had the title of Augustus. When the emperor died, one of the
Caesars succeeded him; it was no longer possible for the army to create
emperors. The provinces were too great, and Diocletian divided them.
The praetorians of Rome being dangerous, Diocletian replaced them with
two legions. The Occident was in ruins and depopulated and hence the
Orient had become the important part of the empire; Diocletian,
therefore, abandoned Rome and established his capital at Nicomedia in
Asia Minor.[169] Constantine did more and founded a new Rome in the
East--Constantinople.
=Constantinople.=--On a promontory where Europe is separated from Asia
only by the narrow channel of the Bosporus, in a country of vineyards
and rich harvests, under a beautiful sky, Greek colonists had founded
the town of Byzantium. The hills of the vicinity made the place easily
defensible; its port, the Golden Horn, one of the best in the world,
could shelter 1,200 ships, and a chain of 820 feet in length was all
that was necessary to exclude a hostile fleet. This was the site of
Constantine's new city, Constantinople (the city of Constantine).
Around the city were strong walls; two public squares surrounded with
porticos were constructed; a palace was erected, a circus, theatres,
aqueducts, baths, temples, and a Christian church. To ornament his
city Constantine transferred from other cities the most celebrated
statues and bas-reliefs. To furnish it with population he forced the
people of the neighboring towns to remove to it, and offered rewards
and honors to the great families who would come hither to make their
home. He established, as in Rome, distributions of grain, of wine, of
oil, and provided a continuous round of shows. This was one of those
rapid transformations, almost fantastic, in which the Orient delights.
The task began the 4th of November, 326; on the 11th of May, 330, the
city was dedicated. But it was a permanent creation. For ten centuries
Constantinople resisted invasions, preserving always in the ruins of
the empire its rank of capital. Today it is still the first city of
the East.
=The Palace.=--The emperors who dwelt in the East[170] adopted the
customs of the Orient, wearing delicate garments of silk and gold and
for a head-dress a diadem of pearls. They secluded themselves in the
depths of their palace where they sat on a throne of gold, surrounded
by their ministers, separated from the world by a crowd of courtiers,
servants, functionaries and military guards. One must prostrate one's
self before them with face to the earth in token of adoration; they
were called Lord and Majesty; they were treated as gods. Everything
that touched their person was sacred, and so men spoke of the sacred
palace, the sacred bed-chamber, the sacred Council of State, even the
sacred treasury.
The regime of this period has been termed that of the Later Empire as
distinguished from that of the three preceding centuries, which we
call the Early Empire.
The life of an emperor of the Early Empire (from the first to the
third century) was still that of a magistrate and a general; the
palace of an emperor of the Later Empire became similar to the court
of the Persian king.
=The Officials.=--The officials often became very numerous. Diocletian
found the provinces too large and so made several divisions of them.
In Gaul, for example, Lugdunensis (the province about Lyons) was
partitioned into four, Aquitaine into three. In place of forty-six
governors there were from this time 117.[171]
At the same time the duties of the officials were divided. Besides the
governors and the deputies in the provinces there were in the border
provinces military commanders--the dukes and the counts. The emperor
had about him a small picked force to guard the palace, body-guards,
chamberlains, assistants, domestics, a council of state, bailiffs,
messengers, and a whole body of secretaries organized in four bureaus.
All these officials did not now receive their orders directly from
the emperor; they communicated with him only through their superior
officers. The governors were subordinate to the two praetorian
prefects, the officials of public works to the two prefects of the
city, the collectors of taxes to the Count of the Sacred Largesses,
the deputies to the Count of the Domains, all the officers of the
palace to the Master of the Offices, the domestics of the court to the
Chamberlain. These heads of departments had the character of
ministers.
This system is not very difficult for us to comprehend. We are
accustomed to see officials, judges, generals, collectors, and
engineers, organized in distinct departments, each with his special
duty, and subordinated to the commands of a chief of the service. We
even have more ministers than there were in Constantinople; but this
administrative machine which has become so familiar to us because we
have been acquainted with it from our infancy, is none the less
complicated and unnatural. It is the Later Empire that gave us the
first model of this; the Byzantine empire preserved it and since that
time all absolute governments have been forced to imitate it because
it has made the work of government easier for those who have it to do.
=Society in the Later Empire.=--The Later Empire is a decisive moment
in the history of civilization. The absolute power of the Roman
magistrate is united to the pompous ceremonial of the eastern kings to
create a power unknown before in history. This new imperial majesty
crushes everything beneath it; the inhabitants of the empire cease to
be citizens and from the fourth century are called in Latin "subjects"
and in Greek "slaves." In reality all are slaves of the emperor, but
there are different grades of servitude. There are various degrees of
nobility which the master confers on them and which they transmit to
their posterity. The following is the series:[172]
1. The _Nobilissimi_ (the very noble); these are the imperial
family;
2. The _Illustres_ (the notable)--the chief ministers of
departments;
3. The _Spectabiles_ (the eminent)--the high dignitaries;
4. The _Clarissimi_ (most renowned)--the great officials, also
sometimes called senators;
5. The _Perfectissimi_ (very perfect).[173]
Every important man has his rank, his title, and his functions.[174]
The only men who are of consequence are the courtiers and officials;
it is the regime of titles and of etiquette. A clearer instance has
never been given of the issue of absolute power united with the mania
for titles and with the purpose to regulate everything. The Later
Empire exhibits the completed type of a society reduced to a machine
and of a government absorbed by a court. It realized the ideal that is
proposed today by the partisans of absolute power; and for a long time
the friends of liberty must fight against the traditions which the
Later Empire has left to us.
THE CHURCH AND THE STATE
=Triumph of Christianity.=--During the first two centuries of our era
the Christians occupied but a small place in the empire. Almost all of
them were of the lower classes, workmen, freedmen, slaves, who lived
obscure lives in the multitude of the great cities. For a long time
the aristocracy ignored the Christians; even in the second century
Suetonius in his "Lives of the Twelve Caesars" speaks of a certain
Chrestus who agitated the populace of Rome. When the religion first
concerned the world of the rich and cultivated people, they were
interested simply to deride it as one only for the poor and ignorant.
It was precisely because it addressed the poor of this world in
providing a compensation in the life to come that Christianity made so
many proselytes. Persecution, far from suppressing it, gave it more
force. "The blood of the martyrs," said the faithful, "is the seed of
the church." During the whole of the third century conversions
continued, not only among the poor, but among the aristocracy as well.
At the first of the fourth century all the East had become Christian.
Helena, the mother of Constantine, was a Christian and has been
canonized by the church. When Constantine marched against his rival,
he took for his ensign a standard (the labarum), which bore the cross
and the monogram of Christ. His victory was the victory of the
Christians. He allowed them now to perform their religious rites
freely (by the edict of 313), and later he favored them openly. Yet
he did not break with the ancient religion: while he presided at the
great assembly of the Christian bishops, he continued to hold the
title of Pontifex Maximus; he carried in his helmet a nail of the true
cross and on his coins he still had the sun-god represented. In his
city of Constantinople he had a Christian church built, but also a
temple to Victory. For a half-century it was difficult to know what
was the official religion of the empire.
=Organization of the Church.=--The Christians even under persecution
had never dreamed of overthrowing the empire. As soon as persecution
ceased, the bishops became the allies of the emperors. Then the
Christian church was organized definitively, and it was organized on
the model of the Later Empire, in the form that it preserves to this
day. Each city had a bishop who resided in the city proper and
governed the people of the territory; this territory subject to the
bishop was termed a Diocese. In any country in the Later Empire, there
were as many bishops and dioceses as there were cities. This is why
the bishops were so numerous and dioceses so many in the East and in
Italy where the country was covered with cities. In Gaul, on the
contrary, there were but 120 dioceses between the Rhine and the
Pyrenees, and the most of these, save in the south, were of the size
of a modern French department. Each province became an ecclesiastical
province; the bishop of the capital (metropolis) became the
metropolitan, or as he was later termed, the archbishop.
=The Councils.=--In this century began the councils, the great
assemblies of the church. There had already been some local councils
at which the bishops and priests of a single province had been
present. For the first time, in 324,[175] Constantine convoked a
General Assembly of the World (an ecumenical council) at Nicaea, in
Asia Minor; 318 ecclesiastics were in attendance. They discussed
questions of theology and drew up the Nicene Creed, the Catholic
confession of faith. Then the emperor wrote to all the churches,
bidding them "conform to the will of God as expressed by the council."
This was the first ecumenical council, and there were three
others[176] of these before the arrival of the barbarians made an
assembly of the whole church impossible. The decisions reached by
these councils had the force of law for all Christians: the decisions
are called Canons[177] (rules). The collection of these regulations
constitutes the Canon Law.
=The Heretics.=--From the second century there were among the
Christians heretics who professed opinions contrary to those of the
majority of the church. Often the bishops of a country assembled to
pronounce the new teaching as false, to compel the author to abjure,
and, if he refused, to separate him from the communion of Christians.
But frequently the author of the heresy had partisans convinced of the
truth of his teaching who would not submit and continued to profess
the condemned opinions. This was the cause of hatred and violent
strife between them and the faithful who were attached to the creed of
the church (the orthodox). As long as the Christians were weak and
persecuted by the state, they fought among themselves only with words
and with books; but when all society was Christian, the contests
against the heretics turned into persecutions, and sometimes into
civil wars.
Almost all of the heresies of this time arose among the Greeks of Asia
or Egypt, peoples who were subtle, sophistical, and disputatious. The
heresies were usually attempts to explain the mysteries of the Trinity
and of the Incarnation. The most significant of these heresies was
that of Arius; he taught that Christ was created by God the Father and
was not equal to him. The Council of Nicaea condemned this view, but
his doctrine, called Arianism, spread throughout the East. From that
time for two centuries Catholics and Arians fought to see who should
have the supremacy in the church; the stronger party anathematized,
exiled, imprisoned, and sometimes killed the chiefs of the opposition.
For a long time the Arians had the advantage; several emperors took
sides with them; then, too, as the barbarians entered the empire, they
were converted to Arianism and received Arian bishops. More than two
centuries had passed before the Catholics had overcome this heresy.
=Paganism.=--The ancient religion of the Gentiles did not disappear at
a single stroke. The Orient was quickly converted; but in the Occident
there were few Christians outside the cities, and even there many
continued to worship idols. The first Christian emperors did not wish
to break with the ancient imperial religion; they simultaneously
protected the bishops of the Christians and the priests of the gods;
they presided over councils and yet remained pontifex maximus. One of
them, Julian (surnamed the Apostate), openly returned to the ancient
religion. The emperor Gratian in 384[178] was the first to refuse the
insignia of the pontifex maximus. But as intolerance was general in
this century, as soon as the Roman religion ceased to be official, men
began to persecute it. The sacred fire of Rome that had burned for
eleven centuries was extinguished, the Vestals were removed, the
Olympian games were celebrated for the last time in 394. Then the
monks of Egypt issued from their deserts to destroy the altars of the
false gods and to establish relics in the temples of Anubis and
Serapis. Marcellus, a bishop of Syria, at the head of a band of
soldiers and gladiators sacked the temple of Jupiter at Aparnaea and
set himself to scour the country for the destruction of the
sanctuaries; he was killed by the peasants and raised by the church to
the honor of a saint.
Soon idolatry persisted only in the rural districts where it escaped
detection; the idolaters were peasants who continued to adore sacred
trees and fountains and to assemble in proscribed sanctuaries.[179]
The Christians commenced to call "pagans" (the peasants) those whom up
to this time they had called Gentiles. And this name has still clung
to them. Paganism thus led an obscure existence in Italy, in Gaul, and
in Spain down to the end of the sixth century.
=Theodosius.=--The incursions of the Germanic peoples into the empire
continued for two centuries until the Huns, a people of Tartar
horsemen, came from the steppes of Asia, and threw themselves on the
Germans, who occupied the country to the north of the Danube. In that
country there was already a great German kingdom, that of the Goths,
who had been converted to Christianity by Ulfilas, an Arian. To escape
the Huns, a part of this people, the West Goths (Visigoths), fled into
Roman territory, defeated the Roman armies, and overspread the country
even to Greece. Valens, the emperor of the East, had perished in the
defeat of Adrianople (378); Gratian, the emperor of the West, took as
colleague a noble Spaniard, Theodosius by name, and gave him the title
of Augustus of the East (379). Theodosius was able to rehabilitate his
army by avoiding a great battle with the Visigoths and by making a war
of skirmishes against them; this decided them to conclude a treaty.
They accepted service under the empire, land was given them in the
country to the south of the Danube, and they were charged with
preventing the enemies of the empire from crossing the river.
Theodosius, having reestablished peace in the East, came to the West
where Gratian had been killed by order of the usurper Maximus (383).
This Maximus was the commander of the Roman army of Britain; he had
crossed into Gaul with his army, abandoning the Roman provinces of
Britain to the ravages of the highland Scotch, had defeated Gratian,
and invaded Italy. He was master of the West, Theodosius of the East.
The contest between them was not only one between persons; it was a
battle between two religions: Theodosius was Catholic and had
assembled a council at Constantinople to condemn the heresy of Arius
(381); Maximus was ill-disposed toward the church. The engagement
occurred on the banks of the Save; Maximus was defeated, taken, and
executed.
Theodosius established Valentinian II, the son of Gratian, in the West
and then returned to the East. But Arbogast, a barbarian Frank, the
general of the troops of Valentinian, had the latter killed, and
without venturing to proclaim himself emperor since he was not a
Roman, had his Roman secretary Eugenius made emperor. This was a
religious war: Arbogast had taken the side of the pagans; Theodosius,
the victor, had Eugenius executed and himself remained the sole
emperor. His victory was that of the Catholic church.
In 391 the emperor Theodosius promulgated the Edict of Milan. It
prohibited the practice of the ancient religion; whoever offered a
sacrifice, adored an idol, or entered a temple should be condemned to
death as a state criminal, and his goods should be confiscated to the
profit of the informer. All the pagan temples were razed to the ground
or converted into Christian churches. And so Theodosius was extolled
by ecclesiastical writers as the model for emperors.
Theodosius gave a rare example of submission to the church. The
inhabitants of Thessalonica had risen in riot, had killed their
governor, and overthrown the statues of the emperor. Theodosius in
irritation ordered the people to be massacred; 7,000 persons suffered
death. When the emperor presented himself some time after to enter the
cathedral of Milan, Ambrose, the bishop, charged him with his crime
before all the people, and declared that he could not give entrance
to the church to a man defiled with so many murders. Theodosius
confessed his sin, accepted the public penance which the bishop
imposed upon him, and for eight months remained at the door of the
church.
FOOTNOTES:
[168] Of the forty-five emperors from the first to the third century,
twenty-nine died by assassination.
[169] Other considerations also led to the change of capital--ED.
[170] There were often two emperors, one in the East, the other in the
West, but there was but one empire. The two emperors, though they may
have resided, one in Constantinople and the other in Italy, were
considered as being but one person. In addressing one of them the word
"you" (in the plural) was used, as if both were addressed at the same
time. This was the first use of the pronoun of the second person in the
plural for such a purpose; for throughout antiquity even kings and
emperors were addressed in the singular.
[171] The number under Diocletian was 101; under Constantine (Bury's
Gibbon, ii., 170), 116.--ED.
[172] Without counting the ancient titles of consul and praeter, which
were still preserved, and the new title of patrician which was given by
special favor.
[173] Of inferior rank.
[174] We know the whole system by an official almanac of about the year
419, entitled Notitia Dignitatum, a list of all the civil and military
dignities and powers in the East and West. Each dignitary has a special
section preceded by an emblem which represents his honors.
[175] It met in 325.--ED.
[176] It is to be noted that the author is speaking of ecumenical or
world councils. The three referred to are Constantinople (381), Ephesus
(431), and Chalcedon (451).--ED.
[177] Today, even, the word "canonical" signifies "in accordance with
rule."
[178] Probably 375; Gratian died in 383.--ED.
[179] Several saints, like St. Marcellus, found martyrdom at the hands
of peasants exasperated at the destruction of their idols.
APPENDIX
REFERENCES FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING
PREHISTORIC TIMES
Lubbock: Prehistoric Times. 1878.
Lubbock: Origin of Civilisation. 1881.
Hoernes: Primitive Man. Temple Primers. 1901.
Lyell: Antiquity of Man. London: 1863.
Keary: Dawn of History.
Tylor: Anthropology. 1881.
McLennan: Studies in Ancient History. 1886.
Ripley: Races of Europe. 1899.
Sergi: The Mediterranean Race. 1901.
Maine: Ancient Law. 1883.
Mason: Woman's Share in Primitive Culture. 1894.
GENERAL WORKS OF REFERENCE--
Ploetz: Epitome of Universal History. 1883.
Ranke: Universal History, edited by Prothero. 1885.
Andrews: Institutes of General History. 1887.
Haydn: Dictionary of Dates. 1889.
Lamed: History for Ready Reference.
ATLASES--
Spruner-Sieglin: Atlas Antiquus.
Kiepert: Atlas Antiquus. Leach.
Putzger: Historischer Schul-atlas. 1902.
Droysen: Allgemeiner Historischer Hand-atlas. Leipsic, 1885.
Freeman: Historical Geography of Europe. Edited by Bury. 1903.
Schrader: Atlas de Geographique Historique.
GENERAL HISTORIES OF THE EAST--
Sayce: Ancient Empires of the East. 1885.
Lenormant and Chevallier: Ancient History of the East. 1875.
Duncker: History of Antiquity. 1877-82
Rawlinson: Manual of Ancient History. 1871.
Clarke: Ten Great Religions. 1894.
Cunningham: Western Civilisation in Its Economic Aspects. 1898.
EGYPT
SOURCES--
Records of the Past, 1888-92. Old Series, 1875-8.
Herodotus: Book II. Rawlinson's edition. 1897.
LITERATURE--
Rawlinson: Ancient Egypt. 1887.
Flinders-Petrie: History of Egypt. 1899.
Breasted: History of Egypt. 1905.
Erman: Life in Ancient Egypt. 1894.
Maspero: Dawn of Civilisation. 1896.
Maspero: Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria. 1892.
Wilkinson: Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians.
Perrot and Chipiez: History of Art in Ancient Egypt. 1882.
Flinders-Petrie: Egyptian Decorative Art. 1895.
BABYLON AND ASSYRIA
SOURCES--
Records of the Past.
LITERATURE--
Ragozin: Chaldea. 1886.
Ragozin: Assyria. 1887.
Sayce: Assyria: Its Princes, Priests, and People. 1890.
Sayce: Social Life among the Assyrians and Babylonians. 1893.
Sayce: Fresh Light from Ancient Monuments. 1883.
Sayce: Babylonians and Assyrians. 1889.
Goodspeed: History of the Babylonians and Assyrians. 1902.
Layard: Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon. 1875.
Maspero: Dawn of Civilisation. 1896.
Maspero: Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria. 1892.
Maspero: Struggle of the Nations. 1897.
Maspero: Passing of the Empires. 1899.
Perrot and Chipiez: History of Art in Chaldea and Assyria. 1884.
INDIA
SOURCES--
Sacred Books of the East.
LITERATURE--
Wheeler: Primer of Indian History. 1890.
Smith, V.A.: Early History of India. 1904.
Ragozin: Vedic India. 1895.
Davids: Buddhist India. 1903.
Rhys-Davids: Buddhism. 1899.
Lane-Poole: Mediaeval India under Mohammedan Rule. 1903.
Monier-Williams: Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism. 1889.
Monier-Williams: Indian Wisdom. London: 1875-6.
Frazer: Literary History of India. 1898.
Maine: Early History of Institutions. 1875.
PERSIA
SOURCES--
Records of the Past.
Herodotus.
Church: Stories of the East (from Herodotus). 1883.
LITERATURE--
Benjamin: Persia. 1887.
Markham: General Sketch of the History of Persia. 1874.
Vaux: Persia from the Monuments. 1878.
Jackson: Zoroaster, Prophet of Ancient Iran. 1899.
Perrot and Chipiez: History of Art in Persia, Phrygia, etc. 1895.
THE PHOENICIANS
SOURCES--
The Old Testament.
Voyage of Hanno, translated by Falconer.
LITERATURE--
Rawlinson: Phoenicia. 1889.
Maspero: Struggle of the Nations. 1897.
Paton: Early History of Syria and Palestine. 1901.
Taylor: The Alphabet. 1899.
Perrot and Chipiez: History of Art in Phoenicia and Cyprus. 1885.
THE HEBREWS
SOURCES--
The Old Testament.
The Talmud.
Josephus: Antiquities of the Jews; Wars of the Jews; Whiston's
translation. 1825. New edition of Whiston by Shilleto. 1889-90
LITERATURE--
Hosmer: The Jews. 1885.
Sayce: Early History of the Hebrews. 1897.
Kent: History of the Hebrew People. 1899.
Kent: History of the Jewish People. 1899.
Milman: History of the Jews. 1870.
Stanley: History of the Jewish Church. 1884.
McCurdy: History, Prophecy, and the Monuments. 1901. 3 V.
Graetz: History of the Jews. 1891-98.
Perrot and Chipiez: History of Art in Sardinia, Judea, Syria, and
Asia Minor. 1890.
Day: Social Life of the Hebrews. 1901.
Rosenau: Jewish Ceremonial Institutions and Customs. Baltimore. 1903.
Leroy-Boileau: Israel among the Nations; translated by Hellman. 1900.
Cheyne: Jewish Religious Life after the Exile. 1898.
GREECE
GENERAL HISTORIES--
Grote: History of Greece. 1851-6.
Holm: History of Greece. 1894-8.
Duruy: History of Greece. 1890-2.
Abbott: History of Greece. 1888-99.
One volume histories of Greece are: Bury. 1903; Oman 1901; Botsford.
1899; Myers. 1895; Cox, 1883.
GREEK ANTIQUITIES--
Smith: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 1890-1 2 v.
Gardner and Jevons: Manual of Greek Antiquities. 1895.
Schoemann: The Antiquities of Greece. London, 1880. A new and improved
edition in the German.
Harpers' Classical Literature and Antiquities. 1896.
GREEK HISTORICAL SOURCES (translated into English)--
Homer: Iliad. Translated by Lang, Leaf, and Myers.
Homer: Odyssey. Translated by Butcher and Lang.
Herodotus: Translated by Rawlinson.
Text of same with abridged notes. 1897.
Herodotus: Translated by Macaulay.
Thucydides: Translated by Jowett.
Xenophon: Dakyns' edition. 1890-7.
Demosthenes: Works translated by Kennedy.
Arrian: Translated in Bonn Library.
Pausanias: Description of Greece. Frazer's edition.
Polybius: Shuckburgh's edition. 1889.
Plutarch: Lives. Translated by Stewart and Long. 4 v., 1880.
Plutarch: Lives. North's translation.
PERIODS OF GREEK HISTORY--
Tsountas-Manatt: Mycenaean Age. 1896.
Ridgeway: The Early Age in Greece. 1901.
Freeman: Studies of Travel: Greece. 1893.
Clerke: Familiar Studies in Homer. 1892.
Jebb: Introduction to Homer. 1887.
Allcroft and Mason: Early Grecian History. 1898.
Benjamin: Troy. 1880.
Allcroft and Mason: Making of Athens. 1898.
Cox: Greeks and Persians. 1876.
Grundy: The Great Persian War. 1901.
Cox: Athenian Empire. 1877.
Lloyd: Age of Pericles. 1875.
Abbott: Pericles. 1895.
Grant: Greece in the Age of Pericles. 1893.
Allcroft and Mason: Peloponnesian War. 1898.
Freeman: Sicily. 1892.
Allcroft and Mason: Sparta and Thebes. 1898.
Sankey: Spartan and Theban Supremacies. 1877.
Allcroft and Mason: Decline of Hellas. 1898.
Curteis: Rise of the Macedonian Empire. 1878.
Hogarth: Philip and Alexander. 1897.
Wheeler: Alexander the Great. 1900.
Mahaffy: Alexander's Empire. 1887.
Mahaffy: Problems in Greek History. 1892.
Bevan: House of Seleucus. 1902.
Mahaffy: Empire of Egypt under the Ptolemies. 1899.
Mahaffy: Greek Life and Thought. 1887.
GREEK POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT--
Fowler: City-State of the Greeks and Romans. 1893.
Greenidge: Greek Constitutional History. 1896.
Schoemann: Antiquities of Greece. 1886.
Cox: Lives of Greek Statesmen. 1886.
Gilbert: Constitutional Antiquities of Athens and Sparta. 1895.
Botsford: Athenian Constitution. 1893
Whibley: Greek Oligarchies. 1896.
Whibley: Political Parties in Athens in the Pelopponnesian War. 1889.
Freeman: History of Federal Government. 1863.
SOCIAL LIFE OF THE GREEKS--
Bluemner: Home Life of the Ancient Greeks. 1893.
Mahaffy: Social Life in Greece. 1887.
Mahaffy: A Survey of Greek Civilisation. 1899.
Guhl and Koner: Life of the Greeks and Romans. 1877.
Becker: Charicles.
Cunningham: Western Civilisation in its Economic Aspects 1898.
Davidson: Education of the Greek People. 1894.
Mahaffy: Old Greek Education. 1882.
HISTORIES OF GREEK LITERATURE--
Mahaffy: History of Classical Greek Literature. 1880.
Murray: Ancient Greek Literature. 1897.
Jevons: History of Greek Literature. 1886.
Jebb: Primer of Greek Literature. 1878.
Jebb: Classical Greek Poetry.
Symonds: The Greek Poets.
Jebb: The Attic Orators. 1876.
Pater: Greek Studies. 1895.
HISTORIES OF ART--
Reber: History of Ancient Art. 1882.
Luebke: Outlines of the History of Art. 1881.
Perrot and Chipiez: History of Art in Primitive Greece. 1895.
Tarbell: History of Greek Art. 1896.
Fergusson: History of Architecture. 1875.
Gardner: Handbook of Greek Sculpture. 1896-7.
Harrison and Verall: Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens. 1894.
Harrison: Introductory Studies in Greek Art. 1892.
Gardner: Ancient Athens. 1902.
GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY--
Collignon: Manual of Greek Archaeology. 1886.
Murray: Handbook of Greek Archaeology. 1892.
Schuckardt: Schliemann's Excavations. 1891.
Diehl: Excursions in Greece. 1893.
Gardner: New Chapters in Greek History. 1892.
GREEK PHILOSOPHY--
Mayor: Sketch of Ancient Philosophy. 1881.
Marshall: Short History of Greek Philosophy. 1891.
Plato: Translated by Jowett.
Aristotle: Translated in Bohn's Library.
Zeller: Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy. 1890.
GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY--
Gayley: Classic Myths. 1893.
Guerber: Myths of Greece and Rome. 1893.
ROME
GENERAL HISTORIES--
Mommsen: History of Rome.
Ihne: History of Rome. 1871-82.
Duruy: History of Rome. 1884-5.
Long: Decline of the Roman Republic. 1864-74.
Greenidge: History of Rome during the Latin Republic. 1904.
Shuckburgh: History of Rome. 1894.
How and Leigh: History of Rome. 1896.
Pelham: Outlines of Roman History. 1893.
Botsford: History of Rome. 1903.
Merivale: History of the Romans under the Empire. 1875.
Gibbon: Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Bury's edition.
SOURCES OF ROMAN HISTORY (translated into English)--
Livy: History and Epitome, translated by Spillan. 1887-90.
Polybius: Histories, translated by Shuckburgh. 1889.
Plutarch: Lives, translated by Stewart and Long. 1880.
Appian: Roman History, translated by White. 1899.
Sallust, Florus, and Velleius Paterculus, translated by Watson. 1887.
Cicero: Orations, translated by Yonge. 1851-2.
Cicero: Letters, translated by Shuckburgh. 1899.
Caesar: Gallic War and Civil War.
Justin, Nepos, and Eutropius, translated by Watson.
Suetonius: Lives of the Twelve Caesars, translated by Thomas Forester.
1898.
Tacitus: Annals, translated by Church and Brodribb. 1895.
Tacitus: History, translated by Church and Brodribb. 1894.
Tacitus: Germania, translated by Church and Brodribb. 1893.
Josephus: Antiquities and Wars of the Jews, translated by
Whiston-Shilleto. 1889-90.
Pliny the Younger: Letters, translated by Melmoth.
Marcus Aurelius: Meditations, translated by Long.
Ammianus Marcellinus: Roman History, translated by Yonge. 1894.
Julian the Emperor: Works, translated by King. 1888.
Eusebius: Ecclesiastical History and Life of Constantine translated
by McGiffert. 1890.
Jerome: Works.
Augustine: Works.
Munro: Source Book of Roman History. 1904.
Greenidge and Clay: Sources for Roman History B.C. 133-70. 1903.
Gwatkin: Selections from Early Christian Writers. 1893.
PERIODS OF ROMAN HISTORY--
Ihne: Early Rome. 1893.
Allcroft and Mason: Struggle for Empire. 1893
Church: Carthage. 1886.
Smith: Carthage and the Carthaginians. 1890.
Smith: Rome and Carthage. 1891.
Arnold: Second Punic War. 1849.
Dodge: Life of Hannibal. 1891.
Morris: Hannibal. 1897.
How: Hannibal and the Great War between Rome and Carthage. 1899.
Allcroft and Mason: Rome under the Oligarchs. 1893.
Beesly: Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla. 1893.
Allcroft and Mason: Decline of the Oligarchy. 1893.
Oman: Seven Roman Statesmen. 1902.
Beesly: Catiline, Clodius, and Tiberius. 1898.
Strachan-Davidson: Cicero. 1894.
Forsyth: Life of Cicero. 1877.
Boissier: Cicero and His Friends. 1897.
Froude: Caesar. 1879.
Dodge: Caesar. 1892.
Fowler: Caesar. 1892.
Merivale: The Roman Triumvirates. 1877.
Holmes: Caesar's Conquest of Gaul. 1899.
Mahaffy: Greek World under Roman Sway. 1890.
Bossier: Roman Africa. 1899.
Bossier: Rome and Pompeii. 1896.
Hall: The Romans on the Riviera and the Rhone. 1898.
Bury: (Students') Roman Empire. 1893.
Capes: Early Roman Empire. 1886.
Mommsen: Provinces of the Roman Empire. 1887.
Firth: Augustus Caesar. 1903.
Shuckburgh: Augustus. 1903.
Tarver: Tiberius the Tyrant. 1902.
Dill: Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius. 1904.
Gregorovius: The Emperor Hadrian. 1898.
Bryant: Reign of Antoninus. 1896.
Capes: Age of the Antonines. 1887.
Watson: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. 1884.
Firth: Constantine the Great. 1905.
Negri: Julian the Apostate. 1905.
Gardner: Julian. 1895.
Glover: Life and Letters in the Fourth Century. 1901.
Dill: Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire. 1899.
Kingsley: Roman and Teuton. 1889.
Hodgkin: Dynasty of Theodosius. 1889.
Villari: Barbarian Invasions of Italy. 1902.
Hodgkin: Italy and Her Invaders, 1892-9.
Sheppard: Fall of Rome. 1861.
Bury: Later Roman Empire. 1889.
Oman: Byzantine Empire. 1892.
ROMAN ANTIQUITIES--
Ramsay-Lanciani: Manual of Roman Antiquities. 1895.
Smith: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Murray. 1890-1.
Sayffert: Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, edited by Nettleship
and Sandys. 1895.
Schreiber: Atlas of Classical Antiquities. 1895.
ROMAN POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT--
Fowler: City-State of the Greeks and Romans. 1895.
Taylor: Constitutional and Political History of Rome. 1899.
Greenidge: Roman Public Life. 1901.
Abbott: Roman Political Institutions. 1901.
Arnold: Roman Provincial Administration. 1879.
Mommsen: Provinces of the Roman Empire. 1887.
Seely: Roman Imperialism. 1871.
SOCIAL LIFE OF THE ROMANS--
Guhl and Koner: Life of the Greeks and Romans. 1889.
Church: Roman Life in the Days of Cicero. 1883.
Fowler: Roman Festivals. 1899.
Ingram: History of Slavery. 1895.
Rydberg: Roman Days. 1879.
Thomas: Roman Life under the Caesars. 1899.
Johnston: Private Life of the Romans. 1903.
Inge: Society in Rome under the Caesars. 1888.
Pellison: Roman Life in Pliny's Time. 1896.
Lecky: History of European Morals. 1869.
ROMAN LITERATURE--
Mackail: Latin Literature. 1898.
Cruttwell: History of Roman Literature. 1878.
Simcox: History of Latin Literature. 1883.
Teuffel-Schwabe: History of Roman Literature. 1891.
Tyrrell: Latin Poetry. 1895.
Sellar: Roman Poets of the Republic. 1881.
Sellar: Roman Poets of the Augustan Age. 1877.
ROMAN ART--
Reber: History of Ancient Art. 1882.
Burn: Roman Literature in Relation to Roman Art. 1890.
Wickoff: Roman Art. 1900.
Falke: Greece and Rome: Their Life and Art. 1885.
See under Greece for other histories of art.
ROMAN LAW--
Hadley: Introduction to Roman Law. 1876.
Morey: Outlines of Roman Law. 1893.
Muirhead: Historical Introduction to the Private Law of Rome. 1899.
Howe: Studies in the Civil Law. 1896.
ROMAN ARCHAEOLOGY--
Lanciani: Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries. 1888.
Lanciani: Pagan and Christian Rome. 1896.
Lanciani: Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome, 1897.
Lanciani: Destruction of Ancient Rome. 1899.
Mau: Pompeii, translated by Kelsey. 1899.
Plainer: Topography and Monuments of Ancient Rome. 1904.
Lovell: Stories in Stone upon the Roman Forum. 1902.
Burton-Brown: Recent Excavations in the Roman Forum. 1905.
CHRISTIANITY--
General Church Histories:
Moeller: History of the Christian Church. 1898-1900.
Gieseler: Church History. 1857-79.
Neander: History of the Christian Religion and Church. 1853-4.
Schaff: History of the Christian Church. 1884-92.
Alzog: Manual of Universal Church History. 1874-8.
Kurtz: Church History. 1860.
Milman: History of Christianity.
Milman: Latin Christianity. 1881.
Allen: Outline of Christian History. 1886.
Allen: Christian Institutions. 1897.
Fisher: History of the Christian Church. 1887.
The Early Church:
Pressense: Early Years of Christianity. 1873.
Fisher: Beginnings of Christianity. 1877.
Carr: Church and the Roman Empire. 1902.
Spence: Early Christianity and Paganism. 1902.
Ramsay: Church in the Roman Empire before 170. 1893.
Gregg: Decian Persecution. 1898.
Healy: The Valerian Persecution. 1905.
Mason: Persecution of Diocletian. 1876.
Renan: Influence of the Institutions, Thought, and Culture of Rome
on Christianity. 1898.
Hardy: Studies in Roman History. 1906.
Uhlhorn: Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism. 1879.
Newman: Arians of the Fourth Century. 1888.
Gwatkin: Arian Controversy 1889.
Cutts: St. Augustine. 1881.
Stanley: Eastern Church. 1884.
Smith-Wace: Dictionary of Christian Biography. 1877-87.
COPYRIGHT, 1906, BY
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
Printed by BALLANTYNE & CO. LIMITED
Tavistock Street, London
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