[1] The comte de Franqueville in his interesting work, _Le Système
judiciaire de la Grande Bretagne_, criticizes the use of the word
"supreme" as a designation of this court, inasmuch as its judgments
are subject to appeal to the House of Lords, but in the act of 1873
the appeal to the House of Lords was abolished. He is also severe on
the illogical use of the words "division" and "court" in many
different senses (i. 180-181).
JUDITH, THE BOOK OF, one of the apocryphal books of the Old Testament.
It takes its name from the heroine Judith ([Greek: Ioudith, Ioudêth],
i.e. [Hebrew: yehudit], Jewess), to whom the last nine of its sixteen
chapters relate. In the Septuagint and Vulgate it immediately precedes
Esther, and along with Tobit comes after Nehemiah; in the English
Apocrypha it is placed between Tobit and the apocryphal additions to
Esther.
_Argument._--In the twelfth year of his reign Nebuchadrezzar, who is
described as king of Assyria, having his capital in Nineveh, makes war
against Arphaxad, king of Media, and overcomes him in his seventeenth
year. He then despatches his chief general Holofernes to take vengeance
on the nations of the west who had withheld their assistance. This
expedition has already succeeded in its main objects when Holofernes
proceeds to attack Judaea. The children of Israel, who are described as
having newly returned from captivity, are apprehensive of a desecration
of their sanctuary, and resolve on resistance to the uttermost. The
inhabitants of Bethulia (Betylua) and Betomestham in particular (neither
place can be identified), directed by Joachim the high priest, guard the
mountain passes near Dothaim, and place themselves under God's
protection. Holofernes now inquires of the chiefs who are with him about
the Israelites, and is answered by Achior the leader of the Ammonites,
who enters upon a long historical narrative showing the Israelites to be
invincible except when they have offended God. For this Achior is
punished by being handed over to the Israelites, who lead him to the
governor of Bethulia. Next day the siege begins, and after forty days
the famished inhabitants urge the governor Ozias to surrender, which he
consents to do unless relieved in five days. Judith, a beautiful and
pious widow of the tribe of Simeon, now appears on the scene with a plan
of deliverance. Wearing her rich attire, and accompanied by her maid,
who carries a bag of provisions, she goes over to the hostile camp,
where she is at once conducted to the general, whose suspicions are
disarmed by the tales she invents. After four days Holofernes, smitten
with her charms, at the close of a sumptuous entertainment invites her
to remain within his tent over night. No sooner is he overcome with
sleep than Judith, seizing his sword, strikes off his head and gives it
to her maid; both now leave the camp (as they had previously been
accustomed to do, ostensibly for prayer) and return to Bethulia, where
the trophy is displayed amid great rejoicings and thanksgivings. Achior
now publicly professes Judaism, and at the instance of Judith the
Israelites make a sudden victorious onslaught on the enemy. Judith now
sings a song of praise, and all go up to Jerusalem to worship with
sacrifice and rejoicing. The book concludes with a brief notice of the
closing years of the heroine.
_Versions._--Judith was written originally in Hebrew. This is shown
not only by the numerous Hebraisms, but also by mistranslations of the
Greek translation, as in ii. 2, iii. 9, and other passages (see
Fritzsche and Ball _in loc._), despite the statement of Origen (_Ep.
ad Afric._ 13) that the book was not received by the Jews among their
apocryphal writings. In his preface to Judith, Jerome says that he
based his Latin version on the Chaldee, which the Jews reckoned among
their Hagiographa. Ball (_Speaker's Apocrypha_, i. 243) holds that the
Chaldee text used by Jerome was a free translation or adaptation of
the Hebrew. The book exists in two forms: the shorter, which is
preserved only in Hebrew (see under _Hebrew Midrashim_ below), is,
according to Scholz, Lipsius, Ball and Gaster, the older; the longer
form is that contained in the versions.
_Greek Version._--This is found in three recensions: (1) in A B,
[Hebrew: a]; (2) in codices 19, 108 (Lucian's text); (3) in codex 58,
the source of the old Latin and Syriac.
_Syriac and Latin Versions._--Two Syriac versions were made from the
Greek--the first, that of the Peshito; and the second, that of Paul of
Tella, the so-called Hexaplaric. The Old Latin was derived from the
Greek, as we have remarked above, and Jerome's from the Old Latin,
under the control of a Chaldee version.
_Later Hebrew Midrashim._--These are printed in Jellinek's _Bet
ha-Midrasch_, i. 130-131; ii. 12-22; and by Gaster in _Proceedings of
the Society of Biblical Archæology_ (1894), pp. 156-163.
_Date._--The book in its fuller form was most probably written in the
2nd century B.C. The writer places his romance two centuries earlier, in
the time of Ochus, as we may reasonably infer from the attack made by
Holofernes and Bagoas on Judaea; for Artaxerxes Ochus made an expedition
against Phoenicia and Egypt in 350 B.C., in which his chief generals
were Holofernes and Bagoas.
RECENT LITERATURE.--Ball, _Speaker's Apocrypha_ (1888), an excellent
piece of work; Scholz, _Das Buch Judith_ (1896); Löhr, _Apok. und
Pseud._ (1900), ii. 147-164; Porter in Hastings's _Dict. Bible_, ii.
822-824; Gaster, _Ency. Bib._, ii. 2642-2646. See Ball, pp. 260-261,
and Schürer _in loc._, for a full bibliography. (R. H. C.)
JUDSON, ADONIRAM (1788-1850), American missionary, was born at Malden,
Massachusetts, on the 9th of August 1788, the son of a Congregational
minister. He graduated at Brown University in 1807, was successively a
school teacher and an actor, completed a course at the Andover
Theological Seminary in September 1810, and was at once licensed to
preach as a Congregational clergyman. In the summer of 1810 he with
several of his fellows students at Andover had petitioned the general
association of ministers to be sent to Asiatic missionary fields. This
application resulted in the establishment of the American board of
commissioners for foreign missions, which sent Judson to England to
secure, if possible, the co-operation of the London Missionary Society.
His ship fell into the hands of a French privateer and he was for some
time a prisoner in France, but finally proceeded to London, where his
proposal was considered without anything being decided. He then returned
to America, where he found the board ready to act independently. His
appointment to Burma followed, and in 1812, accompanied by his wife, Ann
Hasseltine Judson (1789-1826), he went to Calcutta. On the voyage both
became advocates of baptism by immersion, and being thus cut off from
Congregationalism, they began independent work. In 1814 they began to
receive support from the American Baptist missionary union, which had
been founded with the primary object of keeping them in the field. After
a few months at Madras, they settled at Rangoon. There Judson mastered
Burmese, into which he translated part of the Gospels with his wife's
help. In 1824 he removed to Ava, where during the war between the East
India Company and Burma he was imprisoned for almost two years. After
peace had been brought about (largely, it is said, through his
exertions) Mrs Judson died. In 1827 Judson removed his headquarters to
Maulmain, where school buildings and a church were erected, and where in
1834 he married Sarah Hall Boardman (1803-1845). In 1833 he completed
his translation of the Bible; in succeeding years he compiled a Burmese
grammar, a Burmese dictionary, and a Pali dictionary. In 1845 his wife's
failing health decided Judson to return to America, but she died during
the voyage, and was buried at St Helena. In the United States Judson
married Emily Chubbuck (1817-1854), well-known as a poet and novelist
under the name of "Fanny Forrester," who was one of the earliest
advocates in America of the higher education of women. She returned with
him in 1846 to Burma, where the rest of his life was devoted largely to
the rewriting of his Burmese dictionary. He died at sea on the 12th of
April 1850, while on his way to Martinique, in search of health. Judson
was perhaps the greatest, as he was practically the first, of the many
missionaries sent from the United States into foreign fields; his
fervour, his devotion to duty, and his fortitude in the face of danger
mark him as the prototype of the American missionary.
The Judson Memorial, an institutional church, was erected on
Washington Square South, New York City, largely through the exertions
of his son, Rev. Edward Judson (b. 1844), who became its pastor and
director, and who prepared a life of Dr Judson (1883; new ed. 1898).
Another biography is by Francis Wayland (2 vols., 1854). See also
Robert T. Middleditch's _Life of Adoniram Judson, Burmah's Great
Missionary_ (New York, 1859). For the three Mrs. Judsons, see Knowles,
_Life of Ann Hasseltine Judson_ (1829); Emily C. Judson, _Life of
Sarah Hall Boardman Judson_ (1849); Asahel C. Kendrick, _Life and
Letters of Emily Chubbuck Judson_ (1861).
JUEL, JENS (1631-1700), Danish statesman, born on the 15th of July 1631,
began his diplomatic career in the suite of Count Christian Rantzau,
whom he accompanied to Vienna and Regensburg in 1652. In August 1657
Juel was accredited to the court of Poland, and though he failed to
prevent King John Casimir from negotiating separately with Sweden he was
made a privy councillor on his return home. But it was the
reconciliation of Juel's uncle Hannibal Sehested with King Frederick
III. which secured Juel's future. As Sehested's representative, he
concluded the peace of Copenhagen with Charles X., and after the Danish
revolution of 1660 was appointed Danish minister at Stockholm, where he
remained for eight years. Subsequently the chancellor Griffenfeldt, who
had become warmly attached to him, sent him in 1672, and again in 1674,
as ambassador extraordinary to Sweden, ostensibly to bring about a
closer union between the two northern kingdoms, but really to give time
to consolidate Griffenfeldt's far-reaching system of alliances. Juel
completely sympathized with Griffenfeldt's Scandinavian policy, which
aimed at weakening Sweden sufficiently to re-establish something like an
equilibrium between the two states. Like Griffenfeldt, Juel also feared,
above all things, a Swedo-Danish war. After the unlucky Seaman War of
1675-79, Juel was one of the Danish plenipotentiaries who negotiated the
peace of Lund. Even then he was for an alliance with Sweden "till we can
do better." This policy he consistently followed, and was largely
instrumental in bringing about the marriage of Charles XI. with
Christian V.'s daughter Ulrica Leonora. But for the death of the
like-minded Swedish statesman Johan Gyllenstjerna in June 1680, Juel's
"Scandinavian" policy might have succeeded, to the infinite advantage of
both kingdoms. He represented Denmark at the coronation of Charles XII.
(December 1697), when he concluded a new treaty of alliance with Sweden.
He died in 1700.
Juel, a man of very few words and a sworn enemy of phrase-making, was
perhaps the shrewdest and most cynical diplomatist of his day. His motto
was: "We should wish for what we can get." Throughout life he regarded
the political situation of Denmark with absolute pessimism. She was, he
often said, the cat's-paw of the Great Powers. While Griffenfeldt would
have obviated this danger by an elastic political system, adaptable to
all circumstances, Juel preferred seizing whatever he could get in
favourable conjunctures. In domestic affairs Juel was an adherent of
the mercantile system, and laboured vigorously for the industrial
development of Denmark and Norway. For an aristocrat of the old school
he was liberally inclined, but only favoured petty reforms, especially
in agriculture, while he regarded emancipation of the serfs as quite
impracticable. Juel made no secret of his preference for absolutism, and
was one of the few patricians who accepted the title of baron. He saw
some military service during the Scanian War, distinguishing himself at
the siege of Venersborg, and by his swift decision at the critical
moment materially contributing to his brother Niels's naval victory in
the Bay of Kjöge. To his great honour he remained faithful to
Griffenfeldt after his fall, enabled his daughter to marry handsomely,
and did his utmost, though in vain, to obtain the ex-chancellor's
release from his dungeon.
See Carl Frederik Bricka, _Dansk biografisk lex._, art. "Juel" (1887,
&c.); Adolf Ditlev Jörgensen, _P. Schumacher Griffenfeldt_
(1893-1894). (R. N. B.)
JUEL, NIELS (1629-1697), Danish admiral, brother of the preceding, was
born on the 8th of May 1629, at Christiania. He served his naval
apprenticeship under Van Tromp and De Ruyter, taking part in all the
chief engagements of the war of 1652-54 between England and Holland.
During a long indisposition at Amsterdam in 1655-1656 he acquired a
thorough knowledge of ship-building, and returned to Denmark in 1656 a
thoroughly equipped seaman. He served with distinction during the
Swedo-Danish wars of 1658-60 and took a prominent part in the defence of
Copenhagen against Charles X. During fifteen years of peace, Juel, as
admiral of the fleet, laboured assiduously to develop and improve the
Danish navy, though he bitterly resented the setting over his head in
1663 of Cort Adelaar on his return from the Turkish wars. In 1661 Juel
married Margrethe Ulfeldt. On the outbreak of the Scanian War he served
at first under Adelaar, but on the death of the latter in November 1675
he was appointed to the supreme command. He then won a European
reputation, and raised Danish sea-power to unprecedented eminence, by
the system of naval tactics, afterwards perfected by Nelson, which
consists in cutting off a part of the enemy's force and concentrating
the whole attack on it. He first employed this manoeuvre at the battle
of Jasmund off Rügen (May 25, 1676) when he broke through the enemy's
line in close column and cut off five of their ships, which, however,
nightfall prevented him from pursuing. Juel's operations were
considerably hampered at this period by the overbearing conduct of his
Dutch auxiliary, Philip Almonde, who falsely accused the Danish admiral
of cowardice. A few days after the battle of Jasmund, Cornelius Van
Tromp the younger, with 17 fresh Danish and Dutch ships of the line,
superseded Juel in the supreme command. Juel took a leading part in Van
Tromp's great victory off Öland (June 1, 1676), which enabled the Danes
to invade Scania unopposed. On the 1st of June 1677 Juel defeated the
Swedish admiral Sjöblad off Möen; on the 30th of June 1677 he won his
greatest victory, in the Bay of Kjöge, where, with 25 ships of the line
and 1267 guns, he routed the Swedish admiral Evert Horn with 36 ships of
the line and 1800 guns. For this great triumph, the just reward of
superior seamanship and strategy--at an early stage of the engagement
Juel's experienced eye told him that the wind in the course of the day
would shift from S.W. to W. and he took extraordinary risks
accordingly--he was made lieutenant admiral general and a privy
councillor. This victory, besides permanently crippling the Swedish
navy, gave the Danes a self-confidence which enabled them to keep their
Dutch allies in their proper place. In the following year Van Tromp,
whose high-handedness had become unbearable, was discharged by Christian
V., who gave the supreme command to Juel. In the spring of 1678 Juel put
to sea with 84 ships carrying 2400 cannon, but as the Swedes were no
longer strong enough to encounter such a formidable armament on the open
sea, his operations were limited to blockading the Swedish ports and
transporting troops to Rügen. After the peace of Lund Juel showed
himself an administrator and reformer of the first order, and under his
energetic supervision the Danish navy ultimately reached imposing
dimensions, especially after Juel became chief of the admiralty in
1683. Personally Juel was the noblest and most amiable of men, equally
beloved and respected by his sailors, simple, straightforward and
unpretentious in all his ways. During his latter years he was popularly
known in Copenhagen as "the good old knight." He died on the 8th of
April 1697.
See Garde, _Niels Juel_ (1842), and _Den dansk. norske Sömagts
Historie, 1535-1700_ (1861). (R. N. B.)
JUG, a vessel for holding liquid, usually with one handle and a lip,
made of earthenware, glass or metal. The origin of the word in this
sense is uncertain, but it is probably identical with a shortened form
of the feminine name Joan or Joanna; cf. the similar use of Jack and
Jill or Gill for a drinking-vessel or a liquor measure. It has also been
used as a common expression for a homely woman, a servant-girl, a
sweetheart, sometimes in a sense of disparagement. In slang, "jug" or
"stone-jug" is used to denote a prison; this may possibly be an
adaptation of Fr. _joug_, yoke, Lat. _jugum_. The word "jug" is probably
onomatopoeic when used to represent a particular note of the
nightingale's song, or applied locally to various small birds, as the
hedge-jug, &c.
The British Museum contains a remarkable bronze jug which was found at
Kumasi during the Ashanti Expedition of 1896. It dates from the reign of
Richard II., and is decorated in relief with the arms of England and the
badge of the king. It has a lid, spout and handle, which ends in a
quatrefoil. An inscription, on three raised bands round the body of the
vessel, modernized runs:--"He that will not spare when he may shall not
spend when he would. Deem the best in every doubt till the truth be
tried out." The _British Museum Guide to the Medieval Room_ contains an
illustration of this vessel.
A particular form of jug is the "ewer," the precursor of the ordinary
bedroom jug (an adaptation of O. Fr. _ewaire_, med. Lat. _aquaria_,
water-pitcher, from _aqua_, water). The ewer was a jug with a wide
spout, and was principally used at table for pouring water over the
hands after eating, a matter of some necessity before the introduction
of forks. Early ewers are sometimes mounted on three feet, and bear
inscriptions such as _Venez laver_. A basin of similar material and
design accompanied the ewer. In the 13th and 14th centuries a special
type of metal ewer takes the form of animals, men on horseback, &c.;
these are generally known as _aquamaniles_, from med. Lat. _aqua manile_
or _aqua manale_ (_aqua_, water, and _manare_, to trickle, pour, drip).
The British Museum contains several examples.
In the 18th and early 19th centuries were made the drinking-vessels of
pottery known as "Toby jugs," properly Toby Fillpots or Philpots. These
take the form of a stout old man, sometimes seated, with a
three-cornered hat, the corners of which act as spouts. Similar
drinking-vessels were also made representing characters popular at the
time, such as "Nelson jugs," &c.
JUGE, BOFFILLE DE (d. 1502), French-Italian adventurer and statesman,
belonged to the family of del Giudice, which came from Amalfi, and
followed the fortunes of the Angevin dynasty. When John of Anjou, duke
of Calabria, was conquered in Italy (1461) and fled to Provence,
Boffille followed him. He was given by Duke John and his father, King
René, the charge of upholding by force of arms their claims on
Catalonia. Louis XI., who had joined his troops to those of the princes
of Anjou, attached Boffille to his own person, made him his chamberlain
and conferred on him the vice-royalty of Roussillon and Cerdagne (1471),
together with certain important lordships, among others the countship of
Castres, confiscated from James of Armagnac, duke of Nemours (1476), and
the temporalities of the bishopric of Castres, confiscated from John of
Armagnac. He also entrusted him with diplomatic negotiations with
Flanders and England. In 1480 Boffille married Marie d'Albret, sister of
Alain the Great, thus confirming the feudal position which the king had
given him in the south. He was appointed as one of the judges in the
trial of René of Alençon, and showed such zeal in the discharge of his
functions that Louis XI. rewarded him by fresh gifts. However, the
bishop of Castres recovered his diocese (1483), and the heirs of the
duke of Nemours took legal proceedings for the recovery of the
countship of Castres. Boffille, with the object of escaping from his
enemies, applied for the command of the armies of the republic of
Venice. His application was refused, and he further lost the
vice-royalty of Roussillon (1491). His daughter Louise married against
his will a gentleman of no rank, and this led to terrible family
dissensions. In order to disinherit his own family, Boffille de Juge
gave up the countship of Castres to his brother-in-law, Alain d'Albret
(1494). He died in 1502.
See P. M. Perret, _Boffille de Juge, comte de Castres, et la
république de Venise_ (1891); F. Pasquier, _Inventaire des documents
concernant Boffille de Juge_ (1905). (M. P.*)
JUGGERNAUT, a corruption of Sans. JAGANNATHA, "Lord of the World," the
name under which the Hindu god Vishnu is worshipped at Puri in Orissa.
The legend runs that the sacred blue-stone image of Jagannatha was
worshipped in the solitude of the jungle by an outcast, a Savara
mountaineer, called Basu. The king of Malwa, Indradyumna, had despatched
Brahmans to all quarters of the peninsula, and at last discovered Basu.
Thereafter the image was taken to Puri, and a temple, begun in 1174, was
completed fourteen years later at a cost of upwards of half a million
sterling. The site had been associated for centuries before and after
the Christian era with Buddhism, and the famous Car festival is probably
based on the Tooth festival of the Buddhists, of which the Chinese
pilgrim Fa-Hien gives an account. The present temple is a pyramidal
building, 192 ft. high, crowned with the mystic wheel and flag of
Vishnu. Its inner enclosure, nearly 400 ft. by 300 ft., contains a
number of small temples and shrines. The main temple has four main
rooms--the hall of offerings, the dancing hall, the audience chamber,
and the shrine itself--the two latter being each 80 ft. square. The
three principal images are those of Vishnu, his brother and his sister,
grotesque wooden figures roughly hewn. Elaborate services are daily
celebrated all the year round, the images are dressed and redressed, and
four meals a day are served to them. The attendants on the god are
divided into 36 orders and 97 classes. Special servants are assigned the
tasks of putting the god to bed, of dressing and bathing him. The annual
rent-roll of the temple was put at £68,000 by Sir W. W. Hunter; but the
pilgrims' offerings, which form the bulk of the income, are quite
unknown and have been said to reach as much as £100,000 in one year.
Ranjit Singh bequeathed the Koh-i-nor to Jagannath. There are four chief
festivals, of which the famous Car festival is the most important.
The terrible stories of pilgrims crushed to death in the god's honour
have made the phrase "Car of Juggernaut" synonymous with the merciless
sacrifice of human lives, but these have been shown to be baseless
calumnies. The worship of Vishnu is innocent of all bloody rites, and
a drop of blood even accidentally spilt in the god's presence is held
to pollute the officiating priests, the people, and the consecrated
food. The Car festival takes place in June or July, and the feature of
its celebration is the drawing of the god from the temple to his
"country-house," a distance of less than a mile. The car is 45 ft. in
height and 35 ft. square, and is supported on 16 wheels of 7 ft. in
diameter. Vishnu's brother and sister have separate cars, slightly
smaller. To these cars ropes are attached, and thousands of eager
pilgrims vie with each other to have the honour of dragging the god.
Though the distance is so short the journey lasts several days, owing
to the deep sand in which the wheels sink. During the festival serious
accidents have often happened. Sir W. W. Hunter in the _Gazetteer of
India_ writes: "In a closely packed, eager throng of a hundred
thousand men and women under the blazing tropical sun, deaths must
occasionally occur. There have doubtless been instances of pilgrims
throwing themselves under the wheels in a frenzy of religious
excitement, but such instances have always been rare, and are now
unknown. The few suicides that did occur were, for the most part,
cases of diseased and miserable objects who took this means to put
themselves out of pain. The official returns now place this beyond
doubt. Nothing could be more opposed to the spirit of Vishnu-worship
than self-immolation. Accidental death within the temple renders the
whole place unclean. According to Chaitanya, the apostle of Jagannath,
the destruction of the least of God's creatures is a sin against the
Creator."
See also Sir W. W. Hunter's _Orissa_ (1872); and _District Gazetteer
of Puri_ (1908).
JUGGLER (Lat. _joculator_, jester), in the modern sense a performer of
sleight-of-hand tricks and dexterous feats of skill in tossing balls,
plates, knives, &c. The term is practically synonymous with conjurer
(see CONJURING). The _joculatores_ were the mimes of the middle ages
(see DRAMA); the French use of the word _jongleurs_ (an erroneous form
of _jougleur_) included the singers known as _trouvères_; and the
humbler English minstrels of the same type gradually passed into the
strolling jugglers, from whose exhibitions the term came to cover
loosely any acrobatic, pantomimic and sleight-of-hand performances. In
ancient Rome various names were given to what we call jugglers, e.g.
_ventilatores_ (knife-throwers), and _pilarii_ (ball-players).
JUGURTHA (Gr. [Greek: Iogorthas]), king of Numidia, an illegitimate son
of Mastanabal, and grandson of Massinissa. After his father's death he
was brought up by his uncle Micipsa together with his cousins Adherbal
and Hiempsal. Jugurtha grew up strong, handsome and intelligent, a
skilful rider, and an adept in warlike exercises. He inherited much of
Massinissa's political ability. Micipsa, naturally afraid of him, sent
him to Spain (134 B.C.) in command of a Numidian force, to serve under
P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus Minor. He became a favourite with Scipio
and the Roman nobles, some of whom put into his head the idea of making
himself sole king of Numidia, with the help of Roman money.
In 118 B.C. Micipsa died. By his will, Jugurtha was associated with
Adherbal and Hiempsal in the government of Numidia. Scipio had written
to Micipsa a strong letter of recommendation in favour of Jugurtha; and
to Scipio, accordingly, Micipsa entrusted the execution of his will.
None the less, his testamentary arrangements utterly failed. The princes
soon quarrelled, and Jugurtha claimed the entire kingdom. Hiempsal he
contrived to have assassinated; Adherbal he quickly drove out of
Numidia. He then sent envoys to Rome to defend his usurpation on the
ground that he was the injured party. The senate decided that Numidia
was to be divided, and gave the western, the richer and more populous
half, to Jugurtha, while the sands and deserts of the eastern half were
left to Adherbal. Jugurtha's envoys appear to have found several of the
Roman nobles and senators accessible to bribery. Having secured the best
of the bargain, Jugurtha at once began to provoke Adherbal to a war of
self-defence. He completely defeated him near the modern Philippeville,
and Adherbal sought safety in the fortress of Cirta (Constantine). Here
he was besieged by Jugurtha, who, notwithstanding the interposition of a
Roman embassy, forced the place to capitulate, and treacherously
massacred all the inhabitants, among them his cousin Adherbal and a
number of Italian merchants resident in the town. There was great wrath
at Rome and throughout Italy; and the senate, a majority of which still
clung to Jugurtha, were persuaded in the same year (111) to declare war.
An army was despatched to Africa under the consul L. Calpurnius Bestia,
several of the Numidian towns voluntarily surrendered, and Bocchus, the
king of Mauretania, and Jugurtha's father-in-law, offered the Romans his
alliance. Jugurtha was alarmed, but having at his command the
accumulated treasures of Massinissa, he was successful in arranging with
the Roman general a peace which left him in possession of the whole of
Numidia. When the facts were known at Rome, the tribune Memmius insisted
that Jugurtha should appear in person and be questioned as to the
negotiations. Jugurtha appeared under a safe conduct, but he had
partisans, such as the tribune C. Baebius, who took care that his mouth
should be closed. Soon afterwards he caused his cousin Massiva, then
resident at Rome and a claimant to the throne of Numidia, to be
assassinated. The treaty was thereupon set aside, and Jugurtha was
ordered to quit Rome. On this occasion he uttered the well-known words,
"A city for sale, and doomed to perish as soon as it finds a purchaser!"
(Livy, _Epit._ 64). The war was renewed, and the consul Spurius Albinus
entrusted with the command. The Roman army in Africa was thoroughly
demoralized. An unsuccessful attempt was made on a fortified town,
Suthul, in which the royal treasures were deposited. The army was
surprised by the enemy in a night attack, and the camp was taken and
plundered. Every Roman was driven out of Numidia, and a disgraceful
peace was concluded (109).
By this time the feeling at Rome and in Italy against the corruption and
incapacity of the nobles had become so strong that a number of senators
were prosecuted and Bestia and Albinus sentenced to exile. The war was
now entrusted to Quintus Metellus, an able soldier and stern
disciplinarian, and from the year 109 to its close in 106 the contest
was carried on with credit to the Roman arms. Jugurtha was defeated on
the river Muthul, after an obstinate and skilful resistance. Once again,
however, he succeeded in surprising the Roman camp and forcing Metellus
into winter quarters. There were fresh negotiations, but Metellus
insisted on the surrender of the king's person, and this Jugurtha
refused. Numidia on the whole seemed disposed to assert its
independence, and Rome had before her the prospect of a troublesome
guerrilla war. Negotiations, reflecting little credit on the Romans,
were set on foot with Bocchus (q.v.) who for a time played fast and
loose with both parties. In 106, Marius was called on by the vote of the
Roman people to supersede Metellus, but it was through the perfidy of
Bocchus and the diplomacy of L. Cornelius Sulla, Marius's quaestor, that
the war was ended. Jugurtha fell into an ambush, and was conveyed a
prisoner to Rome. Two years afterwards, in 104, he figured with his two
sons in Marius's triumph, and in the subterranean prison beneath the
Capitol--"the bath of ice," as he called it--he was either strangled or
starved to death.
Though doubtless for a time regarded by his countrymen as their
deliverer from the yoke of Rome, Jugurtha mainly owes his historical
importance to the full and minute account of him which we have from the
hand of Sallust, himself afterwards governor of Numidia.
See A. H. J. Greenidge, _Hist. of Rome_ (1904); T. Mommsen, _Hist. of
Rome_, book iv. ch. v.; the chief ancient authorities (besides
Sallust) are Livy, _Epit._, lxii.-lxvii.; Plutarch, _Marius and
Sulla_; Velleius Paterculus, ii.; Diod. Sic., _Excerpta_, xxxiv.;
Florus, iii. 1. See also MARIUS, SULLA, NUMIDIA.
JUJU, a West African word held by some authorities to be a corruption of
Mandingo _gru-gru_, a charm. It is more generally believed to have been
adapted by the Mandingos directly from Fr. _joujou_, a toy or plaything.
The word, as used by Europeans on the Guinea coast, was originally
applied to the objects which it was supposed the negroes worshipped, and
was transferred from the objects themselves to the spirits or gods who
dwelt in them, and finally to the whole religious beliefs of the West
Africans. It is currently used in each of these senses, and more loosely
to indicate all the manners and customs of the negroes of the Guinea
coast, particularly the power of interdiction exercised in the name of
spirits (see FETISHISM and TABOO).
JUJUBE. Under this name the fruits of at least two species of _Zizyphus_
are usually described, namely, _Z. vulgaris_ and _Z. Jujuba_.[1] The
genus is a member of the natural order Anacardiaceae. The species are
small trees or shrubs, armed with sharp, straight, or hooked spines,
having alternate leaves, and fruits which are in most of the species
edible, and have an agreeable acid taste; this is especially the case
with those of the two species mentioned above.
_Z. vulgaris_ is a tree about 20 feet high, extensively cultivated in
many parts of Southern Europe, also in Western Asia, China and Japan. In
India it extends from the Punjab to the north-western frontier,
ascending in the Punjab Himalaya to a height of 6500 feet, and is found
both in the wild and cultivated state. The plant is grown almost
exclusively for the sake of its fruit, which both in size and shape
resembles a moderate-sized plum; at first the fruits are green, but as
they ripen they become of a reddish-brown colour on the outside and
yellow within. They ripen in September, when they are gathered and
preserved by storing in a dry place; after a time the pulp becomes much
softer and sweeter than when fresh. Jujube fruits when carefully dried
will keep for a long time, and retain their refreshing acid flavour, on
account of which they are much valued in the countries of the
Mediterranean region as a winter dessert fruit; and, besides, they are
nutritive and demulcent. At one time a decoction was prepared from them
and recommended in pectoral complaints. A kind of thick paste, known as
jujube paste, was also made of a composition of gum arabic and sugar
dissolved in a decoction of jujube fruit evaporated to the proper
consistency.
_Z. Jujuba_ is a tree averaging from 30 to 50 ft. high, found both wild
and cultivated in China, the Malay Archipelago, Ceylon, India, tropical
Africa and Australia. Many varieties are cultivated by the Chinese, who
distinguish them by the shape and size of their fruits, which are not
only much valued as dessert fruit in China, but are also occasionally
exported to England.
As seen in commerce jujube fruits are about the size of a small filbert,
having a reddish-brown, shining, somewhat wrinkled exterior, and a
yellow or gingerbread coloured pulp enclosing a hard elongated stone.
The fruits of _Zizyphus_ do not enter into the composition of the
lozenges now known as jujubes which are usually made of gum-arabic,
gelatin, &c., and variously flavoured.