[1] The med. Lat. _jujuba_ is a much altered form of the Gr. [Greek:
zizuphon]
JU-JUTSU or JIU-JITSU (a Chino-Japanese term, meaning muscle-science),
the Japanese method of offence and defence without weapons in personal
encounter, upon which is founded the system of physical culture
universal in Japan. Some historians assert that it was founded by a
Japanese physician who learned its rudiments while studying in China,
but most writers maintain that ju-jutsu was in common use in Japan
centuries earlier, and that it was known in the 7th century B.C.
Originally it was an art practised solely by the nobility, and
particularly by the samurai who, possessing the right, denied to
commoners, of carrying swords, were thus enabled to show their
superiority over common people even when without weapons. It was a
secret art, jealously guarded from those not privileged to use it, until
the feudal system was abandoned in Japan, and now ju-jutsu is taught in
the schools, as well as in public and private gymnasia. In the army,
navy and police it receives particular attention. About the beginning of
the 20th century, masters of the art began to attract attention in
Europe and America, and schools were established in Great Britain and
the United States, as well as on the continent of Europe.
Ju-jutsu may be briefly defined as "an application of anatomical
knowledge to the purpose of offence and defence. It differs from
wrestling in that it does not depend upon muscular strength. It differs
from the other forms of attack in that it uses no weapon. Its feat
consists in clutching or striking such part of an enemy's body as will
make him numb and incapable of resistance. Its object is not to kill,
but to incapacitate one for action for the time being" (Inazo Nitobe,
_Bushido: the Soul of Japan_).
Many writers translate the term ju-jutsu "to conquer by yielding" (Jap.
_ju_, pliant), and this phrase well expresses a salient characteristic
of the art, since the weight and strength of the opponent are employed
to his own undoing. When, for example, a big man rushes at a smaller
opponent, the smaller man, instead of seeking to oppose strength to
strength, falls backwards or sidewise, pulling his heavy adversary after
him and taking advantage of his loss of balance to gain some lock or
hold known to the science. This element of yielding in order to conquer
is thus referred to in Lafcadio Hearn's _Out of the East_: "In jiu-jitsu
there is a sort of counter for every twist, wrench, pull, push or bend:
only the jiu-jitsu expert does not oppose such movements. No; he yields
to them. But he does much more than that. He aids them with a wicked
sleight that causes the assailant to put out his own shoulder, to
fracture his own arm, or, in a desperate case, even to break his own
neck or back."
The knowledge of anatomy mentioned by Nitobe is acquired in order that
the combatant may know the weak parts of his adversary's body and attack
them. Several of these sensitive places, for instance the partially
exposed nerve in the elbow popularly known as the "funny-bone" and the
complex of nerves over the stomach called the solar plexus, are familiar
to the European, but the ju-jutsu expert is acquainted with many others
which, when compressed, struck, or pinched, cause temporary paralysis of
a more or less complete nature. Such places are the arm-pit, the ankle
and wrist bones, the tendon running downward from the ear, the "Adam's
apple," and the nerves of the upper arm. In serious fighting almost any
hold or attack is resorted to, and a broken or badly sprained limb is
the least that can befall the victim; but in the practice of the art as
a means of physical culture the knowledge of the different grips is
assumed on both sides, as well as the danger of resisting too long. For
this reason the combatant, when he feels himself on the point of being
disabled, is instructed to signal his acknowledgment of defeat by
striking the floor with hand or foot. The bout then ends and both
combatants rise and begin afresh. It will be seen that a victory in
ju-jutsu does not mean that the opponent shall be placed in some
particular position, as in wrestling, but in any position in which his
judgment or knowledge tells him that, unless he yields, he will suffer a
disabling injury. This difference existed between the wrestling and the
_pancratium_ of the Olympic games. In the _pancratium_ the fight went on
until one combatant acknowledged defeat, but, although many a man
allowed himself to be beaten into insensibility rather than suffer this
humiliation, it was nevertheless held to be a disgrace to kill an
opponent.
A modern bout at ju-jutsu usually begins by the combatants taking hold
with both hands upon the collars of each other's jackets or kimonos,
after which, upon the word to start being given, the manoeuvring for an
advantageous grip begins by pushes, pulls, jerks, falls, grips or other
movements. Once the wrist, ankle, neck, arm or leg of an assailant is
firmly grasped so that added force will dislocate it, there is nothing
for the seized man to do, in case he is still on his feet, but go to the
floor, often being thrown clean over his opponent's head. A fall of this
kind does not necessarily mean defeat, for the struggle proceeds upon
the floor, where indeed most of the combat takes place, and the ju-jutsu
expert receives a long training in the art of falling without injury.
Blows are delivered, not with the fist, but with the open hand, the
exterior edge of which is hardened by exercises.
The physical training necessary to produce expertness is the most
valuable feature of ju-jutsu. The system includes a light and nourishing
diet, plenty of sleep, deep-breathing exercises, an abundance of fresh
air and general moderation in habits, in addition to the actual
gymnastic exercises for the purpose of muscle-building and the
cultivation of agility of eye and mind as well as of body. It is
practised by both sexes in Japan.
Many attempts have been made in England and America to match ju-jutsu
experts against wrestlers, mostly of the "catch-as-catch can" school,
but these trials have, almost without exception, proved unsatisfactory,
since many of the most efficacious tricks of ju-jutsu, such as the
strangle holds and twists of wrists and ankles, are accounted foul in
wrestling. Nevertheless the Japanese athletes, even when obliged to
forgo these, have usually proved more than a match for European
wrestlers of their own weight.
See H. Irving Hancock's _Japanese Physical Training_ (1904); _Physical
Training for Women by Japanese Methods_ (1904); _The Complete Kano
Jiu-jitsu_ (_Jiudo_) (1905); M. Ohashi, _Japanese Physical Culture_
(1904); K. Saito, _Jiu-jitsu Tricks_ (1905).
JUJUY, a northern province of the Argentine Republic, bounded N. and
N.W. by Bolivia, N.E., E., S. and S.W. by Salta, and W. by the Los Andes
territory. Pop. (1895), 49,713; (1905, estimate), 55,450, including many
mestizos. Area, 18,977 sq. m., the greater part being mountainous. The
province is traversed from N. to S. by three distinct ranges belonging
to the great central Andean plateau: the Sierra de Santa Catalina, the
Sierra de Humahuaca, and the Sierras de Zenta and Santa Victoria. In the
S.E. angle of the province are the low, isolated ranges of Alumbre and
Santa Barbara. Between the more eastern of these ranges are valleys of
surpassing fertility, watered by the Rio Grande de Jujuy, a large
tributary of the Bermejo. The western part, however, is a high plateau
(parts of which are 11,500 ft. above sea-level), whose general
characteristics are those of the _puna_ regions farther west. The
surface of this high plateau is broken, semi-arid and desolate, having a
very scanty population and no important industry beyond the breeding of
a few goats and the fur-bearing chinchilla. There are two large saline
lagoons: Toro, or Pozuelos, in the N., and Casabindo, or Guayatayoc, in
the S. The climate is cool, dry and healthy, with violent tempests in
the summer season. (For a vivid description of this interesting region,
see F. O'Driscoll, "A Journey to the North of the Argentine Republic,"
_Geogr. Jour._ xxiv. 1904.) The agricultural productions of Jujuy
include sugar cane, wheat, Indian corn, alfalfa and grapes. The breeding
of cattle and mules for the Bolivian and Chilean markets is an old
industry. Coffee has been grown in the department of Ledesma, but only
to a limited extent. There are also valuable forest areas and
undeveloped mineral deposits. Large borax deposits are worked in the
northern part of the province, the output in 1901 having been 8000 tons.
The province is traversed from S. to N. by the Central Northern railway,
a national government line, which has been extended to the Bolivian
frontier. It passes through the capital and up the picturesque Humahuaca
valley, and promises, under capable management, to be an important
international line, affording an outlet for southern Bolivia. The
climate of the lower agricultural districts is tropical, and irrigation
is employed in some places in the long dry season.
The capital, Jujuy (estimated pop. 1905, 5000), is situated on the Rio
Grande at the lower end of the Humahuaca valley, 942 m. from Buenos
Aires by rail. It was founded in 1593 and is 4035 ft. above sea-level.
It has a mild, temperate climate and picturesque natural surroundings,
and is situated on the old route between Bolivia and Tucuman, but its
growth has been slow.
JUKES, JOSEPH BEETE (1811-1869), English geologist, was born at Summer
Hill, near Birmingham, on the 10th of October 1811. He took his degree
at Cambridge in 1836. He began the study of geology under Sedgwick, and
in 1839 was appointed geological surveyor of Newfoundland. He returned
to England at the end of 1840, and in 1842 sailed as naturalist on board
H.M.S. "Fly," despatched to survey Torres Strait, New Guinea, and the
east coast of Australia. Jukes landed in England again in June 1846, and
in August received an appointment on the geological survey of Great
Britain. The district to which he was first sent was North Wales. In
1847 he commenced the survey of the South Staffordshire coal-field and
continued this work during successive years after the close of
field-work in Wales. The results were published in his _Geology of the
South Staffordshire Coal-field_ (1853; 2nd ed. 1859), a work remarkable
for its accuracy and philosophic treatment. In 1850 he accepted the post
of local director of the geological survey of Ireland. The exhausting
nature of this work slowly but surely wore out even his robust
constitution and on the 29th of July 1869 he died. For many years he
lectured as professor of geology, first at the Royal Dublin Society's
Museum of Irish Industry, and afterwards at the Royal College of Science
in Dublin. He was an admirable teacher, and his _Student's Manual_ was
the favoured textbook of British students for many years. During his
residence in Ireland he wrote an article "On the Mode of Formation of
some of the River-valleys in the South of Ireland" (_Quarterly Journ.
Geol. Soc._ 1862), and in this now classic essay he first clearly
sketched the origin and development of rivers. In later years he devoted
much attention to the relations between the Devonian system and the
Carboniferous rocks and Old Red Sandstone.
Jukes wrote many papers that were printed in the London and Dublin
geological journals and other periodicals. He edited, and in great
measure wrote, forty-two memoirs explanatory of the maps of the south,
east and west of Ireland, and prepared a geological map of Ireland on
a scale of 8 m. to an inch. He was also the author of _Excursions in
and about Newfoundland_ (2 vols., 1842); _Narrative of the Surveying
Voyage of H. M. S. "Fly"_ (2 vols., 1847); _A Sketch of the Physical
Structure of Australia_ (1850); _Popular Physical Geology_ (1853);
_Student's Manual of Geology_ (1857; 2nd ed. 1862; a later edition was
revised by A. Geikie, 1872); the article "Geology" in the _Ency.
Brit._ 8th ed. (1858) and _School Manual of Geology_ (1863). See
_Letters, &c., of J. Beete Jukes, edited, with Connecting Memorial
Notes, by his Sister_ (C. A. Browne) (1871), to which is added a
chronological list of Jukes's writings.
JULIAN (FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS) (331-363), commonly called JULIAN THE
APOSTATE, Roman emperor, was born in Constantinople in 331,[1] the son
of Julius Constantius and his wife Basilina, and nephew of Constantine
the Great. He was thus a member of the dynasty under whose auspices
Christianity became the established religion of Rome. The name Flavius
he inherited from his paternal grandfather Constantius Chlorus; Julianus
came from his maternal grandfather; Claudius had been assumed by
Constantine's family in order to assert a connexion with Claudius
Gothicus.
Julian lost his mother not many months after he was born. He was only
six when his imperial uncle died; and one of his earliest memories must
have been the fearful massacre of his father and kinsfolk, in the
interest and more or less at the instigation of the sons of Constantine.
Only Julian and his elder half-brother Gallus were spared, Gallus being
too ill and Julian too young to excite the fear or justify the cruelty
of the murderers. Gallus was banished, but Julian was allowed to remain
in Constantinople, where he was carefully educated under the supervision
of the family eunuch Mardonius, and of Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia.
About 344 Gallus was recalled, and the two brothers were removed to
Macellum, a remote and lonely castle in Cappadocia. Julian was trained
to the profession of the Christian religion; but he became early
attracted to the old faith, or rather to the idealized amalgam of
paganism and philosophy which was current among his teachers, the
rhetoricians. Cut off from all sympathy with the reigning belief by the
terrible fate of his family, and with no prospect of a public career, he
turned with all the eagerness of an enthusiastic temperament to the
literary and philosophic studies of the time. The old Hellenic world had
an irresistible attraction for him. Love for its culture was in Julian's
mind intimately associated with loyalty to its religion.
In the meantime the course of events had left as sole autocrat of the
Roman Empire his cousin Constantius, who, feeling himself unequal to the
enormous task, called Julian's brother Gallus to a share of power, and
in March 351 appointed him Caesar. At the same time Julian was permitted
to return to Constantinople, where he studied grammar under Nicocles and
rhetoric under the Christian sophist Hecebolius. After a short stay in
the capital Julian was ordered to remove to Nicomedia, where he made the
acquaintance of some of the most eminent rhetoricians of the time, and
became confirmed in his secret devotion to the pagan faith. He promised
not to attend the lectures of Libanius, but bought and read them. But
his definite conversion to paganism was attributed to the neo-platonist
Maximus of Ephesus, who may have visited him at Nicomedia. The downfall
of Gallus (354), who had been appointed governor of the East, again
exposed Julian to the greatest danger. By his rash and headstrong
conduct Gallus had incurred the enmity of Constantius and the eunuchs,
his confidential ministers, and was put to death. Julian fell under a
like suspicion, and narrowly escaped the same fate. For some months he
was confined at Milan (_Mediolanum_) till at the intercession of the
empress Eusebia, who always felt kindly towards him, permission was
given him to retire to a small property in Bithynia. While he was on his
way, Constantius recalled him, but allowed--or rather ordered--him to
take up his residence at Athens. The few months he spent there
(July-October 355) were probably the happiest of his life.
The emperor Constantius and Julian were now the sole surviving male
members of the family of Constantine; and, as the emperor again felt
himself oppressed by the cares of government, there was no alternative
but to call Julian to his assistance. At the instance of the empress he
was summoned to Milan, where Constantius bestowed upon him the hand of
his sister Helena, together with the title of Caesar and the government
of Gaul.
A task of extreme difficulty awaited him beyond the Alps. During recent
troubles the Alamanni and other German tribes had crossed the Rhine;
they had burned many flourishing cities, and extended their ravages far
into the interior of Gaul. The internal government of the province had
also fallen into great confusion. In spite of his inexperience, Julian
quickly brought affairs into order. He completely overthrew the Alamanni
in the great battle of Strassburg (August 357). The Frankish tribes
which had settled on the western bank of the lower Rhine were reduced to
submission. In Gaul he rebuilt the cities which had been laid waste,
re-established the administration on a just and secure footing, and as
far as possible lightened the taxes, which weighed so heavily on the
poor provincials. Paris was the usual residence of Julian during his
government of Gaul, and his name has become inseparably associated with
the early history of the city.
Julian's reputation was now established. He was general of a victorious
army enthusiastically attached to him and governor of a province which
he had saved from ruin; but he had also become an object of fear and
jealousy at the imperial court. Constantius accordingly resolved to
weaken his power. A threatened invasion of the Persians was made an
excuse for withdrawing some of the best legions from the Gallic army.
Julian recognized the covert purpose of this, yet proceeded to fulfil
the commands of the emperor. A sudden movement of the legions themselves
decided otherwise. At Paris, on the night of the parting banquet, they
forced their way into Julian's tent, and, proclaiming him emperor,
offered him the alternative either of accepting the lofty title or of an
instant death. Julian accepted the empire, and sent an embassy with a
deferential message to Constantius. The message being contemptuously
disregarded, both sides prepared for a decisive struggle. After a march
of unexampled rapidity through the Black Forest and down the Danube,
Julian reached Sirmium, and was on the way to Constantinople, when he
received news of the death of Constantius, who had set out from Syria to
meet him, at Mopsucrene in Cilicia (Nov. 3, 361). Without further
trouble Julian found himself everywhere acknowledged the sole ruler of
the Roman Empire; it is even asserted that Constantius himself on his
death-bed had designated him his successor. Julian entered
Constantinople on the 11th of December 361.
Julian had already made a public avowal of paganism, of which he had
been a secret adherent from the age of twenty. It was no ordinary
profession, but the expression of a strong and even enthusiastic
conviction; the restoration of the pagan worship was to be the great aim
and controlling principle of his government. His reign was too short to
show what precise form the pagan revival might ultimately have taken,
how far his feelings might have become embittered by his conflict with
the Christian faith, whether persecution, violence and civil war might
not have taken the place of the moral suasion which was the method he
originally affected. He issued an edict of universal toleration; but in
many respects he used his imperial influence unfairly to advance the
work of restoration. In order to deprive the Christians of the
advantages of culture, and discredit them as an ignorant sect, he
forbade them to teach rhetoric. The symbols of paganism and of the
imperial dignity were so artfully interwoven on the standards of the
legions that they could not pay the usual homage to the emperor without
seeming to offer worship to the gods; and, when the soldiers came
forward to receive the customary donative, they were required to throw a
handful of incense on the altar. Without directly excluding Christians
from the high offices of state, he held that the worshippers of the gods
ought to have the preference. In short, though there was no direct
persecution, he exerted much more than a moral pressure to restore the
power and prestige of the old faith.
Having spent the winter of 361-362 at Constantinople, Julian proceeded
to Antioch to prepare for his great expedition against Persia. His stay
there was a curious episode in his life. It is doubtful whether his
pagan convictions or his ascetic life, after the fashion of an antique
philosopher, gave most offence to the so-called Christians of the
dissolute city. They soon grew heartily tired of each other, and Julian
took up his winter quarters at Tarsus, from which in early spring he
marched against Persia. At the head of a powerful and well-appointed
army he advanced through Mesopotamia and Assyria as far as Ctesiphon,
near which he crossed the Tigris, in face of a Persian army which he
defeated. Misled by the treacherous advice of a Persian nobleman, he
desisted from the siege, and set out to seek the main army of the enemy
under Shapur II. (q.v.). After a long, useless march he was forced to
retreat, and found himself enveloped by the whole Persian army, in a
waterless and desolate country, at the hottest season of the year. The
Romans repulsed the enemy in many an obstinate battle, but on the 26th
of June 363 Julian, who was ever in the front, was mortally wounded. The
same night he died in his tent. In the most authentic historian of his
reign, Ammianus Marcellinus, we find a noble speech, which he is said to
have addressed to his afflicted officers. Soon after his death the
rumour spread that the fatal wound had been inflicted by a Christian in
the Roman army. The well-known statement, first found in Theodoret (fl.
5th century), that Julian threw his blood towards heaven, exclaiming,
"Thou hast conquered, O Galilean!" is probably a development of the
account of his death in the poems of Ephraem Syrus.
From Julian's unique position as the last champion of a dying
polytheism, his character has always excited interest. Authors such as
Gregory of Nazianzus have heaped the fiercest anathemas upon him; but a
just and sympathetic criticism finds many noble qualities in his
character. In childhood and youth he had learned to regard Christianity
as a persecuting force. The only sympathetic friends he met were among
the pagan rhetoricians and philosophers; and he found a suitable outlet
for his restless and inquiring mind only in the studies of ancient
Greece. In this way he was attracted to the old paganism; but it was a
paganism idealized by the philosophy of the time.
In other respects Julian was no unworthy successor of the Antonines.
Though brought up in a studious and pedantic solitude, he was no sooner
called to the government of Gaul than he displayed all the energy, the
hardihood and the practical sagacity of an old Roman. In temperance,
self-control and zeal for the public good, as he understood it, he was
unsurpassed. To these Roman qualities he added the culture, literary
instincts and speculative curiosity of a Greek. One of the most
remarkable features of his public life was the perfect ease and mastery
with which he associated the cares of war and statesmanship with the
assiduous cultivation of literature and philosophy. Yet even his
devotion to culture was not free from pedantry and dilettantism. His
contemporaries observed in him a want of naturalness. He had not the
moral health or the composed and reticent manhood of a Roman, or the
spontaneity of a Greek. He was never at rest; in the rapid torrent of
his conversation he was apt to run himself out of breath; his manner was
jerky and spasmodic. He showed quite a deferential regard for the
sophists and rhetoricians of the time, and advanced them to high offices
of state; there was real cause for fear that he would introduce the
government of pedants in the Roman empire. Last of all, his love for the
old philosophy was sadly disfigured by his devotion to the old
superstitions. He was greatly given to divination; he was noted for the
number of his sacrificial victims. Wits applied to him the joke that had
been passed on Marcus Aurelius: "The white cattle to Marcus Caesar,
greeting. If you conquer, there is an end of us."
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The works of Julian, of which there are complete
editions by E. Spanheim (Leipzig, 1696) and F. C. Hertlein (Teubner
series, 1875-1876), consist of the following: (1) _Letters_, of which
more than eighty have been preserved under his name, although the
genuineness of several has been disputed. For his views on religious
toleration and his attitude towards Christians and Jews the most
important are 25-27, 51, 52, and the fragment in Hertlein, i. 371. The
letter of Gallus to Julian, warning him against reverting to
heathenism, is probably a Christian forgery. Six new letters were
discovered in 1884 by A. Papadopulos Kerameus in a monastery on the
island of Chalcis near Constantinople (see _Rheinisches Museum_,
xlii., 1887). Separate edition of the letters by L. H. Heyler (1828);
see also J. Bidez and F. Cumont, "Recherches sur la tradition MS. des
lettres de l'empereur Julian" in _Mémoires couronnés ... publiés par
l'Acad. royale de Belgique_, lvii. (1898) and F. Cumont, _Sur
l'authenticité de quelques lettres de Julien_ (1889). (2) _Orations_,
eight in number--two panegyrics on Constantius, one on the empress
Eusebia, two theosophical declamations on King Helios and the Mother
of the Gods, two essays on true and false cynicism, and a consolatory
address to himself on the departure of his friend Salustius to the
East. (3) _Caesares or Symposium_, a satirical composition after the
manner of Seneca's _Apocolocyntosis_, in which the deified Caesars
appear in succession at a banquet given in Olympus, to be censured for
their vices and crimes by old Silenus. (4) _Misopogon_ (the
beard-hater), written at Antioch, a satire on the licentiousness of
its inhabitants; while at the same time his own person and manner of
life are treated in a whimsical spirit. It also contains a charming
description of Lutetia (Paris). It owes its name to the ridicule
heaped upon his beard by the Antiocheans, who were in the habit of
shaving. (5) Five epigrams, two of which (_Anth. Pal._, ix. 365, 368)
are of some interest. (6) [Greek: Karà Christianôn] (_Adversus
Christianos_) in three books, an attack on Christianity written during
the Persian campaign, is lost. Theodosius II. ordered all copies of it
to be destroyed, and our knowledge of its contents is derived almost
entirely from the _Contra Julianum_ of Cyril, bishop of Alexandria,
written sixty years later (see _Juliani librorum contra Christianos
quae supersunt_, ed. C. J. Neumann 1880). _English Translations_:
Select works by J. Duncombe (1784) containing all except the first
seven orations (viii. and the fable from vii. are included): the
theosophical addresses to King Helios and the Mother of the Gods by
Thomas Taylor (1793) and C. W. King in Bohn's _Classical Library_
(1888); the public letters, by E. J. Chinnock (1901).
AUTHORITIES.--1. _Ancient_: (a) Pagan writers. Of these the most
trustworthy and impartial is the historian Ammianus Marcellinus (xv.
8-xxv.), a contemporary and in part an eye-witness of the events he
describes (other historians are Zosimus and Eutropius); the sophist
Libanius, who in speaking of his imperial friend shows himself
creditably free from exaggeration and servility; Eunapius (in his
lives of Maximus, Oribasius, the physician and friend of Julian, and
Prohaeresius) and Claudius Mamertinus, the panegyrist, are less
trustworthy. (b) Christian writers. Gregory of Nazianzus, the author
of two violent invectives against Julian; Rufinus; Socrates; Sozomen;
Theodoret; Philostorgius; the poems of Ephraem Syrus written in 363;
Zonaras; Cedrenus; and later Byzantine chronographers. The impression
which Julian produced on the Christians of the East is reflected in
two Syriac romances published by J. G. E. Hoffmann, _Julianos der
Abtrünnige_ (1880; see also Th. Nöldeke in _Zeitschrift der deutschen
morgenländischen Gesellschaft_ [1874], xxviii. 263).
2. _Modern._ For works before 1878 see R. Engelmann, _Scriptores
Graeci_ (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1880). Of later works the most
important are G. H. Rendall, _The Emperor Julian, Paganism and
Christianity_ (1879); Alice Gardner, _Julian, Philosopher and Emperor_
(1895); G. Negri, _Julian the Apostate_ (Eng. trans., 1905); E.
Müller, _Kaiser Flavius Claudius Julianus_ (1901); P. Allard, _Julien
l'apostat_ (1900-1903); G. Mau, _Die Religionsphilosophie Kaiser
Julians in seinen Reden auf König Helios und die Göttermutter_ (1907);
J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_ (1906), p. 356; W.
Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur_ (1898), § 603; J.
Geffcken, "Kaiser Julianus und die Streitschriften seiner Gegner," in
_Neue Jahrb. f. das klassische Altertum_ (1908), pp. 161-195. The
sketch by Gibbon (_Decline and Fall_, chs. xix., xxii.-xxiv.) and the
articles by J. Wordsworth in Smith's _Dictionary of Christian
Biography_ and A. Harnack in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie für
protestantische Theologie_ ix. (1901) are valuable, the last
especially for the bibliography. (T. K.; J. H. F.)