[1] A prefect of Jerusalem of this name is mentioned by Josephus,
_Bell. Jud._ ii. 20.
JOSS, in the pidgin-English of the Chinese seaports, the name given to
idols and deities. It is used adjectivally in regard to many things
connected with religious rites, such as "joss-house," a temple;
"joss-stick," a stick which when burned gives forth a fragrant odour and
is used as incense; "joss-paper," paper cut to resemble money (and
sometimes with prayers written upon it) burned in funeral and other
ceremonies. "Joss" is not a Chinese word, and is probably a corruption
of Port. _deos_, god, applied by Portuguese navigators in the 16th
century to the idols worshipped in the East Indies. The Dutch form is
_joosge_ (diminutive of _joos_), whence the Javanese _dejos_, and the
English _yos_, later _joss_. The word seems to have been carried to
China by English seamen from Batavia.
JOST, ISAAK MARKUS (1793-1860), Jewish historical writer, was born on
the 22nd of February 1793 at Bernburg, and studied at the universities
of Göttingen and Berlin. In Berlin he began to teach, and in 1835
received the appointment of upper master in the Jewish commercial school
(called the Philanthropin) at Frankfort-on-the-Main. Here he remained
until his death, on the 22nd of November 1860. The work by which he is
chiefly known is _Geschichte der Israeliten seit der Zeit der
Maccabäer_, in 9 vols. (1820-1829), which was afterwards supplemented by
_Neuere Geschichte der Israeliten von 1815-1845_ (1846-1847), and
_Geschichte des Judenthums und seiner Sekten_ (1857-1859). He also
published an abridgment under the title _Allgemeine Geschichte des
israelitischen Volkes_ (1831-1832), and an edition of the Mishna with a
German translation and notes (6 vols., 1832-1834). The _Israelitische
Annalen_ were edited by him from 1839 to 1841, and he contributed
extensively to periodicals.
See Zirndorf, _Isaak Markus Jost und seine Freunde_ (Cincinnati,
1886).
JOTUNHEIM, or JOTUN FJELDE, a mountainous region of southern Norway,
lying between Gudbrandsdal on the east and Jostedalsbrae and the head of
the Sogne fjord on the west. Within an area of about 950 sq. m. it
contains the highest mountain in the Scandinavian Peninsula--Galdhöpiggen
(8399 ft.)--and several others but little inferior. Such are Glittertind
or Glitretind (8380), and Memurutind (7966), which face Galdhöpiggen
across the northward-sloping Visdal; Knutshulstind (7812) and several
other peaks exceeding 7000 ft., to the south, between lakes Gjende and
Bygdin, and Skagastölstind (7723) in the west of the region, above the
Utladal, the chief summit of the magnificent Horunger. The upper parts of
the main valleys are of characteristic form, not ending in lofty
mountain-walls but comparatively low and level, and bearing lakes. The
name Jotunheim (giants' home) is a modern memorial of the
mountain-dwelling giants of Norse fable; the alternative name Jotun
Fjelde was the first bestowed on the region, when it was explored in 1820
by the geologist Balthasar Matthias Keilhau (1797-1858). In modern times
the region has attracted mountaineers and many visitors accustomed to
rough lodging and difficult travelling.
JOUBERT, BARTHÉLEMY CATHERINE (1769-1799), French general, the son of an
advocate, was born at Pont de Vaux (Ain) on the 14th of April 1769. In
1784 he ran away from school to enlist in the artillery, but was brought
back and sent to study law at Lyons and Dijon. In 1791 he joined the
volunteers of the Ain, and was elected by his comrades successively
corporal and sergeant. In January 1792 he became sub-lieutenant, and in
November lieutenant, having in the meantime made his first campaign with
the army of Italy. In 1793 he distinguished himself by the brilliant
defence of a redoubt at the Col di Tenda, with only thirty men against a
battalion of the enemy. Wounded and made prisoner in this affair,
Joubert was released on parole by the Austrian commander-in-chief,
Devins, soon afterwards. In 1794 he was again actively engaged, and in
1795 he rendered such conspicuous service as to be made general of
brigade. In the campaign of 1796 the young general commanded a brigade
under Augereau, and soon attracted the special attention of Bonaparte,
who caused him to be made a general of division in December, and
repeatedly selected him for the command of important detachments. Thus
he was in charge of the retaining force at the battle of Rivoli, and in
the campaign of 1799 (invasion of Austria) he commanded the detached
left wing of Bonaparte's army in Tirol, and fought his way through the
mountains to rejoin his chief in Styria. He subsequently held various
commands in Holland, on the Rhine and in Italy, where up to January 1799
he commanded in chief. Resigning the post in consequence of a dispute
with the civil authorities, Joubert returned to France and married
(June) Mlle de Montholon. But he was almost immediately summoned to the
field again. He took over the command in Italy from Moreau about the
middle of July, but he persuaded his predecessor to remain at the front
and was largely guided by his advice. The odds against the French troops
in the disastrous campaign of 1799 (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS) were
too heavy. Joubert and Moreau were quickly compelled to give battle by
their great antagonist Suvorov. The battle of Novi was disastrous to the
French arms, not merely because it was a defeat, but above all because
Joubert himself was amongst the first to fall (Aug. 15, 1799). Joubert
died before it could be shown whether his genius was of the first rank,
but he was at any rate marked out as a future great captain by the
greatest captain of all ages, and his countrymen intuitively associated
him with Hoche and Marceau as a great leader whose early death
disappointed their highest hopes. After the battle his remains were
brought to Toulon and buried in Fort La Malgue, and the revolutionary
government paid tribute to his memory by a ceremony of public mourning
(Sept. 16). A monument to Joubert at Bourg was razed by order of Louis
XVIII., but another memorial was afterwards erected at Pont de Vaux.
See Guilbert, _Notice sur la vie de B. C. Joubert_; Chevrier, _Le
Général Joubert d'après sa correspondance_ (2nd ed. 1884).
JOUBERT, JOSEPH (1754-1824), French moralist, was born at Montignac
(Corrèze) on the 6th of May 1754. After completing his studies at
Toulouse he spent some years there as a teacher. His delicate health
proved unequal to the task, and after two years spent at home in study
Joubert went to Paris at the beginning of 1778. He allied himself with
the chiefs of the philosophic party, especially with Diderot, of whom he
was in some sort a disciple, but his closest friendship was with the
abbé de Fontanes. In 1790 he was recalled to his native place to act as
_juge de paix_, and carried out the duties of his office with great
fidelity. He had made the acquaintance of Mme de Beaumont in a
Burgundian cottage where she had taken refuge from the Terror, and it
was under her inspiration that Joubert's genius was at its best. The
atmosphere of serenity and affection with which she surrounded him
seemed necessary to the development of what Sainte-Beuve calls his
"esprit ailé, ami du ciel et des hauteurs." Her death in 1803 was a
great blow to him, and his literary activity, never great, declined from
that time. In 1809, at the solicitation of Joseph de Bonald, he was made
an inspector-general of education, and his professional duties
practically absorbed his interests during the rest of his life. He died
on the 3rd of May 1824. His manuscripts were entrusted by his widow to
Chateaubriand, who published a selection of _Pensées_ from them in 1838
for private circulation. A more complete edition was published by
Joubert's nephew, Paul de Raynal, under the title _Pensées, essais,
maximes et correspondance_ (2 vols. 1842). A selection of letters
addressed to Joubert was published in 1883. Joubert constantly strove
after perfection, and the small quantity of his work was partly due to
his desire to find adequate and luminous expression for his
discriminating criticism of literature and morals.
If Joubert's readers in England are not numerous, he is well known at
second hand through the sympathetic essay devoted to him in Matthew
Arnold's _Essays in Criticism_ (1st series). See Sainte-Beuve,
_Causeries du lundi_, vol. i.; _Portraits littéraires_, vol. ii.; and
a notice by Paul de Raynal, prefixed to the edition of 1842.
JOUBERT, PETRUS JACOBUS (1834-1900), commandant-general of the South
African Republic from 1880 to 1900, was born at Cango, in the district
of Oudtshoorn, Cape Colony, on the 20th of January 1834, a descendant of
a French Huguenot who fled to South Africa soon after the revocation of
the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. Left an orphan at an early age,
Joubert migrated to the Transvaal, where he settled in the Wakkerstroom
district near Laing's Nek and the north-east angle of Natal. There he
not only farmed with great success, but turned his attention to the
study of the law. The esteem in which his shrewdness in both farming and
legal affairs was held led to his election to the Volksraad as member
for Wakkerstroom early in the sixties, Marthinus Pretorius being then in
his second term of office as president. In 1870 Joubert was again
elected, and the use to which he put his slender stock of legal
knowledge secured him the appointment of attorney-general of the
republic, while in 1875 he acted as president during the absence of T.
F. Burgers in Europe. During the first British annexation of the
Transvaal, Joubert earned for himself the reputation of a consistent
irreconcilable by refusing to hold office under the government, as Paul
Kruger and other prominent Boers were doing. Instead of accepting the
lucrative post offered him, he took a leading part in creating and
directing the agitation which led to the war of 1880-1881, eventually
becoming, as commandant-general of the Boer forces, a member of the
triumvirate that administered the provisional Boer government set up in
December 1880 at Heidelberg. He was in command of the Boer forces at
Laing's Nek, Ingogo, and Majuba Hill, subsequently conducting the
earlier peace negotiations that led to the conclusion of the Pretoria
Convention. In 1883 he was a candidate for the presidency of the
Transvaal, but received only 1171 votes as against 3431 cast for Kruger.
In 1893 he again opposed Kruger in the contest for the presidency,
standing as the representative of the comparatively progressive section
of the Boers, who wished in some measure to redress the grievances of
the Uitlander population which had grown up on the Rand. The poll
(though there is good reason for believing that the voting lists had
been manipulated by Kruger's agents) was declared to have resulted in
7911 votes being cast for Kruger and 7246 for Joubert. After a protest
Joubert acquiesced in Kruger's continued presidency. He stood again in
1898, but the Jameson raid had occurred meantime and the voting was
12,858 for Kruger and 2001 for Joubert. Joubert's position had then
become much weakened by accusations of treachery and of sympathy with
the Uitlander agitation. He took little part in the negotiations that
culminated in the ultimatum sent to Great Britain by Kruger in 1899, and
though he immediately assumed nominal command of the operations on the
outbreak of hostilities, he gave up to others the chief share in the
direction of the war, through his inability or neglect to impose upon
them his own will. His cautious nature, which had in early life gained
him the sobriquet of "Slim Piet," joined to a lack of determination and
assertiveness that characterized his whole career, led him to act mainly
on the defensive; and the strategically offensive movements of the Boer
forces, such as Elandslaagte and Willow Grange, appear to have been
neither planned nor executed by him. As the war went on, physical
weakness led to Joubert's virtual retirement, and, though two days
earlier he was still reported as being in supreme command, he died at
Pretoria from peritonitis on the 28th of March 1900. Sir George White,
the defender of Ladysmith, summed up Joubert's character when he called
him "a soldier and a gentleman, and a brave and honourable opponent."
JOUFFROY, JEAN (c. 1412-1473), French prelate and diplomatist, was born
at Luxeuil (Haute-Saône). After entering the Benedictine order and
teaching at the university of Paris from 1435 to 1438, he became almoner
to Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, who entrusted him with diplomatic
missions in France, Italy, Portugal and Castile. Jouffroy was appointed
abbot of Luxeuil (1451?) bishop of Arras (1453), and papal legate
(1459). At the French court his diplomatic duties brought him to the
notice of the dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.). Jouffroy entered Louis's
service, and obtained a cardinal's hat (1461), the bishopric of Albi
(1462), and the abbacy of St Denis (1464). On several occasions he was
sent to Rome to negotiate the abolition of the Pragmatic Sanction and to
defend the interests of the Angevins at Naples. Attached by King Louis
to the sieur de Beaujeu in the expedition against John V., count of
Armagnac, Jouffroy was accused of taking the town of Lectoure by
treachery, and of being a party to the murder of the count of Armagnac
(1473). He died at Reuilly the same year.
See C. Fierrille, _Le Cardinal Jean Jouffroy et son temps_ (1412-1473)
(Coutances, Paris, 1874).
JOUFFROY, THÉODORE SIMON (1706-1842), French philosopher, was born at
Pontets, near Mouthe, department of Doubs. In his tenth year, his
father, a tax-gatherer, sent him to an uncle at Pontarlier, under whom
he commenced his classical studies. At Dijon his compositions attracted
the attention of an inspector, who had him placed (1814) in the normal
school, Paris. He there came under the influence of Victor Cousin, and
in 1817 he was appointed assistant professor of philosophy at the normal
and Bourbon schools. Three years later, being thrown upon his own
resources, he began a course of lectures in his own house, and formed
literary connexions with _Le Courrier français_, _Le Globe_,
_L'Encyclopédie moderne_, and _La Revue européenne_. The variety of his
pursuits at this time carried him over the whole field of ancient and
modern literature. But he was chiefly attracted to the philosophical
system represented by Reid and Stewart. The application of "common
sense" to the problem of substance supplied a more satisfactory analytic
for him than the scepticism of Hume which reached him through a study of
Kant. He thus threw in his lot with the Scottish philosophy, and his
first dissertations are, in their leading position, adaptations from
Reid's _Inquiry_. In 1826 he wrote a preface to a translation of the
_Moral Philosophy_ of Stewart, demonstrating the possibility of a
scientific statement of the laws of consciousness; in 1828 he began a
translation of the works of Reid, and in his preface estimated the
influence of Scottish criticism upon philosophy, giving a biographical
account of the movement from Hutcheson onwards. Next year he was
returned to parlement by the _arrondissement_ of Pontarlier; but the
work of legislation was ill-suited to him. Yet he attended to his duties
conscientiously, and ultimately broke his health in their discharge. In
1833 he was appointed professor of Greek and Roman philosophy at the
college of France and a member of the Academy of Sciences; he then
published the _Mélanges philosophiques_ (4th ed. 1866; Eng. trans. G.
Ripley, Boston, 1835 and 1838), a collection of fugitive papers in
criticism and philosophy and history. In them is foreshadowed all that
he afterwards worked out in metaphysics, psychology, ethics and
aesthetics. He had already demonstrated in his prefaces the possibility
of a psychology apart from physiology, of the science of the phenomena
of consciousness distinct from the perceptions of sense. He now
classified the mental faculties, premising that they must not be
confounded with capacities or properties of mind. They were, according
to his analysis, personal will, primitive instincts, voluntary movement,
natural and artificial signs, sensibility and the faculties of
intellect; on this analytic he founded his scheme of the universe. In
1835 he published a _Cours de droit naturel_ (4th ed. 1866), which, for
precision of statement and logical coherence, is the most important of
his works. From the conception of a universal order in the universe he
reasons to a Supreme Being, who has created it and who has conferred
upon every man in harmony with it the aim of his existence, leading to
his highest good. Good, he says, is the fulfilment of man's destiny,
evil the thwarting of it. Every man being organized in a particular way
has, of necessity, an aim, the fulfilment of which is good; and he has
faculties for accomplishing it, directed by reason. The aim is good,
however, only when reason guides it for the benefit of the majority, but
that is not absolute good. When reason rises to the conception of
universal order, when actions are submitted, by the exercise of a
sympathy working necessarily and intuitively to the idea of the
universal order, the good has been reached, the true good, good in
itself, absolute good. But he does not follow his idea into the details
of human duty, though he passes in review fatalism, mysticism,
pantheism, scepticism, egotism, sentimentalism and rationalism. In 1835
Jouffroy's health failed and he went to Italy, where he continued to
translate the Scottish philosophers. On his return he became librarian
to the university, and took the chair of recent philosophy at the
faculty of letters. He died in Paris on the 4th of February 1842. After
his death were published _Nouveaux mélanges philosophiques_ (3rd ed.
1872) and _Cours d'esthétique_ (3rd ed. 1875). The former contributed
nothing new to the system except a more emphatic statement of the
distinction between psychology and physiology. The latter formulated his
theory of beauty.
Jouffroy's claim to distinction rests upon his ability as an expositor
of other men's ideas. He founded no system; he contributed nothing of
importance to philosophical science; he initiated nothing which has
survived him. But his enthusiasm for mental science, and his command
over the language of popular exposition, made him a great international
medium for the transfusion of ideas. He stood between Scotland and
France and Germany and France; and, though his expositions are vitiated
by loose reading of the philosophers he interpreted, he did serviceable,
even memorable work.
See L. Lévy Bruhl, _History of Modern Philos. in France_ (1899), pp.
349-357; C. J. Tissot, _Th. Jouffroy: sa vie et ses écrits_ (1876); J.
P. Damiron, _Essai sur l'histoire de la philos. en France au xix^e
siècle_ (1846).
JOUGS, JUGGS, or JOGGS (O. Fr. _joug_, from Lat. _jugum_, a yoke), an
instrument of punishment formerly in use in Scotland, Holland and
possibly other countries. It was an iron collar fastened by a short
chain to a wall, often of the parish church, or to a tree. The collar
was placed round the offender's neck and fastened by a padlock. The
jougs was practically a pillory. It was used for ecclesiastical as well
as civil offences. Examples may still be seen in Scotland.
JOULE, JAMES PRESCOTT (1818-1889), English physicist, was born on the
24th of December 1818, at Salford, near Manchester. Although he received
some instruction from John Dalton in chemistry, most of his scientific
knowledge was self-taught, and this was especially the case with regard
to electricity and electro-magnetism, the subjects in which his earliest
researches were carried out. From the first he appreciated the
importance of accurate measurement, and all through his life the
attainment of exact quantitative data was one of his chief
considerations. At the age of nineteen he invented an electro-magnetic
engine, and in the course of examining its performance dissatisfaction
with vague and arbitrary methods of specifying electrical quantities
caused him to adopt a convenient and scientific unit, which he took to
be the amount of electricity required to decompose nine grains of water
in one hour. In 1840 he was thus enabled to give a quantitative
statement of the law according to which heat is produced in a conductor
by the passage of an electric current, and in succeeding years he
published a series of valuable researches on the agency of electricity
in transformations of energy. One of these contained the first
intimation of the achievement with which his name is most widely
associated, for it was in a paper read before the British Association at
Cork in 1843, and entitled "The Calorific Effects of Magneto-electricity
and the Mechanical Value of Heat," that he expressed the conviction that
whenever mechanical force is expended an exact equivalent of heat is
always obtained. By rotating a small electro-magnet in water, between
the poles of another magnet, and then measuring the heat developed in
the water and other parts of the machine, the current induced in the
coils, and the energy required to maintain rotation, he calculated that
the quantity of heat capable of warming one pound of water one degree F.
was equivalent to the mechanical force which could raise 838 lb. through
the distance of one foot. At the same time he brought forward another
determination based on the heating effects observable when water is
forced through capillary tubes; the number obtained in this way was 770.
A third method, depending on the observation of the heat evolved by the
mechanical compression of air, was employed a year or two later, and
yielded the number 798; and a fourth--the well-known frictional one of
stirring water with a sort of paddle-wheel--yielded the result 890 (see
_Brit. Assoc. Report_, 1845), though 781.5 was obtained by subsequent
repetitions of the experiment. In 1849 he presented to the Royal
Society a memoir which, together with a history of the subject,
contained details of a long series of determinations, the result of
which was 772. A good many years later he was entrusted by the committee
of the British Association on standards of electric resistance with the
task of deducing the mechanical equivalent of heat from the thermal
effects of electric currents. This inquiry yielded (in 1867) the result
783, and this Joule himself was inclined to regard as more accurate than
his old determination by the frictional method; the latter, however, was
repeated with every precaution, and again indicated 772.55 foot-pounds
as the quantity of work that must be expended at sea-level in the
latitude of Greenwich in order to raise the temperature of one pound of
water, weighed _in vacuo_, from 60° to 61° F. Ultimately the discrepancy
was traced to an error which, not by Joule's fault, vitiated the
determination by the electrical method, for it was found that the
standard ohm, as actually defined by the British Association committee
and as used by him, was slightly smaller than was intended; when the
necessary corrections were made the results of the two methods were
almost precisely congruent, and thus the figure 772.55 was vindicated.
In addition, numerous other researches stand to Joule's credit--the work
done in compressing gases and the thermal changes they undergo when
forced under pressure through small apertures (with Lord Kelvin), the
change of volume on solution, the change of temperature produced by the
longitudinal extension and compression of solids, &c. It was during the
experiments involved by the first of these inquiries that Joule was
incidentally led to appreciate the value of surface condensation in
increasing the efficiency of the steam engine. A new form of condenser
was tested on the small engine employed, and the results it yielded
formed the starting-point of a series of investigations which were aided
by a special grant from the Royal Society, and were described in an
elaborate memoir presented to it on the 13th of December 1860. His
results, according to Kelvin, led directly and speedily to the present
practical method of surface-condensation, one of the most important
improvements of the steam engine, especially for marine use, since the
days of James Watt. Joule died at Sale on the 11th of October 1889.
His scientific papers were collected and published by the Physical
Society of London: the first volume, which appeared in 1884, contained
the researches for which he was alone responsible, and the second,
dated 1887, those which he carried out in association with other
workers.
JOURDAN, JEAN BAPTISTE, COUNT (1762-1833), marshal of France, was born
at Limoges on the 29th of April 1762, and in his boyhood was apprenticed
to a silk merchant of Lyons. In 1776 he enlisted in a French regiment to
serve in the American War of Independence, and after being invalided in
1784 he married and set up in business at Limoges. At the outbreak of
the revolutionary wars he volunteered, and as a subaltern took part in
the first campaigns in the north of France. His rise was even more rapid
than that of Hoche and Marceau. By 1793 he had become a general of
division, and was selected by Carnot to succeed Houchard as
commander-in-chief of the Army of the North; and on the 15th-16th of
October 1793 he won the brilliant and important victory of Wattignies
(see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS). Soon afterwards he became a "suspect,"
the moderation of his political opinions and his misgivings as to the
future conduct of the war being equally distasteful to the truculent and
enthusiastic Committee of Public Safety. Warned in time by his friend
Carnot and by Barère, he avoided arrest and resumed his business as a
silk-mercer in Limoges. He was soon reinstated, and early in 1794 was
appointed commander-in-chief of the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse. After
repeated attempts to force the passage of the Sambre had failed and
several severe general actions had been fought without result, Jourdan
and his army were discouraged, but Carnot and the civil commissioners
urged the general, even with threats, to a last effort, and this time he
was successful not only in crossing the Sambre but in winning a
brilliant victory at Fleurus (June 26, 1794), the consequence of which
was the extension of the French sphere of influence to the Rhine, on
which river he waged an indecisive campaign in 1795.
In 1796 his army formed the left wing of the advance into Bavaria. The
whole of the French forces were ordered to advance on Vienna, Jourdan on
the extreme left and Moreau in the centre by the Danube valley,
Bonaparte on the right by Italy and Styria. The campaign began
brilliantly, the Austrians under the Archduke Charles being driven back
by Moreau and Jourdan almost to the Austrian frontier. But the archduke,
slipping away from Moreau, threw his whole weight on Jourdan, who was
defeated at Amberg and Würzburg, and forced over the Rhine after a
severe rearguard action, which cost the life of Marceau. Moreau had to
fall back in turn, and, apart from Bonaparte's marvellous campaign in
Italy, the operations of the year were disastrous. The chief cause of
failure was the vicious plan of campaign imposed upon the generals by
their government. Jourdan was nevertheless made the scapegoat of the
government's mistakes and was not employed for two years. In those years
he became prominent as a politician and above all as the framer of the
famous conscription law of 1798. When the war was renewed in 1799
Jourdan was placed at the head of the army on the Rhine, but again
underwent defeat at the hands of the archduke Charles at Stockach (March
25), and, disappointed and broken in health, handed over the command to
Masséna. He at once resumed his political duties, and was a prominent
opponent of the _coup d'état_ of 18 Brumaire, after which he was
expelled from the Council of the Five Hundred. Soon, however, he became
formally reconciled to the new régime, and accepted from Napoleon fresh
military and civil employment. In 1800 he became inspector-general of
cavalry and infantry and representative of French interests in the
Cisalpine Republic, and in 1804 he was made a marshal of France. He
remained in the new kingdom of Italy until 1806, when Joseph Bonaparte,
whom his brother made king of Naples in that year, selected Jourdan as
his military adviser. He followed Joseph into Spain in the same capacity
in 1808. But Joseph's throne had to be maintained by the French army,
and throughout the Peninsular War the other marshals, who depended
directly upon Napoleon, paid little heed either to Joseph or to Jourdan.
After the battle of Vitoria he held no important command up to the fall
of the Empire. Jourdan gave in his adhesion to the restoration
government of 1814, and though he rejoined Napoleon in the Hundred Days
and commanded a minor army, he submitted to the Bourbons again after
Waterloo. He refused, however, to be a member of the court which tried
Marshal Ney. He was made a count, a peer of France (1819), and governor
of Grenoble (1816). In politics he was a prominent opponent of the
royalist reactionaries and supported the revolution of 1830. After this
event he held the portfolio of foreign affairs for a few days, and then
became governor of the Invalides, where his last years were spent.
Marshal Jourdan died on the 23rd of November 1833, and was buried in the
Invalides.
He wrote _Opérations de l'armée du Danube_ (1799); _Mémoires pour
servir à l'histoire sur la campagne de 1796_ (1819); and unpublished
personal memoirs.
JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. _diurnalis_, daily), a daily record
of events or business. A private journal is usually an elaborated diary.
When applied to a newspaper or other periodical the word is strictly
used of one published each day; but any publication issued at stated
intervals, such as a magazine or the record of the transactions of a
learned society, is commonly called a journal. The word "journalist" for
one whose business is writing for the public press (see NEWSPAPERS)
seems to be as old as the end of the 17th century.
"Journal" is particularly applied to the record, day by day, of the
business and proceedings of a public body. The journals of the British
houses of parliament contain an official record of the business
transacted day by day in either house. The record does not take note of
speeches, though some of the earlier volumes contain references to them.
The journals are a lengthened account written from the "votes and
proceedings" (in the House of Lords called "minutes of the
proceedings"), made day by day by the assistant clerks, and printed on
the responsibility of the clerk to the house, after submission to the
"subcommittee on the journals." In the Commons the journal is passed by
the Speaker before publication. The journals of the House of Commons
begin in the first year of the reign of Edward VI. (1547), and are
complete, except for a short interval under Elizabeth. Those of the
House of Lords date from the first year of Henry VIII. (1509). Before
that date the proceedings in parliament were entered in the rolls of
parliament, which extend from 1278 to 1503. The journals of the Lords
are "records" in the judicial sense, those of the Commons are not (see
Erskine May, _Parliamentary Practice_, 1906, pp. 201-202).
The term "journal" is used, in business, for a book in which an account
of transactions is kept previous to a transfer to the ledger (see
BOOK-KEEPING), and also as an equivalent to a ship's log, as a record of
the daily run, observations, weather changes, &c. In mining, a journal
is a record describing the various strata passed through in sinking a
shaft. A particular use of the word is that, in machinery, for the parts
of a shaft which are in contact with the bearings; the origin of this
meaning, which is firmly established, has not been explained.
JOURNEY (through O. Fr. _jornee_ or _journee_, mod. Fr. _journée_, from
med. Lat. _diurnata_, Lat. _diurnus_, of or belonging to _dies_, day),
properly that which occupies a day in its performance, and so a day's
work, particularly a day's travel, and the distance covered by such,
usually reckoned in the middle ages as twenty miles. The word is now
used of travel covering a certain amount of distance or lasting a
certain amount of time, frequently defined by qualifying words.
"Journey" is usually applied to travel by land, as opposed to "voyage,"
travel by sea. The early use of "journey" for a day's work, or the
amount produced by a day's work, is still found in glassmaking, and also
at the British Mint, where a "journey" is taken as equivalent to the
coinage of 15 lb. of standard gold, 701 sovereigns, and of 60 lb. of
silver. The term "journeyman" also preserves the original significance
of the word. It distinguishes a qualified workman or mechanic from an
"apprentice" on the one hand and a "master" on the other, and is applied
to one who is employed by another person to work at his trade or
occupation at a day's wage.
JOUVENET, JEAN (1647-1717), French painter, born at Rouen, came of a
family of artists, one of whom had taught Poussin. He early showed
remarkable aptitude for his profession, and, on arriving in Paris,
attracted the attention of Le Brun, by whom he was employed at
Versailles, and under whose auspices, in 1675, he became a member of the
Académie Royale, of which he was elected professor in 1681, and one of
the four perpetual rectors in 1707. The great mass of works that he
executed, chiefly in Paris, many of which, including his celebrated
Miraculous Draught of Fishes (engraved by Audran; also Landon,
_Annales_, i. 42), are now in the Louvre, show his fertility in
invention and execution, and also that he possessed in a high degree
that general dignity of arrangement and style which distinguished the
school of Le Brun. Jouvenet died on the 5th of April 1717, having been
forced by paralysis during the last four years of his life to work with
his left hand.
See _Mém. inéd. acad. roy. de p. et de sc._, 1854, and D'Argenville,
_Vies des peintres_.
JOUY, VICTOR JOSEPH ÉTIENNE DE (1764-1846), French dramatist, was born
at Jouy, near Versailles, on the 12th of September 1764. At the age of
eighteen he received a commission in the army, and sailed for South
America in the company of the governor of Guiana. He returned almost
immediately to France to complete his studies, and re-entered the
service two years later. He was sent to India, where he met with many
romantic adventures which were afterwards turned to literary account. On
the outbreak of the Revolution he returned to France and served with
distinction in the early campaigns, attaining the rank of
adjutant-general. He drew suspicion on himself, however, by refusing to
honour the toast of Marat, and had to fly for his life. At the fall of
the Terror he resumed his commission but again fell under suspicion,
being accused of treasonable correspondence with the English envoy,
James Harris, 1st earl of Malmesbury who had been sent to France to
negotiate terms of peace. He was acquitted of this charge, but, weary of
repeated attacks, resigned his position on the pretext of his numerous
wounds. Jouy now turned his attention to literature, and produced in
1807 with immense success his opera _La vestale_ (music by Spontini).
The piece ran for a hundred nights, and was characterized by the
Institute of France as the best lyric drama of the day. Other operas
followed, but none obtained so great a success. He published in the
_Gazette de France_ a series of satirical sketches of Parisian life,
collected under the title of _L'Ermite de la Chaussée d'Antin, ou
observations sur les moeurs et les usages français au commencement du
xix^e siècle_ (1812-1814, 5 vols.), which was warmly received. In 1821
his tragedy of _Sylla_ gained a triumph due in part to the genius of
Talma, who had studied the title-rôle from Napoleon. Under the
Restoration Jouy consistently fought for the cause of freedom, and if
his work was overrated by his contemporaries, they were probably
influenced by their respect for the author himself. He died in rooms set
apart for his use in the palace of St Germain-en-Laye on the 4th of
September 1846.
Out of the long list of his operas, tragedies and miscellaneous
writings may be mentioned, _Fernand Cortez_ (1809), opera, in
collaboration with J. E. Esménard, music by Spontini; _Tippo Saïb_,
tragedy (1813); _Bélisaire_, tragedy (1818); _Les Hermites en prison_
(1823), written in collaboration with Antoine Jay, like himself a
political prisoner; _Guillaume Tell_ (1829), with Hippolyte Bis, for
the music of Rossini. Jouy was also one of the founders of the
_Biographie nouvelle des contemporains_.
JOVELLANOS (or JOVE LLANOS), GASPAR MELCHOR DE (1744-1811), Spanish
statesman and author, was born at Gijon in Asturias, Spain, on the 5th
of January 1744. Selecting law as his profession, he studied at Oviedo,
Avila, and Alcalá, and in 1767 became criminal judge at Seville. His
integrity and ability were rewarded in 1778 by a judgeship in Madrid,
and in 1780 by appointment to the council of military orders. In the
capital Jovellanos took a good place in the literary and scientific
societies; for the society of friends of the country he wrote in 1787
his most valuable work, _Informe sobre un proyecto de ley agraria_.
Involved in the disgrace of his friend, François Cabarrus, Jovellanos
spent the years 1790 to 1797 in a sort of banishment at Gijon, engaged
in literary work and in founding the Asturian institution for
agricultural, industrial, social and educational reform throughout his
native province. This institution continued his darling project up to
the latest hours of his life. Summoned again to public life in 1797,
Jovellanos refused the post of ambassador to Russia, but accepted that
of minister of grace and justice, under "the prince of the peace," whose
attention had been directed to him by Cabarrus, then a favourite of
Godoy. Displeased with Godoy's policy and conduct Jovellanos combined
with his colleague Saavedra to procure his dismissal. Godoy returned to
power in 1798; Jovellanos was again sent to Gijon, but in 1801 was
thrown into prison in Majorca. The revolution of 1808, and the advance
of the French into Spain, set him once more at liberty. Joseph
Bonaparte, on mounting the Spanish throne, made Jovellanos the most
brilliant offers; but the latter, sternly refusing them all, joined the
patriotic party, became a member of the central junta, and contributed
to reorganize the cortes. This accomplished, the junta at once fell
under suspicion, and Jovellanos was involved in its fall. To expose the
conduct of the cortes, and to defend the junta and himself were the last
labours of his pen. In 1811 he was enthusiastically welcomed to Gijon;
but the approach of the French drove him forth again. The vessel in
which he sailed was compelled by stress of weather to put in at Vega in
Asturias, and there he died on the 27th of November 1811.
The poetical works of Jovellanos comprise a tragedy _El pelayo_, the
comedy _El delincuente honrado_, satires, and miscellaneous pieces,
including a translation of the first book of _Paradise Lost_. His
prose works, especially those on political and legislative economy,
constitute his real title to literary fame. In them depth of thought
and clear-sighted sagacity are couched in a certain Ciceronian
elegance and classical purity of style. Besides the _Ley agraria_ he
wrote _Elogios_; various political and other essays; and _Memorias
politicas_ (1801), suppressed in Spain, and translated into French,
1825. An edition of his complete works was published at Madrid
(1831-1832) in 7 vols., and another at Barcelona (1839).
See _Noticias historicas de Don G. M. de Jovellanos_ (1812), and
_Memorias para la vida del Señor ... Jovellanos_, by J. A. C. Bermudez
(1814).
JOVELLAR Y SOLER, JOAQUIN (1819-1892), captain-general of Spain, was
born at Palma de Mallorca, on the 28th of December 1819. At the close of
his studies at the military academy he was appointed sub-lieutenant,
went to Cuba as captain in 1842, returned to the War Office in 1851, was
promoted major in 1853, and went to Morocco as private secretary to
Marshal O'Donnell, who made him colonel in 1860 after Jovellar had been
wounded at the battle of Wad el Ras. In 1863 Jovellar became a
brigadier-general, in 1864 under-secretary for war; he was severely
wounded in fighting the insurgents in the streets of Madrid, and rose to
the rank of general of division in 1866. Jovellar adhered to the
revolution, and King Amadeus made him a lieutenant-general in 1872. He
absented himself from Spain when the federal republic was proclaimed,
and returned in the autumn of 1873, when Castelár sent him to Cuba as
governor-general. In 1874 Jovellar came back to the Peninsula, and was
in command of the Army of the Centre against the Carlists when Marshal
Campos went to Sagunto to proclaim Alfonso XII. General Jovellar became
war minister in the first cabinet of the restoration under Canovas, who
sent him to Cuba again as governor-general, where he remained until the
18th of June 1878, when the ten years' insurrection closed with the
peace of Zaujon. Alfonso XII. made him a captain-general, president of
the council, life-senator, and governor-general of the Philippines.
Jovellar died in Madrid on the 17th of April 1892.
JOVIAN (FLAVIUS JOVIANUS) (c. 332-364), Roman emperor from June 363 to
February 364, was born at Singidunum in Moesia about 332. As captain of
the imperial bodyguard he accompanied Julian in his Persian expedition;
and on the day after that emperor's death, when the aged Sallust,
prefect of the East, declined the purple, the choice of the army fell
upon Jovian. His election caused considerable surprise, and it is
suggested by Ammianus Marcellinus that he was wrongly identified with
another Jovian, chief notary, whose name also had been put forward, or
that, during the acclamations, the soldiers mistook the name Jovianus
for Julianus, and imagined that the latter had recovered from his
illness. Jovian at once continued the retreat begun by Julian, and,
continually harassed by the Persians, succeeded in reaching the banks of
the Tigris, where a humiliating treaty was concluded with the Persian
king, Shapur II. (q.v.). Five provinces which had been conquered by
Galerius in 298 were surrendered, together with Nisibis and other
cities. The Romans also gave up all their interests in the kingdom of
Armenia, and abandoned its Christian prince Arsaces to the Persians.
During his return to Constantinople Jovian was found dead in his bed at
Dadastana, halfway between Ancyra and Nicaea. A surfeit of mushrooms or
the fumes of a charcoal fire have been assigned as the cause of death.
Under Jovian, Christianity was established as the state religion, and
the Labarum of Constantine again became the standard of the army. The
statement that he issued an edict of toleration, to the effect that,
while the exercise of magical rites would be severely punished, his
subjects should enjoy full liberty of conscience, rests on insufficient
evidence. Jovian entertained a great regard for Athanasius, whom he
reinstated on the archiepiscopal throne, desiring him to draw up a
statement of the Catholic faith. In Syriac literature Jovian became the
hero of a Christian romance (G. Hoffmann, _Julianus der Abtrünnige_,
1880).
See Ammianus Marcellinus, xxv. 5-10; J. P. de la Bléterie, _Histoire
de Jovien_ (1740); Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, chs. xxiv., xxv.; J.
Wordsworth in Smith and Wace's _Dictionary of Christian Biography_; H.
Schiller, _Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit_, vol. ii. (1887); A.
de Broglie, _L'Église et l'empire romain au iv^e siècle_ (4th ed.
1882). For the relations of Rome and Persia see PERSIA: _Ancient
History_.
JOVINIANUS, or JOVIANUS, a Roman monk of heterodox views, who flourished
during the latter half of the 4th century. All our knowledge of him is
derived from a passionately hostile polemic of Jerome (_Adv. Jovinianum,
Libri II._), written at Bethlehem in 393, and without any personal
acquaintance with the man assailed. According to this authority Jovinian
in 388 was living at Rome the celibate life of an ascetic monk,
possessed a good acquaintance with the Bible, and was the author of
several minor works, but, undergoing an heretical change of view,
afterwards became a self-indulgent Epicurean and unrefined sensualist.
The views which excited this denunciation were mainly these: (1)
Jovinian held that in point of merit, so far as their domestic state was
concerned, virgins, widows and married persons who had been baptized
into Christ were on a precisely equal footing; (2) those who with full
faith have been regenerated in baptism cannot be overthrown (or,
according to another reading, tempted) of the devil; (3) to abstain from
meats is not more praiseworthy than thankfully to enjoy them; (4) all
who have preserved their baptismal grace shall receive the same reward
in the kingdom of heaven.[1] Jovinian thus indicates a natural and
vigorous reaction against the exaggerated asceticism of the 4th century,
a protest shared by Helvidius and Vigilantius. He was condemned by a
Roman synod under Bishop Siricius in 390, and afterwards excommunicated
by another at Milan under the presidency of Ambrose. The year of his
death is unknown, but he is referred to as no longer alive in Jerome's
_Contra Vigilantium_ (406).