[1] See, more fully, Harnack, _Hist. of Dogma_, v. 57.
JOVIUS, PAULUS, or PAOLO GIOVIO (1483-1552), Italian historian and
biographer, was born of an ancient and noble family at Como on the 19th
of April 1483. His father died when he was a child, and Giovio owed his
education to his brother Benedetto. After studying the humanities, he
applied himself to medicine and philosophy at his brother's request. He
was Pomponazzi's pupil at Padua; and afterwards he took a medical degree
in the university of Pavia. He exercised the medical profession in Rome,
but the attraction of literature proved irresistible for Giovio, and he
was bent upon becoming the historian of his age. He presented a portion
of his history to Leo X., who read the MS., and pronounced it superior
in elegance to anything since Livy. Thus encouraged, Giovio took up his
residence in Rome, and attached himself to Cardinal Giulio de' Medici,
the pope's nephew. The next pope, Adrian VI., gave him a canonry in
Como, on the condition, it is said, that Giovio should mention him with
honour in his history. This patronage from a pontiff who was averse from
the current tone of Italian humanism proves that Giovio at this period
passed for a man of sound learning and sober manners. After Adrian's
death, Giulio de' Medici became pope as Clement VII. and assigned him
chambers in the Vatican, with maintenance for servants befitting a
courtier of rank. In addition to other benefices, he finally, in 1528,
bestowed on him the bishopric of Nocera. Giovio had now become in a
special sense dependent on the Medici. He was employed by that family on
several missions--as when he accompanied Ippolito to Bologna on the
occasion of Charles V.'s coronation, and Caterina to Marseilles before
her marriage to the duke of Orleans. During the siege of Rome in 1527 he
attended Clement in his flight from the Vatican. While crossing the
bridge which connected the palace with the castle of S. Angelo, Giovio
threw his mantle over the pope's shoulders in order to disguise his
master.
In the sack he suffered a serious pecuniary and literary loss, if we
may credit his own statement. The story runs that he deposited the MS.
of his history, together with some silver, in a box at S. Maria Sopra
Minerva for safety. This box was discovered by two Spaniards, one of
whom secured the silver, while the other, named Herrera, knowing who
Giovio was, preferred to hold the MSS. for ransom. Herrera was so
careless, however, as to throw away the sheets he found in paper,
reserving only that portion of the work which was transcribed on
parchment. This he subsequently sold to Giovo in exchange for a
benifice at Cordova, which Clement VII. conceded to the Spaniard. Six
books of the history were lost in this transaction. Giovo contented
himself with indicating their substance in a summary. Perhaps he was
not unwilling that his work should resemble that of Livy, even in its
imperfection. But doubt rests upon the whole of this story. Apostolo
Zeno affirms that in the middle of the last century three of the
missing books turned up among family papers in the possession of Count
Giov. Batt. Giovio, who wrote a panegyric on his ancestor. It is
therefore not improbable that Giovio possessed his history intact, but
preferred to withhold from publication those portions which might have
involved him in difficulties with living persons of importance. The
omissions were afterwards made good by Curtio Marinello in the Italian
edition, published at Venice in 1581. But whether Marinello was the
author of these additions is not known.
After Clement's death Giovio found himself out of favour with the next
pope, Paul III. The failure of his career is usually ascribed to the
irregularity of the life he led in the literary society of Rome. We may
also remember that Paul had special causes for animosity against the
Medici, whose servant Giovio had been. Despairing of a cardinal's hat,
Giovio retired to his villa on the lake of Como, where he spent the
wealth he had acquired from donations and benefices in adorning his
villa with curiosities, antiquities and pictures, including a very
important collection of portraits of famous soldiers and men of letters,
now almost entirely dispersed. He died upon a visit to Florence in 1552.
Giovio's principal work was the _History of His Own Times_, from the
invasion of Charles VIII. to the year 1547. It was divided into two
parts, containing altogether forty-five books. Of these, books v.-xi.
of part i. were said by him to have been lost in the sack of Rome,
while books xix.-xxiv. of part ii., which should have embraced the
period from the death of Leo to the sack, were never written. Giovio
supplied the want of the latter six books by his lives of Leo, Adrian,
Alphonso I. of Ferrara, and several other personages of importance.
But he alleged that the history of that period was too painful to be
written in full. His first published work, printed in 1524 at Rome,
was a treatise _De piscibus romanis_. After his retirement to Como he
produced a valuable series of biographies, entitled _Elogia virorum
illustrium_. They commemorate men distinguished for letters and arms,
selected from all periods, and are said to have been written in
illustration of portraits collected by him for the museum of his villa
at Como. Besides these books, we may mention a biographical history of
the Visconti, lords of Milan; an essay on mottoes and badges; a
dissertation on the state of Turkey; a large collection of familiar
epistles; together with descriptions of Britain, Muscovy, the Lake of
Como and Giovio's own villa. The titles of these miscellanies will be
found in the bibliographical note appended to this article.
Giovio preferred Latin in the composition of his more important works.
Though contemporary with Machiavelli, Guicciardini and Varchi, he
adhered to humanistic usages, and cared more for the Latinity than for
the matter of his histories. His style is fluent and sonorous rather
than pointed or grave. Partly owing to the rhetorical defects inherent
in this choice of Latin, when Italian had gained the day, but more to
his own untrustworthy and shallow character, Giovio takes a lower rank
as historian than the bulk and prestige of his writings would seem to
warrant. He professed himself a flatterer and a lampooner, writing
fulsome eulogies on the princes who paid him well, while he ignored or
criticized those who proved less generous. The old story that he said he
kept a golden and an iron pen, to use according as people paid him,
condenses the truth in epigram. His private morals were of a dubious
character, and as a writer he had the faults of the elder humanists, in
combination with that literary cynicism which reached its height in
Aretino; and therefore his histories and biographical essays are not to
be used as authorities, without corroboration. Yet Giovio's works, taken
in their entirety and with proper reservation, have real value. To the
student of Italy they yield a lively picture of the manners and the
feeling of the times in which he lived, and in which he played no
obscure part. They abound in vivid sketches, telling anecdotes, fugitive
comments, which unite a certain charm of autobiographical romance with
the worldly wisdom of an experienced courtier. A flavour of personality
makes them not unpleasant reading. While we learn to despise and
mistrust the man in Giovio, we appreciate the author. It would not be
too far-fetched to describe him as a sort of 16th-century Horace
Walpole.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The sources of Giovio's biography are: his own works;
Tiraboschi's _History of Italian Literature_; Litta's _Genealogy of
Illustrious Italian Families_; and Giov. Batt. Giovio's _Uomini
illustri della diocesi Comasca_, Modena (1784). Cicogna, in his _Delle
inscrizioni Veneziane raccolta_ (Venice, 1830), gives a list of
Giovio's works, from which the following notices are extracted: 1.
Works in Latin: (1) _Pauli Jovii historiarum sui temporis, ab anno
1494 ad an. 1547_ (Florence 1550-1552), the same translated into
Italian by L. Domenichi, and first published at Florence (1551),
afterwards at Venice; (2) _Leonis X., Hadriani VI., Pompeii Columnae
Card., vitae_ (Florence, 1548), translated by Domenichi (Florence,
1549); (3) _Vitae XII. vicecomitum Mediolani principum_ (Paris, 1549),
translated by Domenichi (Venice, 1549); (4) _Vita Sfortiae clariss.
ducis_ (Rome, 1549), translated by Domenichi (Florence, 1549); (5)
_Vita Fr. Ferd. Davali_ (Florence, 1549), translated by Domenichi
(ibid. 1551); (6) _Vita magni Consalvi_ (ibid. 1549), translated by
Domenichi (ibid. 1550); (7) _Alfonsi Atestensi_, &c. (ibid. 1550),
Italian translation by Giov. Batt. Gelli (Florence, 1553); (8) _Elogia
virorum bellica virtute illustrium_ (ibid. 1551), translated by
Domenichi (ibid. 1554); (9) _Elogia clarorum virorum_, &c. (Venice,
1546) (these are biographies of men of letters), translated by
Hippolito Orio of Ferrara (Florence, 1552); (10) _Libellus de
legatione Basilii Magni principis Moscoviae_ (Rome, 1525); (11)
_Descriptio Larii Lacus_ (Venice, 1559); (12) _Descriptio Britanniae_,
&c. (Venice, 1548); (13) _De piscibus romanis_ (Rome, 1524); (14)
_Descriptiones quotquot extant regionum atque locorum_ (Basel, 1571).
2. Works in Italian: (1) _Dialogo delle imprese militari et amorose_
(Rome, 1555); (2) _Commentarî delle cose dei Turchi_ (Venice, 1541);
(3) _Lettere volgari_ (Venice, 1560). Some minor works and numerous
reprints of those cited have been omitted from this list; and it
should also be mentioned that some of the lives with additional
matter, are included in the _Vitae illustrium virorum_ (Basel, 1576).
(J. A. S.)
The best and most complete edition of Giovio's works is that of Basel
(1678). For his life see Giuseppe Sanesi, "Alcuni osservazioni e
notizie intorno a tre storici minori del cinquecento--Giovio; Nerli,
Segni" (in _Archivio Storico Italiano_, 5th series, vol. xxiii.); Eug.
Müntz, _Sul museo di ritratti composto da Paolo Giovio_ (ibid., vol.
xix.).
JOWETT, BENJAMIN (1817-1893), English scholar and theologian, master of
Balliol College, Oxford, was born in Camberwell on the 15th of April
1817. His father was one of a Yorkshire family who, for three
generations, had been supporters of the Evangelical movement in the
Church of England. His mother was a Langhorne, in some way related to
the poet and translator of Plutarch. At twelve the boy was placed on the
foundation of St Paul's School (then in St Paul's Churchyard), and in
his nineteenth year he obtained an open scholarship at Balliol. In 1838
he gained a fellowship, and graduated with first-class honours in 1839.
Brought up amongst pious Evangelicals, he came to Oxford at the height
of the Tractarian movement, and through the friendship of W. G. Ward was
drawn for a time in the direction of High Anglicanism; but a stronger
and more lasting influence was that of the Arnold school, represented by
A. P. Stanley. Jowett was thus led to concentrate his attention on
theology, and in the summers of 1845 and 1846, spent in Germany with
Stanley, he became an eager student of German criticism and speculation.
Amongst the writings of that period he was most impressed by those of F.
C. Baur. But he never ceased to exercise an independent judgment, and
his work on St Paul, which appeared in 1855, was the result of much
original reflection and inquiry. He was appointed to the Greek
professorship in the autumn of that year. He had been a tutor of Balliol
and a clergyman since 1842, and had devoted himself to the work of
tuition with unexampled zeal. His pupils became his friends for life. He
discerned their capabilities, studied their characters, and sought to
remedy their defects by frank and searching criticism. Like another
Socrates, he taught them to know themselves, repressing vanity,
encouraging the despondent, and attaching all alike by his unobtrusive
sympathy. This work gradually made a strong impression, and those who
cared for Oxford began to speak of him as "the great tutor." As early as
1839 Stanley had joined with Tait, the future archbishop, in advocating
certain university reforms. From 1846 onwards Jowett threw himself into
this movement, which in 1848 became general amongst the younger and more
thoughtful fellows, until it took effect in the commission of 1850 and
the act of 1854. Another educational reform, the opening of the Indian
civil service to competition, took place at the same time, and Jowett
was one of the commission. He had two brothers who served and died in
India, and he never ceased to take a deep and practical interest in
Indian affairs. A great disappointment, his repulse for the mastership
of Balliol, also in 1854, appears to have roused him into the completion
of his book on _The Epistles of St Paul_. This work, described by one of
his friends as "a miracle of boldness," is full of originality and
suggestiveness, but its publication awakened against him a storm of
theological prejudice, which followed him more or less through life.
Instead of yielding to this, he joined with Henry Bristowe Wilson and
Rowland Williams, who had been similarly attacked, in the production of
the volume known as _Essays and Reviews_. This appeared in 1860 and gave
rise to a strange outbreak of fanaticism. Jowett's loyalty to those who
were prosecuted on this account was no less characteristic than his
persistent silence while the augmentation of his salary as Greek
professor was withheld. This petty persecution was continued until 1865,
when E. A. Freeman and Charles Elton discovered by historical research
that a breach of the conditions of the professorship had occurred, and
Christ Church raised the endowment from £40 a year to £500. Meanwhile
Jowett's influence at Oxford had steadily increased. It culminated in
1864, when the country clergy, provoked by the final acquittal of the
essayists, had voted in convocation against the endowment of the Greek
chair. Jowett's pupils, who were now drawn from the university at large,
supported him with the enthusiasm which young men feel for the victim of
injustice. In the midst of other labours Jowett had been quietly
exerting his influence so as to conciliate all shades of liberal
opinion, and bring them to bear upon the abolition of the theological
test, which was still required for the M.A. and other degrees, and for
university and college offices. He spoke at an important meeting upon
this question in London on the 10th of June 1864, which laid the ground
for the University Tests Act of 1871. In connexion with the Greek
professorship Jowett had undertaken a work on Plato which grew into a
complete translation of the _Dialogues_, with introductory essays. At
this he laboured in vacation time for at least ten years. But his
interest in theology had not abated, and his thoughts found an outlet in
occasional preaching. The university pulpit, indeed, was closed to him,
but several congregations in London delighted in his sermons, and from
1866 until the year of his death he preached annually in Westminster
Abbey, where Stanley had become dean in 1863. Three volumes of selected
sermons have been published since his death. The years 1865-1870 were
occupied with assiduous labour. Amongst his pupils at Balliol were men
destined to high positions in the state, whose parents had thus shown
their confidence in the supposed heretic, and gratitude on this account
was added to other motives for his unsparing efforts in tuition. In
1870, by an arrangement which he attributed to his friend Robert Lowe,
afterwards Lord Sherbrooke (at that time a member of Gladstone's
ministry), Scott was promoted to the deanery of Rochester and Jowett was
elected to the vacant mastership by the fellows of Balliol. From the
vantage-ground of this long-coveted position the _Plato_ was published
in 1871. It had a great and well-deserved success. While scholars
criticized particular renderings (and there were many small errors to be
removed in subsequent editions), it was generally agreed that he had
succeeded in making Plato an English classic.
If ever there was a beneficent despotism, it was Jowett's rule as
master. Since 1866 his authority in Balliol had been really paramount,
and various reforms in college had been due to his initiative. The
opposing minority were now powerless, and the younger fellows who had
been his pupils were more inclined to follow him than others would have
been. There was no obstacle to the continued exercise of his firm and
reasonable will. He still knew the undergraduates individually, and
watched their progress with a vigilant eye. His influence in the
university was less assured. The pulpit of St Mary's was no longer
closed to him, but the success of Balliol in the schools gave rise to
jealousy in other colleges, and old prejudices did not suddenly give
way; while a new movement in favour of "the endowment of research" ran
counter to his immediate purposes. Meanwhile, the tutorships in other
colleges, and some of the headships also, were being filled with Balliol
men, and Jowett's former pupils were prominent in both houses of
parliament and at the bar. He continued the practice, which he had
commenced in 1848, of taking with him a small party of undergraduates in
vacation time, and working with them in one of his favourite haunts, at
Askrigg in Wensleydale, or Tummel Bridge, or later at West Malvern. The
new hall (1876), the organ there, entirely his gift (1885), and the
cricket ground (1889), remain as external monuments of the master's
activity. Neither business nor the many claims of friendship interrupted
literary work. The six or seven weeks of the long vacation, during which
he had pupils with him, were mainly employed in writing. The translation
of Aristotle's _Politics_, the revision of Plato, and, above all, the
translation of Thucydides many times revised, occupied several years.
The edition of the _Republic_, undertaken in 1856, remained unfinished,
but was continued with the help of Professor Lewis Campbell. Other
literary schemes of larger scope and deeper interest were long in
contemplation, but were not destined to take effect--an _Essay on the
Religions of the World, a Commentary on the Gospels_, a _Life of
Christ_, a volume on _Moral Ideas_. Such plans were frustrated, not only
by his practical avocations, but by his determination to finish what he
had begun, and the fastidious self-criticism which it took so long to
satisfy. The book on Morals might, however, have been written but for
the heavy burden of the vice-chancellorship, which he was induced to
accept in 1882, by the hope, only partially fulfilled, of securing many
improvements for the university. The vice-chancellor was _ex officio_ a
delegate of the press, where he hoped to effect much; and a plan for
draining the Thames Valley, which he had now the power of initiating,
was one on which his mind had dwelt for many years. The exhausting
labours of the vice-chancellorship were followed by an illness (1887);
and after this he relinquished the hope of producing any great original
writing. His literary industry was thenceforth confined to his
commentary on the _Republic_ of Plato, and some essays on Aristotle
which were to have formed a companion volume to the translation of the
_Politics_. The essays which should have accompanied the translation of
Thucydides were never written. Jowett, who never married, died on the
1st of October 1893. The funeral was one of the most impressive ever
seen in Oxford. The pall-bearers were seven heads of colleges and the
provost of Eton, all old pupils.
Theologian, tutor, university reformer, a great master of a college,
Jowett's best claim to the remembrance of succeeding generations was his
greatness as a moral teacher. Many of the most prominent Englishmen of
the day were his pupils and owed much of what they were to his precept
and example, his penetrative sympathy, his insistent criticism, and his
unwearying friendship. Seldom have ideal aims been so steadily pursued
with so clear a recognition of practical limitations. Jowett's
theological work was transitional, and yet has an element of permanence.
As has been said of another thinker, he was "one of those deeply
religious men who, when crude theological notions are being revised and
called in question seek to put new life into theology by wider and more
humane ideas." In earlier life he had been a zealous student of Kant and
Hegel, and to the end he never ceased to cultivate the philosophic
spirit; but he had little confidence in metaphysical systems, and sought
rather to translate philosophy into the wisdom of life. As a classical
scholar, his scorn of littlenesses sometimes led him into the neglect of
_minutiae_, but he had the higher merit of interpreting ideas. His place
in literature rests really on the essays in his Plato. When their merits
are fully recognized, it will be found that his worth, as a teacher of
his countrymen, extends far beyond his own generation.
See _The Life and Letters of Benjamin Jowett_, by E. A. Abbott and
Lewis Campbell (1897); _Benjamin Jowett_, by Lionel Tollemache (1895).
(L. C.)
JOYEUSE, a small town in the department of Ardèche, France, situated on
the Baume, a tributary of the Ardèche, is historically important as
having been the seat of a noble French family which derived its name
from it. The lordship of Joyeuse came, in the 13th century, into the
possession of the house of Châteauneuf-Randon, and was made into a
viscountship in 1432. Guillaume, viscount of Joyeuse, was bishop of
Alet, but afterwards left the church, and became a marshal of France; he
died in 1592. His eldest son Anne de Joyeuse (1561-1587), was one of the
favourites of Henry III. of France, who created him duke and peer
(1581), admiral of France (1582), and governor of Normandy (1586), and
married him to Marguerite de Lorraine-Vaudémont, younger sister of the
queen. He gained several successes against the Huguenots, but was
recalled by court intrigues at an inopportune moment, and when he
marched a second time against Henry of Navarre he was defeated and
killed at Coutras. Guillaume had three other sons: François de Joyeuse
(d. 1615), cardinal and archbishop of Narbonne, Toulouse and Rouen, who
brought about the reconciliation of Henry IV. with the pope; Henri,
count of Bouchage, and later duke of Joyeuse, who first entered the
army, then became a Capuchin under the name of Père Ange, left the
church and became a marshal of France, and finally re-entered the
church, dying in 1608; Antoine Scipion, grand prior of Toulouse in the
order of the knights of Malta, who was one of the leaders in the League,
and died in the retreat of Villemur (1592). Henriette Catherine de
Joyeuse, daughter of Henri, married in 1611 Charles of Lorraine, duke of
Guise, to whom she brought the duchy of Joyeuse. On the death of her
great-grandson, François Joseph de Lorraine, duke of Guise, in 1675,
without issue, the duchy of Joyeuse was declared extinct, but it was
revived in 1714, in favour of Louis de Melun, prince of Épinoy.
(M. P.*)
JOYEUSE ENTRÉE, a famous charter of liberty granted to Brabant by Duke
John III. in 1354. John summoned the representatives of the cities of
the duchy to Louvain to announce to them the marriage of his daughter
and heiress Jeanne of Brabant to Wenceslaus duke of Luxemburg, and he
offered them liberal concessions in order to secure their assent to the
change of dynasty. John III. died in 1355, and Wenceslaus and Jeanne on
the occasion of their state entry into Brussels solemnly swore to
observe all the provisions of the charter, which had been drawn up. From
the occasion on which it was first proclaimed this charter has since
been known in history as _La Joyeuse Entrée_. By this document the dukes
of Brabant undertook to maintain the integrity of the duchy, and not to
wage war, make treaties, or impose taxes without the consent of their
subjects, as represented by the municipalities. All members of the
duke's council were to be native-born Brabanters. This charter became
the model for other provinces and the bulwark of the liberties of the
Netherlands. Its provisions were modified from time to time, but
remained practically unchanged from the reign of Charles V. onwards. The
ill-advised attempt of the emperor Joseph II. in his reforming zeal to
abrogate the _Joyeuse Entrée_ caused a revolt in Brabant, before which
he had to yield.
See E. Poullet, _La Joyeuse entrée, ou constitution Brabançonne_
(1862).
JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS, a small group in the South Pacific Ocean,
between 33° and 34° S., 80° W., belonging to Chile and included in the
province of Valparaiso. The main island is called _Mas-a-Tierra_ (Span.
"more to land") to distinguish it from a smaller island, _Mas-a-Fuera_
("more to sea"), 100 m. farther west. Off the S.W. of Mas-a-Tierra lies
the islet of Santa Clara. The aspect of Mas-a-Tierra is beautiful; only
13 m. in length by 4 in width, it consists of a series of precipitous
rocks rudely piled into irregular blocks and pinnacles, and strongly
contrasting with a rich vegetation. The highest of these, 3225 ft., is
called, from its massive form, El Yunque (the anvil). The rocks are
volcanic. Cumberland Bay on the north side is the only fair anchorage,
and even there, from the great depth of water, there is some risk. A
wide valley collecting streams from several of the ravines on the north
side of the island opens into Cumberland Bay, and is partially enclosed
and cultivated. The inhabitants number only some twenty.
The flora and fauna of Juan Fernandez are in most respects Chilean.
There are few trees on the island, for most of the valuable indigenous
trees have been practically exterminated, such as the sandalwood,
which the earlier navigators found one of the most valuable products
of the island. Ferns are prominent among the flora, about one-third of
which consists of endemic species. There are no indigenous land
mammals. Pigs and goats, however, with cattle, horses, asses and dogs,
have been introduced, have multiplied, and in considerable numbers run
wild. Sea-elephants and fur-seals were formerly plentiful. Of birds,
a tyrant and a humming-bird (_Eustephanus fernandensis_) are peculiar
to the group, while another humming bird (_E. galerites_), a thrush,
and some birds of prey also occur in Chile. _E. fernandensis_ has the
peculiarity that the male is of a bright cinnamon colour, while the
female is green. Both sexes are green in _E. galerites_.
Juan Fernandez was discovered by a Spanish pilot of that name in 1563.
Fernandez obtained from the Spanish government a grant of the islands,
where he resided for some time, stocking them with goats and pigs. He
soon, however, appears to have abandoned his possessions, which were
afterwards for many years only visited occasionally by fishermen from
the coasts of Chile and Peru. In 1616 Jacob le Maire and Willem Cornelis
Schouten called at Juan Fernandez for water and fresh provisions. Pigs
and goats were then abundant on the islands. In February 1700 Dampier
called at Juan Fernandez and while there Captain Straddling of the
"Cinque Porte" galley quarrelled with his men, forty-two of whom
deserted but were afterwards taken on board by Dampier; five seamen,
however, remained on shore. Other parties had previously colonized the
islands but none had remained permanently. In October 1704 the "Cinque
Porte" returned and found two of these men, the others having been
apparently captured by the French. On this occasion Straddling
quarrelled with Alexander Selkirk (q.v.), who, at his own request,
became the island's most famous colonist, for his adventures are
commonly believed to have inspired Daniel Defoe's _Robinson Crusoe_.
Among later visits, that of Commodore Anson, in the "Centurion" (June
1741) led, on his return home, to a proposal to form an English
settlement on Juan Fernandez; but the Spaniards, hearing that the matter
had been mooted in England, gave orders to occupy the island, and it was
garrisoned accordingly in 1750. Philip Carteret first observed this
settlement in May 1767, and on account of the hostility of the Spaniards
preferred to put in at Masa-Fuera. After the establishment of the
independence of Chile at the beginning of the 19th century, Juan
Fernandez passed into the possession of that country. On more than one
occasion before 1840 Mas-a-Tierra was used as a state prison by the
Chilean government.
JUANGS (Patuas, literally "leaf-wearers"), a jungle tribe of Orissa,
India. They are found in only two of the tributary states, Dhenkanal and
Keonjhar, most of them in the latter. They are estimated to amount in
all to about 10,000. Their language belongs to the Munda family. They
have no traditions which connect them with any other race, and they
repudiate all connexion with the Hos or the Santals, declaring
themselves the aborigines. They say the headquarters of the tribe is the
Gonasika. In manners they are among the most primitive people of the
world, representing the Stone age in our own day. They do not till the
land, but live on the game they kill or on snakes and vermin. Their huts
measure about 6 ft. by 8 ft., with very low doorways. The interior is
divided into two compartments. In the first of these the father and all
the females of a family huddle together; the second is used as a
store-room. The boys have a separate hut at the entrance to the village,
which serves as a guest-house and general assembly place where the
musical instruments of the village are kept. Physically they are small
and weak-looking, of a reddish-brown colour, with flat faces, broad
noses with wide nostrils, large mouths and thick lips, the hair coarse
and frizzly. The women until recently wore nothing but girdles of
leaves, the men, a diminutive bandage of cloth. The Juangs declare that
the river goddess, emerging for the first time from the Gonasika rock,
surprised a party of naked Juangs dancing, and ordered them to wear
leaves, with the threat that they should die if they ever gave up the
custom. The Juangs' weapons are the bow and arrow and a primitive sling
made entirely of cord. Their religion is a vague belief in forest
spirits. They offer fowls to the sun when in trouble and to the earth
for a bountiful harvest. Polygamy is rare. They burn their dead and
throw the ashes into any running stream. The most sacred oaths a Juang
can take are those on an ant-hill or a tiger-skin.
See E. W. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (1872).
JUAN MANUEL, DON (1282-1349), infante of Castile, son of the infante Don
Manuel and Beatrix of Savoy, and grandson of St Ferdinand, was born at
Escalona on the 5th of May 1282. His father died in 1284, and the young
prince was educated at the court of his cousin, Sancho IV., with whom
his precocious ability made him a favourite. In 1294 he was appointed
_adelantado_ of Murcia and in his fourteenth year served against the
Moors at Granada. In 1304 he was entrusted by the queen-mother, Doña
Maria de Molina, to conduct political negotiations with James II. of
Aragon on behalf of her son, Ferdinand IV., then under age. His
diplomacy was successful and his marriage to James II.'s daughter,
Constantina, added to his prestige. On the death of Ferdinand IV. and of
the regents who governed in the name of Alphonso XI., Don Juan Manuel
acted as guardian of the king who was proclaimed of age in 1325. His
ambitious design of continuing to exercise the royal power was defeated
by Alphonso XI., who married the ex-regent's daughter Constanza, and
removed his father-in-law from the scene by nominating him _adelantado
mayor de la frontera_. Alphonso XI.'s repudiation of Constanza, whom he
imprisoned at Toro, drove Don Juan Manuel into opposition, and a long
period of civil war followed. On the death of his wife Constantina in
1327, Don Juan Manuel strengthened his position by marrying Doña Blanca
de la Cerda; he secured the support of Juan Nuñez, _alférez_ of Castile,
by arranging a marriage between him and Maria, daughter of Don Juan el
Tuerto; he won over Portugal by promising the hand of his daughter, the
ex-queen Constanza, to the infante of that kingdom, and he entered into
alliance with Mahomet III. of Granada. This formidable coalition
compelled Alphonso XI. to sue for terms, which he accepted in 1328
without any serious intention of complying with them; but he was
compelled to release Doña Constanza. War speedily broke out anew, and
lasted till 1331 when Alphonso XI. invited Juan Manuel and Juan Nuñez to
a banquet at Villahumbrales with the intention, it was believed, of
assassinating them; the plot failed, and Don Juan Manuel joined forces
with Peter IV. of Aragon. He was besieged by Alphonso XI. at
Garci-Nuñez, whence he escaped on the 30th of July 1336, fled into
exile, and kept the rebellion alive till 1338, when he made his peace
with the king. He proved his loyalty by serving in further expeditions
against the Moors of Granada and Africa, and died a tranquil death in
the first half of 1349.
Distinguished as an astute politician, Don Juan Manuel is an author of
the highest eminence, and, considering the circumstances of his stormy
life, his voluminousness is remarkable. The _Libro de los sabios_, a
treatise called _Engeños de Guerra_ and the _Libro de cantares_, a
collection of verses, were composed between 1320 and 1327; but they have
disappeared together with the _Libro de la caballería_ (written during
the winter of 1326), and the _Reglas como se debe trovar_, a metrical
treatise assigned to 1328-1334. Of his surviving writings, Juan Manuel's
_Crónica abreviada_ was compiled between 1319 and 1325, while the _Libro
de la caza_ must have been written between 1320 and 1329; and during
this period of nine years the _Crónica de España_, the _Crónica
complida_, and the _Tratado sobre las armas_ were produced. The _Libro
del caballero et del escudero_ was finished before the end of 1326; the
first book of the _Libro de los estados_ was finished on the 22nd of May
1330, while the second was begun five days later; the first book of _El
Conde Lucanor_ was written in 1328, the second in 1330, and the fourth
is dated 12th of June 1335. We are unable to assign to any precise date
the devout _Tractado_ on the Virgin, dedicated to the prior of the
monastery at Peñafiel, to which Don Juan Manuel bequeathed his
manuscripts; but it seems probable that the _Libro de los frailes
predicadores_ is slightly later than the _Libro de los estados_; that
the _Libro de los castigos_ (left unfinished, and therefore known by the
alternative title of _Libro infinido_) was written not later than 1333,
and that the treatise _De las maneras de amor_ was composed between 1334
and 1337.
The historical summaries, pious dissertations and miscellaneous writings
are of secondary interest. The _Libro del caballero et del escudero_ is
on another plane; it is no doubt suggested by Lull's _Libre del orde de
cavalleria_, but the points of resemblance have been exaggerated; the
morbid mysticism of Lull is rejected, and the carefully finished style
justifies the special pride which the author took in this performance.
The influence of Lull's Blanquerna is likewise visible in the _Libro de
los estados_; but there are marked divergences of substance which go to
prove Don Juan Manuel's acquaintance with some version (not yet
identified) of the Barlaam and Josaphat legend. Nothing is more striking
than the curious and varied erudition of the turbulent prince who weaves
his personal experiences with historical or legendary incidents, with
reminiscences of Aesop and Phaedrus, with the _Disciplina clericalis_,
with _Kalilah and Dimnah_, with countless Oriental traditions, and with
all the material of anecdotic literature which he embodies in the _Libro
de patronio_, best known by the title of _El Conde Lucanor_ (the name
Lucanor being taken from the prose _Tristan_). This work (also entitled
the _Libro de enxemplos_) was first printed by Gonzalo Argote de Molina
at Seville in 1575, and it revealed Don Juan Manuel as a master in the
art of prose composition, and as the predecessor of Boccaccio in the
province of romantic narrative. The _Cento novelle antiche_ are earlier
in date, but these anonymous tales, derived from popular stories
diffused throughout the world, lack the personal character which Don
Juan lends to all he touches. They are simple, unadorned variants of
folk-lore items; _El Conde Lucanor_ is essentially the production of a
conscious artist, deliberative and selective in his methods. Don Juan
Manuel has not Boccaccio's festive fancy nor his constructive skill; he
is too persistently didactic and concerned to point a moral; but he
excels in knowledge of human nature, in the faculty of ironical
presentation, in tolerant wisdom and in luminous conciseness. He
naturalizes the Eastern apologue in Spain, and by the laconic
picturesqueness of his expression imports a new quality into Spanish
prose which attains its full development in the hands of Juan de Valdés
and Cervantes. Some of his themes are utilized for dramatic purposes by
Lope de Vega in _La Pobreza estimada_, by Ruiz de Alarcón in _La Prueba
de las promesas_, by Calderón in _La Vida es sueño_, and by Cañizares in
_Don Juan de Espina en Milán_: there is an evident, though remote,
relation between the tale of the _mancebo que casó con una mujer muy
fuerte y muy brava_ and _The Taming of the Shrew_; and a more direct
connexion exists between some of Don Juan Manuel's _enxemplos_ and some
of Anderson's fairy tales.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Obras_, edited by P. de Gayangos in the _Biblioteca de
autores Españoles_, vol. li.; _El Conde Lucanor_ (Leipzig, 1900),
edited by H. Knust and A. Hirschfeld; _Libro de la caza_ (Halle,
1880), edited by G. Baist; _El Libro del caballero et del escudero_,
edited by S. Gräfenberg in _Romanische Forschungen_, vol. vi.; _La
crónica complida_, edited by G. Baist in _Romanische Forschungen_,
vol. vi.; G. Baist, _Alter und Textueberlieferung der Schriften Don
Juan Manuels_ (Halle, 1880); F. Hanssen, _Notas á la versificación de
D. Juan Manuel_ (Santiago de Chile, 1902). The _Conde Lucanor_ has
been translated by J. Eichendorff into German (1840), by A. Puibusque
into French (1854) and by J. York into English (1868). (J. F. K.)
JUAREZ, BENITO PABLO (1806-1872), president of Mexico, was born near
Ixtlan, in the state of Oajaca, Mexico, on the 21st of March 1806, of
full Indian blood. Early left in poverty by the death of his father, he
received from a charitable friar a good general education, and
afterwards the means of studying law. Beginning to practise in 1834,
Juarez speedily rose to professional distinction, and in the stormy
political life of his time took a prominent part as an exponent of
liberal views. In 1832 he sat in the state legislature; in 1846 he was
one of a legislative triumvirate for his native state and a deputy to
the republican congress, and from 1847 to 1852 he was governor of
Oajaca. Banished in 1853 by Santa Anna, he returned to Mexico in 1855,
and joined Alvarez, who, after Santa Anna's defeat, made him minister of
justice. Under Comonfort, who then succeeded Alvarez, Juarez was
governor of Oajaca (1855-57), and in 1857 chief justice and secretary of
the interior; and, when Comonfort was unconstitutionally replaced by
Zuloaga in 1858, the chief justice, in virtue of his office, claimed to
be legal president of the republic. It was not, however, till the
beginning of 1861 that he succeeded in finally defeating the
unconstitutional party and in being duly elected president by congress.
His decree of July 1861, suspending for two years all payments on public
debts of every kind, led to the landing in Mexico of English, Spanish
and French troops. The first two powers were soon induced to withdraw
their forces; but the French remained, declared war in 1862, placed
Maximilian upon the throne as emperor, and drove Juarez and his
adherents to the northern limits of the republic. Juarez maintained an
obstinate resistance, which resulted in final success. In 1867
Maximilian was taken at Querétaro, and shot; and in August Juarez was
once more elected president. His term of office was far from tranquil;
discontented generals stirred up ceaseless revolts and insurrections;
and, though he was re-elected in 1871, his popularity seemed to be on
the wane. He died of apoplexy in the city of Mexico on the 18th of July
1872. He was a statesman of integrity, ability and determination, whose
good qualities are too apt to be overlooked in consequence of his
connexion with the unhappy fate of Maximilian.
JUBA, the name of two kings of Numidia.
JUBA I. (1st century B.C.), son and successor of Hiempsal, king of
Numidia. During the civil wars at Rome he sided with Pompey, partly from
gratitude because he had reinstated his father on his throne (Appian,
_B.C._, i. 80), and partly from enmity to Caesar, who had insulted him
at Rome by pulling his beard (Suet., _Caesar_, 71). Further, C.
Scribonius Curio, Caesar's general in Africa, had openly proposed, 50
B.C., when tribune of the plebs, that Numidia should be sold to
colonists, and the king reduced to a private station. In 49 Juba
inflicted on the Caesarean army a crushing defeat, in which Curio was
slain (Vell. Pat. ii. 54; Caesar, _B.C._ ii. 40). Juba's attention was
distracted by a counter invasion of his territories by Bocchus the
younger and Sittius; but, finding that his lieutenant Sabura was able to
defend his interests, he rejoined the Pompeians with a large force, and
shared the defeat at Thapsus. Fleeing from the field with the Roman
general M. Petreius, he wandered about as a fugitive. At length, in
despair, Juba killed Petreius, and sought the aid of a slave in
despatching himself (46). Juba was a thorough savage; brave,
treacherous, insolent and cruel. (See NUMIDIA.)
JUBA II., son of the above. On the death of his father in 46 B.C. he was
carried to Rome to grace Caesar's triumph. He seems to have received a
good education under the care of Augustus who, in 29, after Mark
Antony's death, gave him the hand of Cleopatra Selene, daughter of
Antony and Cleopatra, and placed him on his father's throne. In 25,
however, he transferred him from Numidia to Mauretania, to which was
added a part of Gaetulia (see NUMIDIA). Juba seems to have reigned in
considerable prosperity, though in A.D. 6 the Gaetulians rose in a
revolt of sufficient importance to afford the surname Gaetulicus to
Cornelius Lentulus Cossus, the Roman general who helped to suppress it.
The date of Juba's death is by no means certain; it has been put between
A.D. 19 and 24 (Strabo, xvii. 828; Dio Cassius, li. 15; liii. 26;
Plutarch, _Ant._ 87; _Caesar_, 55). Juba, according to Pliny, who
constantly refers to him, is mainly memorable for his writings. He has
been called the African Varro.
He wrote many historical and geographical works, of which some seem to
have been voluminous and of considerable value on account of the
sources to which their author had access: (1) [Greek: Rhômaikê
historia]; (2) [Greek: Assyriaka]; (3) [Greek: Libyka]; (4) _De Arabia
sive De expeditione arabica_; (5) _Physiologa_; (6) _De Euphorbia
herba_; (7) [Greek: Peri opou]; (8) [Greek: Peri graphikês] ([Greek:
Peri zôgraphôn]); (9) [Greek: Theatrikê historia]; (10) [Greek:
Homoiotêtes]; (11) [Greek: Peri phthoras lexeôs]; (12) [Greek:
Epigramma].
Fragments and life in Müller, _Frag. Hist. Graec._, vol. iii.; see
also Sevin, _Mém. de l'Acad. des Inscriptions_, vol. iv.; Hullemann,
_De vita et scriptis Jubae_ (1846). For the denarii of Juba II. found
in 1908 at El Ksar on the coast of Morocco see Dieudonné in _Revue
Numism_. (1908), pp. 350 seq. They are interesting mainly as throwing
light on the chronology of the reign.
JUBA, or JUB, a river of East Africa, exceeding 1000 m. in length,
rising on the S.E. border of the Abyssinian highlands and flowing S.
across the Galla and Somali countries to the sea. It is formed by the
junction of three streams, all having their source in the mountain range
N.E. of Lake Rudolf which is the water-parting between the Nile basin
and the rivers flowing to the Indian Ocean.
Of the three headstreams, the Web, the Ganale and the Daua, the Ganale
(or Ganana) is the central river and the true upper course of the
Juba. It has two chief branches, the Black and the Great Ganale. The
last-named, the most remote source of the river, rises in 7° 30´ N.,
38° E. at an altitude of about 7500 ft., the crest of the mountains
reaching another 2500 ft. In its upper course it flows over a rocky
bed with a swift current and many rapids. The banks are clothed with
dense jungle and the hills beyond with thorn-bush. Lower down the
river has formed a narrow valley, 1500 to 2000 ft. below the general
level of the country. Leaving the higher mountains in about 5° 15´ N.,
40° E., the Ganale enters a large slightly undulating grass plain
which extends south of the valley of the Daua and occupies all the
country eastward to the junction of the two rivers. In this plain the
Ganale makes a semicircular sweep northward before resuming its
general S.-E. course. East of 42° E. in 4° 12´ N. it is joined by the
Web on the left or eastern bank, and about 10 m. lower down the Daua
enters on the right bank.
The Web rises in the mountain chain a little S. and E. of the sources
of the Ganale, and some 40 m. from its source passes, first, through a
cañon 500 ft. deep, and then through a series of remarkable
underground caves hollowed out of a quartz mountain and, with their
arches and white columns, presenting the appearance of a pillared
temple. The Daua (or Dawa) is formed by the mountain torrents which
have their rise S. and W. of the Ganale and is of similar character to
that river. It has few feeders and none of any size. The descent to
the open country is somewhat abrupt. In its middle course the Daua has
cut a deep narrow valley through the plain; lower down it bends N.E.
to its junction with the Ganale. The river is not deep and can be
forded in many places; the banks are fringed with thick bush and
dom-palms. At the junction of the Ganale and the Web the river is
swift-flowing and 85 yards across; just below the Daua confluence it
is 200 yds. wide, the altitude here--300 m. in a direct line from the
source of the Ganale--being only 590 ft.
Below the Daua the river, now known as the Juba, receives no tributary
of importance. It first flows in a valley bounded, especially towards
the west, by the escarpments of a high plateau, and containing the
towns of Lugh (in 3° 50´ N., the centre of active trade), Bardera, 387
m. above the mouth, and Saranli--the last two on opposite sides of the
stream, in 2° 20´ N., a crossing-place for caravans. Beyond 1° 45´ N.
the country becomes more level and the course of the river very
tortuous. On the west a series of small lakes and backwaters receives
water from the Juba during the rains. Just south of the equator
channels from the long, branching Lake Deshekwama or Hardinge, fed by
the Lakdera river, enter from the west, and in 0° 15´ S. the Juba
enters the sea across a dangerous bar, which has only one fathom of
water at high tide.
From its mouth to 20 m. above Bardera, where at 2° 35´ N. rapids occur,
the Juba is navigable by shallow-draught steamers, having a general
depth of from 4 to 12 ft., though shallower in places. Just above its
mouth it is a fine stream 250 yds. wide, with a current of 2½ knots.
Below the mountainous region of the headstreams the Juba and its
tributaries flow through a country generally arid away from the banks of
the streams. The soil is sandy, covered either with thorn-scrub or rank
grass, which in the rainy season affords herbage for the herds of
cattle, sheep and camels owned by the Boran Gallas and the Somali who
inhabit the district. But by the banks of the lower river the character
of the country changes. In this district, known as Gosha, are
considerable tracts of forest, and the level of flood water is higher
than much of the surrounding land. This low-lying fertile belt stretches
along the river for about 300 m., but is not more than a mile or two
wide. In the river valley maize, rice, cotton and other crops are
cultivated. From Gobwen, a trading settlement about 3 m. above the mouth
of the Juba, a road runs S.W. to the seaport of Kismayu, 10 m. distant.
The lower Juba was ascended in 1865 in a steamer by Baron Karl von der
Decken, who was murdered by Somali at Bardera, but the river system
remained otherwise almost unknown until after 1890. In 1891 a survey of
its lower course was executed by Captain F. G. Dundas of the British
navy, while in 1892-1893 its headstreams were explored by the Italian
officers, Captains Vittorio, Bottego and Grixoni, the former of whom
disproved the supposed connexion of the Omo (see RUDOLF, LAKE) with the
Juba system. It has since been further explored by Prince Eugenio
Ruspoli, by Bottego's second expedition (1895), by Donaldson Smith, A.
E. Butter, Captain P. Maud of the British army, and others. The river,
from its mouth to the confluence of the Daua and Ganale, forms the
frontier between the British East Africa protectorate and Italian
Somaliland; and from that point to about 4° 20´ N. the Daua is the
boundary between British and Abyssinian territory.
JUBBULPORE, or JABALPUR, a city, district, and division of British India
in the Central Provinces. The city is 616 m. N.E. of Bombay by rail, and
220 m. S.W. of Allahabad. Pop. (1901), 90,316. The numerous gorges in
the neighbouring rocks have been taken advantage of to surround the city
with a series of lakes, which, shaded by fine trees and bordered by
fantastic crags, add much beauty to the suburbs. The city itself is
modern, and is laid out in wide and regular streets. A streamlet
separates the civil station and cantonment from the native quarter; but,
though the climate is mild, a swampy hollow beneath renders the site
unhealthy for Europeans. Formerly the capital of the Saugor and Nerbudda
territories, Jubbulpore is now the headquarters of a brigade in the 5th
division of the southern army. It is also one of the most important
railway centres in India, being the junction of the Great Indian
Peninsula and the East Indian systems. It has a steam cotton-mill. The
government college educates for the science course of the Allahabad
University, and also contains law and engineering classes; there are
three aided high schools, a law class, an engineering class and normal
schools for male and female teachers. A native association, established
in 1869, supports an orphanage, with help from government. A zenana
mission manages 13 schools for girls. Waterworks were constructed in
1882.
The DISTRICT OF JUBBULPORE lies on the watershed between the Nerbudda
and the Son, but mostly within the valley of the former river, which
here runs through the famous gorge known as the Marble rocks, and falls
30 ft. over a rocky ledge (the _Dhuan dhar_, or "misty shoot"). Area,
3912 sq. m. It consists of a long narrow plain running north-east and
south-west, and shut in on all sides by highlands. This plain, which
forms an offshoot from the great valley of the Nerbudda, is covered in
its western and southern portions by a rich alluvial deposit of black
cotton-soil. At Jubbulpore city the soil is sandy, and water plentiful
near the surface. The north and east belong to the Ganges and Jumna
basins, the south and west to the Nerbudda basin. In 1901 the population
was 680,585, showing a decrease of 9% since 1891, due to the results of
famine. The principal crops are wheat, rice, pulse and oil-seeds. A good
deal of iron-smelting with charcoal is carried on in the forests,
manganese ore is found, and limestone is extensively quarried. The
district is traversed by the main railway from Bombay to Calcutta, and
by new branches of two other lines which meet at Katni junction.
Jubbulpore suffered severely in the famine of 1896-1897, the distress
being aggravated by immigration from the adjoining native states.
Fortunately the famine of 1900 was less severely felt.
The early history of Jubbulpore is unknown; but inscriptions record
the existence during the 11th and 12th centuries of a local line of
princes of that Haihai race which is closely connected with the
history of Gondwana. In the 16th century the Gond raja of Garha Mandla
extended his power over fifty-two districts, including the present
Jubbulpore. During the minority of his grandson, Asaf Khan, the
viceroy of Kara Manikpur, conquered the Garha principality and held it
at first as an independent chief. Eventually he submitted to the
emperor Akbar. The Delhi power, however, enjoyed little more than a
nominal supremacy; and the princes of Garha Mandla maintained a
practical independence until their subjugation by the Mahratta
governors of Saugor in 1781. In 1798 the peshwa granted the Nerbudda
valley to the Bhonsla princes of Nagpur, who continued to hold the
district until the British occupied it in 1818.
The DIVISION OF JUBBULPORE lies mainly among the Vindhyan and Satpura
hill systems. It comprises the five following districts: Jubbulpore,
Saugor, Damoh, Seoni and Mandla. Area, 18,950 sq. m.; pop. (1901),
2,081,499.
JUBÉ, the French architectural term (taken from the imperative of Lat.
_jubere_, to order) for the chancel or choir screen, which in England is
known as the rood-screen (see ROOD). Above the screen was a gallery or
loft, from which the words "Jube Domine benedicere" were spoken by the
deacon before the reading of the Gospel, and hence probably the name.
One of the finest _jubés_ in France is that of the church of the
Madeleine at Troyes, in rich flamboyant Gothic. A later example, of the
Renaissance period, c. 1600, is in the church of St Étienne du Mont,
Paris. In the Low Countries there are many fine examples in marble, of
which one of the most perfect from Bois-le-Duc is now in the Victoria
and Albert Museum.
JUBILEE (or JUBILE), YEAR OF, in the Bible, the name applied in the
Holiness section of the Priestly Code of the Hexateuch (Lev. xxv.) to
the observance of every 50th year, determined by the lapse of seven
seven-year periods as a year of perfect rest, when there was to be no
sowing, nor even gathering of the natural products of the field and the
vine. At the beginning of the jubilee-year the liberation of all
Israelitish slaves and the restoration of ancestral possessions was to
be proclaimed. As regards the meaning of the name "jubilee" (Heb.
_yobel_) modern scholars are agreed that it signifies "ram" or "ram's
horn." "Year of jubilee" would then mean the year that is inaugurated by
the blowing of the ram's horn (Lev. xxv. 9).
According to Lev. xxv. 8-12, at the completion of seven sabbaths of
years (i.e. 7 × 7 = 49 years) the trumpet of the jubilee is to be
sounded "throughout the land" on the 10th day of the seventh month
(Tisri 10), the great Day of Atonement. The 50th year thus announced is
to be "hallowed," i.e. liberty[1] is to be proclaimed everywhere to
everyone, and the people are to return "every man unto his possession
and unto his family." As in the sabbatical year, there is to be no
sowing, nor reaping that which grows of itself, nor gathering of grapes.
As regards _real property_ (Lev. xxv. 13-34) the law is that if any
Hebrew under pressure of necessity shall alienate his property he is to
get for it a sum of money reckoned according to the number of harvests
to be reaped between the date of alienation and the first jubilee-year:
should he or any relation desire to redeem the property before the
jubilee this can always be done be repaying the value of the harvests
between the redemption and the jubilee.
This legal enactment, though it is not found (nor anything like it) in
the earlier collections of laws, is evidently based on (or modified
from) an ancient custom which conferred on a near kinsman the right of
pre-emption as well as of buying back (cf. Jer. xxxii. 6 sqq.). The
tendency to impose checks upon the alienation of landed property was
exceptionally strong in Israel. The fundamental principle is that the
land is a sacred possession belonging to Yahweh. As such it is not to be
alienated from Yahweh's people, to whom it was originally assigned. In
Ezekiel's restoration programme "crown lands presented by the 'prince'
to any of his officials revert to the crown in the year of liberty (?
jubilee year)"; only to his sons may any portion of his inheritance be
alienated in perpetuity (Ezek. xlvi. 16-18; cf. Code of Hammurabi, § 38
seq.).
The same rule applies to dwelling-houses of unwalled villages; the case
is different, however, as regards dwelling-houses in walled cities.
These may be redeemed within a year after transfer, but if not redeemed
within that period they continue permanently in possession of the
purchaser, and this may well be an echo of ancient practice. An
exception to this last rule is made for the houses of the Levites in the
Levitical cities.
As regards _property in slaves_ (Lev. xxv. 35-55) the Hebrew whom
necessity has compelled to sell himself into the service of his brother
Hebrew is to be treated as a hired servant and sojourner, and to be
released absolutely at the jubilee; non-Hebrew bondmen, on the other
hand, are to be bondmen for ever. But the Hebrew who has sold himself to
a stranger or sojourner is entitled to freedom at the year of jubilee,
and further is at any time redeemable by any of his kindred--the
redemption price being regulated by the number of years to run between
the redemption and the jubilee, according to the ordinary wage of hired
servants. Such were the enactments of the Priestly Code--which, of
course, represents the latest legislation of the Pentateuch
(post-exilic). These enactments, in order to be understood rightly, must
be viewed in relation to the earlier similar provisions in connexion
with the sabbatical (seventh) year. "The foundations of Lev. xxv. are
laid in the ancient provisions of the Book of the Covenant (Exod. xxi. 2
seq.; xxiii. 10 seq.) and in Deuteronomy (xv.). The Book of the Covenant
enjoined that the land should lie fallow and Hebrew slaves be liberated
in the seventh year; Deuteronomy required in addition the remission of
debts" (Benzinger). Deuteronomy, it will be noticed, in accordance with
its humanitarian tendency, not only liberates the slave but remits the
debt. It is evident that these enactments proved impracticable in real
life (cf. Jer. xxxiv. 8 seq.), and so it became necessary in the later
legislation of P, represented in the present form of Lev. xxv., to
relegate them to the 50th year, the year of jubilee. The latter,
however, was a purely theoretic development of the Sabbath idea, which
could never have been reduced to practice (its actual observance would
have necessitated that for two consecutive years--the 49th and
50th--absolutely nothing could be reaped, while in the 51st only summer
fruits could be obtained, sowing being prohibited in the 50th year).
That in practice the enactments for the jubilee-year were disregarded is
evidenced by the fact that, according to the unanimous testimony of the
Talmudists and Rabbins, although the jubilee-years were "reckoned" they
were not observed.
The conjecture of Kuenen, supported by Wellhausen, that originally Lev.
xxv. 8 seq. had reference to the seventh year is a highly probable one.
This may be the case also with Ezek. xlvi. 16-18 (cf. Jer. xxxiv. 14). A
later Rabbinical device for evading the provisions of the law was the
_prosbul_ (ascribed to Hillel)--i.e. a condition made in the presence of
the judge securing to the creditor the right of demanding repayment at
any time, irrespective of the year of remission. Further enactments
regarding the jubilee are found in Lev. xxvii. 17-25 and Num. xxxvi. 4.
(W. R. S.; G. H. Bo.)