CHAPTER VI_Men of the Old Stone Age: Their Environment, Life and Art

CLOSE OF THE OLD STONE AGE--INVASION OF NEW RACES--HISTORY OF THE MAS

D'AZIL, OF FÈRE-EN-TARDENOIS--FOREST ENVIRONMENT AND LIFE--ORIGIN OF

THE AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN CULTURE--CHARACTERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE NEW

RACES--TRANSITION TO THE NEOLITHIC AND RELATIONS OF THE OLD AND NEW

RACES--APPARENT CHIEF LINES OF HUMAN DESCENT AND OF HUMAN MIGRATION

INTO WESTERN EUROPE.

We have now reached the very close of the Old Stone Age, a period which is

believed to extend between 10,000 and 7,000 years before the present era.

The entrance to the final cultures of the Upper Palæolithic, known as the

Azilian-Tardenoisian, marks a transition even more abrupt than that

witnessed in any preceding stage. It is not a development; it is a

revolution. The artistic spirit entirely disappears; there is no trace of

animal engraving or sculpture; painting is found only on flattened pebbles

or in schematic or geometric designs on wall surfaces. Of bone implements

only harpoons and polishers remain, and even these are of inferior

workmanship and without any trace of art. The flint industry continues the

degeneration begun in the Magdalenian and exhibits a new life and impulse

only in the fashioning of the extremely small or microlithic tools and

weapons known as 'Tardenoisian.' Both bone and flint weapons of the chase

disappear, yet the stag is hunted and its horns are used in the

manufacture of harpoons. This is the 'Age of the Stag,' the final stage of

the '_Cave Period_' in western Europe, and is subsequent to the 'Age of

the Reindeer' in the south.

It would appear as if the very same regions formerly occupied by the great

hunting Crô-Magnon race from Aurignacian to Magdalenian times were now

inhabited by a race or races largely employed in fishing. The country is

thickly forested. The climate is still cold and extremely moist, and

human life everywhere is in the grottos or entrances to the caverns.

INVASION OF FOUR NEW RACES IN CLOSING UPPER PALÆOLITHIC TIMES

How far this revolution is due to the decline of the Crô-Magnon race and

how far to the invasion of one or more new races is very difficult to

determine in the absence of the anatomical evidence derived from skeletal

remains. Two new races had certainly found their way along the Danube as

shown in the burials of Ofnet, in eastern Bavaria; one is extremely

broad-headed and perhaps of central Asiatic origin, while the other is

extremely long-headed and perhaps of southerly or Mediterranean origin. It

is possible that these two races correspond respectively with the easterly

and southerly industrial influences which are observed in the

Azilian-Tardenoisian stage. The former is the first brachycephalic race to

enter western Europe, for it will be recalled that all the previous races,

the Crô-Magnons, the Brünns, and the Neanderthals, are dolichocephalic.

The long-headed race found at Ofnet is very clearly distinguished from the

disharmonic long-headed Crô-Magnon race by the narrowness of the face; in

other words, it is an _harmonic_ type of head and face, which may have

been Mediterranean in origin, like the so-called 'Mediterranean race' of

Sergi.

This fresh invasion of western Europe by two races arriving by one or more

of the great migration routes from the vast Eurasiatic mainland to the

east, races with a relatively high brain development, is certainly one of

the most surprising features of the close of the Palæolithic Period, for

we have long been accustomed to think that these fresh easterly and

southerly invasions began only in Neolithic times.

As the Upper Palæolithic draws to an end, there is, according to Breuil,

still another industrial influence making itself felt: it comes from the

northeast along the shores of the Baltic.

Putting together all the fragmentary evidence which we possess, we may

regard western Europe at the close of the Old Stone Age as peopled by

four and possibly by five distinct races, as follows:

5. Arriving late in Palæolithic times, a race along the shores of the

Baltic, known only by its Maglemose industry; possibly a Teutonic

race.

4. A south Mediterranean race, known only by its Tardenoisian

industry, migrating along the northern shores of Africa and spreading

over Spain; with a conventional and schematic art; probably an advance

wave of the true 'Mediterranean' race of Sergi; possibly identical

with race 3 below. (The same as Race 4, p. 278.)

3. A long-headed race found at Ofnet, in eastern Bavaria; possibly a

branch of the true 'Mediterranean' race 4 above, but not related to

the Brünn. (Possibly the same as Race 4.)

2. The newly arriving Furfooz-Grenelle race, broad-headed; known along

the Danube at Ofnet, in eastern Bavaria, and northward in Belgium;

possibly a branch of the 'Alpine' race. (The same as Race 5, p. 278.)

1. The surviving Crô-Magnons, in a stage of industrial decline,

pursuing the Azilian industry, probably inhabiting France and northern

Spain.

The broad-headed Ofnet race mentioned above is apparently the same as the

Furfooz-Grenelle race, and may also correspond with the existing

Alpine-Celtic race of western Europe. The long-headed race of Ofnet may

correspond with the existing 'Mediterranean' race of Sergi.

The presence of the Crô-Magnon race in western Europe during

Azilian-Tardenoisian times is not sustained, so far as we know, by any

anatomical evidence, but is suggested by the mode of burial of two

skeletons found by Piette in the Azilian deposits of the station of Mas

d'Azil. This burial, like that of Ofnet, is typical of Upper Palæolithic

and not of Neolithic times. These skeletons lay in the 'Azilian' layer

(VI) described below. As the smaller bones were missing, Piette concluded

that the remains had been for some time exposed to the weather before

burial, and that the larger bones had been scraped and cleaned with flint

knives, and then colored red with oxide of iron before interment.

According to other authorities, the traces of scraping and cleaning are

doubtful; there can be no question, however, that the separation of the

bones of the skeleton and the use of coloring matter constitute strong

evidence that this Azilian burial was the work of members of the

Crô-Magnon race.

In addition to what we have said as to the survival of the Crô-Magnon race

in the preceding chapter, the opinion of Cartailhac(1) may be cited: "The

race of Crô-Magnon is well determined. There is no doubt about their high

stature, and Topinard is not the only one who believes that they were

blonds. We have traced them through the 'Reindeer Period' into the

Neolithic Epoch, where they were widely distributed and positively related

either to the ancient or actual populations of modern France, being

especially characteristic of our region [France] and of the western

Mediterranean. While the race of Crô-Magnon predominated in the south and

in the west, that of Furfooz predominated in the northeast of France and

in Belgium. These brachycephals were probably brown-haired or of dark

coloring."

But before observing further the characters of these four or five races,

let us examine their industries.

DISCOVERY OF THE AZILIAN TYPE STATION

As remarked above, it is believed that these industries prevailed between

7,000 and 10,000 years before our era, that is, between the close of

Magdalenian times and the beginning of the Neolithic or New Stone Age.

This transition period corresponds with the interval in which the

Azilian-Tardenoisian culture swept all over western Europe and completely

replaced the Magdalenian. From Castillo in the Cantabrian Mountains of

northern Spain to Ofnet on the upper Danube there is a complete

replacement by this new culture. The Magdalenian culture does not linger

anywhere; it is totally eliminated; the suddenness of the change both in

the animal life and in the industry is nowhere more clearly indicated than

at the type station of Mas d'Azil in southern France, which may now be

described.

In 1887 Edouard Piette commenced his exploration of the deposits in the

great cavern of Mas d'Azil. This station takes its name from the little

hamlet of Mas d'Azil in the foot-hills of the Pyrenees about forty miles

southwest from Toulouse. Here the River Arize winds for a quarter of a

mile through a lofty natural tunnel traversed by the highway from St.

Girons to Carcassonne. A rich layer of Magdalenian deposits first

attracted Piette's attention, and he found here some of the finest

examples of late Magdalenian art, but above these deposits he discovered a

hitherto unrecognized industrial stage, to which he gave the name Azilian.

The Azilian layers yielded over one thousand specimens of flattened and

double-barbed harpoons made of the horns of the stag, thus widely

differing from the late Magdalenian harpoons which are rounded and made of

the horns of the reindeer. The entire succession of deposits, as explored

by Piette, is an epitome of the prehistory of Europe from early

Magdalenian times to the Age of Bronze, and should be compared with the

successive deposits of Castillo (p. 164), Sirgenstein (p. 202), Ofnet (p.

476), and Schweizersbild (p. 447).

[Illustration: FIG. 246. Western entrance to the great station of Mas

d'Azil. "Here the River Arize winds for a quarter of a mile through a

lofty natural tunnel traversed by the highway from St. Girons to

Carcassonne." Photograph by N. C. Nelson.]

The Mas d'Azil section is as follows:

PREHISTORIC AND NEOLITHIC

IX. Iron implements, pottery of the Gauls. At the top Gallo-Roman

remains, glass and glazed pottery.

VIII. Middle Neolithic and Age of Bronze; layer of pottery, polished

stone implements, traces of copper and of bronze.

VII. Dawn of the Neolithic. Fauna includes the horse, urus, stag, and

wild boar. Chipped and polished flints, awls and polishers in bone;

harpoons rare. Beginnings of pottery.

UPPER PALÆOLITHIC

VI. AZILIAN, red archæological layer, masses of peroxide of iron.

Extremely moist climate. Broad flat harpoons of stag horn perforated

at the base, numerous flattened and painted pebbles (_galets_), flints

of degenerate Magdalenian form, especially small rounded planers and

knife flakes, awls and polishers in bone. No trace of reindeer in the

fire-hearths; stag abundant, also roe-deer and brown bear; wild boar,

wild cattle, beaver, a variety of birds. No trace of polished stone

implements. Interred in this layer, beneath the deposits of streaked

cinders and quite undisturbed, two human skeletons were found, which

Piette believed had been macerated with flints and then colored red

with peroxide of iron.

V. Sterile finely stratified loam layer, a flood deposit of the River

Arize.

IV. LATE MAGDALENIAN culture layer; twelve double-rowed harpoons made

of reindeer horn, a few fashioned from stag horn; numerous engravings

and sculptures in bone. Remains of the reindeer rare in the hearths;

those of the royal stag (_Cervus elaphus_) abundant.

III. A sterile flood deposit of the River Arize.

II. MIDDLE AND EARLY MAGDALENIAN culture layers, with barbed harpoons

of reindeer horn; flint implements of early Magdalenian type, bone

needles. Bones of the reindeer abundant.

I. Gravel deposits. Interspersed fire-hearths.

The total thickness of these culture deposits is 8.03 m., or 26 feet 4

inches. The AZILIAN type layer (VI) containing flat harpoons of stag horn

and painted pebbles, intercalated between the deposits of the Reindeer Age

and the Neolithic layers, is, on account of its stratigraphic position,

the most interesting and instructive of all the sites representing this

phase of transition; and Piette was fully justified in giving to the

corresponding culture period the name of _Azilian_.(2)

The transformation of art and industry, indicated in the Azilian culture

layer, is as decided as that in the animal life. We observe in this layer

no trace of the animal engravings or sculptures which occur so abundantly

in the late Magdalenian layer below; the use of pigments is confined to

the paintings of schematic or geometric figures on the flattened pebbles.

There is no suggestion of art in any of the bone implements, and the

harpoons of stag horn are rudely fashioned; this type of harpoon appears

to be the chief survivor of the rich variety of implements noted in the

Magdalenian layer below. The stag horn harpoon, moreover, is fashioned

with far less skill than the beautiful Magdalenian harpoons; like them it

has two rows of barbs, but they are not cut with the same delicacy and

exactness. As to the form of the new model, it is explained by the nature

of the new material; the interior of the stag horn being composed of a

spongy tissue, could not be utilized as could the harder and more compact

interior of the reindeer horn; the craftsman, therefore, was obliged to

fashion his harpoon out of the exterior of one side of the stag horn, and

in consequence to make it flat.

[Illustration: FIG. 247. Typical Azilian harpoons of stag horn. After de

Mortillet. 287. A single-rowed harpoon from Mas d'Azil. 288. Harpoon with

perforated base from the shelter of La Tourasse, Haute-Garonne. 289.

Double-rowed harpoon from the same shelter. 290. A similar harpoon with

the barbs alternate instead of opposite, from Mas d'Azil. 291. Harpoon

with triangular base and round perforation from the Grotte de la Vache,

near Tarascon. All one-third actual size, except 291, which is four-ninths

actual size.]

There are no bone needles, no javelins or _sagaies_; nor are there any of

the beautifully carved weapons of bone. There is also a reduction in the

uses to which the split bones are put, such as the large _lissoirs_ or

polishers. The bone implements appear to be derived from an impoverished

late Aurignacian stage; the same is true of the flint implements, for we

observe a return of the keeled scraper (_grattoir caréné_). There is also

a return of certain types of graving tools and of the knife-like form of

the flake; even some of the small geometric types of flints resemble those

of the Aurignacian levels.

The many shells of the moisture-loving snail _Helix nemoralis_, found in

the fire-hearths of Mas d'Azil are proofs of the humidity of the climate,

a fact confirmed by the contemporary flood deposits of the Arize. The

frequent and heavy rains drove the last few representatives of the steppe

fauna away to the north. These climatic conditions favored the formation

of peat-bogs, so frequent to-day in the north of France, and also the

growth of vast forests, inhabited by the stag, which extended over the

whole country.

The pebbles of Mas d'Azil are painted on one side with peroxide of iron, a

deposit of which is found in the neighborhood of the cave. The color,

mixed in shells of _Pecten_, or in hollowed pebbles or on flat stones, was

applied either with the finger or with a brush. The many enigmatic designs

consist chiefly of parallel bands, rows of discs or points, bands with

scalloped edges, cruciform designs, ladder-like patterns (scalariform)

such as are found in the 'Azilian' engravings and paintings of the

caverns, and undulating lines. These graphic combinations resemble certain

syllabic and alphabetic characters of the Ægean, Cypriote, Phœnician, and

Greco-Latin inscriptions. However curious these resemblances may be, they

are not sufficient to warrant any theory connecting the signs on the

painted pebbles of the Azilians with the alphabetic characters of the

oldest known systems of writing.(3) Piette attempted to explain some of

the exceedingly crude designs on these pebbles as a system of notation,

others as pictographs and religious symbols, and some few as genuine

alphabetical signs, and suggested that the cavern of Mas d'Azil was an

Upper Palæolithic school where reading, reckoning, writing, and the

symbols of the sun were learned and taught. The very wide distribution of

these symbolic pebbles and the painting of similar designs on the walls of

the caverns certainly prove that they had some religious or economic

significance, which may be revealed by subsequent research.

[Illustration: FIG. 248. Azilian _galets coloriés_, flat, painted pebbles,

from the type station of Mas d'Azil. After Piette.]

THE TARDENOISIAN TYPE STATION

Turning from the region of the Pyrenees in Azilian times, we observe the

region lying between the Seine and the Meuse in northern France as the

scene of a contemporary industry. At the station of Fère-en-Tardenois, in

the Department of the Aisne, is found an especially large number of the

pygmy flints;(4) these present various geometric forms, including the

primitive triangular, as well as the rhomboidal, trapezoidal, and

semicircular; together, they were designated by de Mortillet as

_Tardenoisian_ flints, and in 1896, in monographing this microlithic flint

industry, he traced them throughout France, Belgium, England, Portugal,

Spain, Italy, Germany, and Russia, also along the southern Mediterranean

through Algiers, Tunis, Egypt, and eastward into Syria and even India.

These geometric flints were at first attributed to a primitive invasion

which was supposed to have occurred at the beginning of Neolithic times;

thus the Tardenoisian industry was considered as contemporaneous with that

of the Campignian, which is early Neolithic. It was further observed that

the topographical location of the stations closely followed the borders of

ocean inlets, or of river courses, and when the food materials found in

the hearths were compared, it appeared that these flints were used

principally by fishermen or tribes subsisting upon fish. From an

examination of the flints, it would appear that a very large number of

them were adapted for insertion in small harpoons, or that those of

grooved form might even have been used as fish-hooks. Thus the picture was

drawn of a population of fishermen. The Tardenoisian, therefore, was for a

long time regarded as contemporaneous with the early Neolithic rather

than with the close of Palæolithic times, but as exploration proceeded it

was found that neither the remains of domestic animals nor any traces of

pottery occur in any of these Tardenoisian deposits, which consequently

have nothing in common with the true Neolithic culture.

The problem was finally solved in 1909, when the grotto of Valle near

Gibaja, Santander, in northern Spain, was discovered by Breuil and

Obermaier.(5) Here was a classic Azilian deposit containing all the

well-known Azilian types of bone implements, such as fine harpoons,

carvings in deer horn, bone javelins, polishers of deer bone, flint flakes

resembling those of the late Magdalenian, also microlithic flints of

typical geometric Tardenoisian form. This discovery established the fact

that the lower levels of the Tardenoisian industry were not really to be

distinguished from the Azilian, for here beneath layers with painted

pebbles and harpoons of Azilian style were harpoons with single and double

rows of barbs of Magdalenian pattern, but cut in stag horn instead of

reindeer horn.

The mammalian life in this true Azilian-Tardenoisian layer includes the

chamois, roe-deer, wild boar, and urus, or wild cattle. In a layer just

below, which represents the close of the Magdalenian industrial period,

there are found, although rarely, remains of the reindeer, an animal

hitherto unknown in this part of Spain, also the wild boar, the bison, the

ibex, and the lynx. After this discovery it could no longer be questioned

that the Azilian and Tardenoisian were contemporary.

As to the relation of these two industries, Breuil remarks(6) that the

prolongation of the Tardenoisian types of flints is observed in Italy and

in Belgium, but neither the term 'Tardenoisian' nor the term 'Azilian' is

sufficiently comprehensive to embrace the totality of these little

industries, which will finally be distinguished clearly from each other.

Of the two the Azilian represents the prolongation of an ancient period of

industry, the progress of which was apparently from south to north, as we

can trace the distribution of the characteristic flat harpoons of deer

horn from the Cantabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees, through southern and

central France, to Belgium, England, and the western coast of Scotland.

The later industrial phase, the Tardenoisian, with its geometric

trapeziform flints, originally appears along the southern Mediterranean in

Tunis and to the eastward in the Crimea, while in France it represents a

final phase of the Palæolithic, closely approaching the period of the

earliest Neolithic or pre-Campignian hearths common along the Danube and

observed in the vicinity of Liége. Thus the most comprehensive term by

which to designate the _ensemble_ of these implements, in Europe at least,

would be Azilian-Tardenoisian.

[Illustration: FIG. 249. Small geometric flints characteristic of the

Tardenoisian industry. After de Mortillet. 295 to 303, 321, 322, 326. From

various sites in northern France. 311. Uchaux, Vaucluse, France. 305, 315,

320. Valley of the Meuse, Belgium. 312, 313. Cabeço da Arruda, Portugal.

304, 314. Italy. 317, 318, 329. Tunis. 325. Egypt. 306, 310, 324, 328.

Kizil-Koba, Crimea. 307 to 309, 316, 319, 323, 327. India. All one-half

actual size.]

ENVIRONMENT AND MAMMALIAN LIFE

It appears that the chief geographic change during this period was a

subsidence of the northern coasts of Europe and an advance of the sea

causing the circulation of warm oceanic currents and a more humid climate

favorable to reforestation.

To the north, in Belgium, the tundra fauna lingered during the extension

of the early Tardenoisian industry, for here we still find remains of the

reindeer, the arctic fox, and the arctic hare mingled in the fire-hearths

with flints of Tardenoisian type. This, observes Obermaier, constitutes

proof that the Tardenoisian, with the Azilian, must be placed at the very

close of Postglacial time and with the final stage of Upper Palæolithic

industry.

To the south, in the region of Dordogne and the Pyrenees, the tundra fauna

had entirely disappeared, as well as that of the steppes and of the alpine

heights; the prevailing animal in the forests is the royal stag, adapted

to forests of temperate type and associated with the Eurasiatic forest and

meadow fauna which now dominated western Europe.

The only survivor of the great African-Asiatic fauna is the lion, which

appears in the late Palæolithic stations in the region of the Pyrenees;

the arctic wolverene also gives the fauna a Postglacial aspect, for, like

the lion, it is never found in central or western Europe after the close

of Upper Palæolithic times. Other enemies of the herbivorous fauna were

the wolf and the brown bear.

Besides the red deer, or stag, the forests at this time were filled with

roe-deer. To the south in the Pyrenees the moose still survived, and to

the north there were still found herds of reindeer which survived in

central Europe as late as the twelfth century. Wild boars were numerous,

and in the streams were found the beaver and the otter. In the forest

borders and in the meadows hares and rabbits were abundant. Through the

forests and meadows of southern France and along the borders of the Danube

ranged the wild cattle (_Bos primigenius_). It would appear from our

limited knowledge of the life of Azilian-Tardenoisian times that bison

were found chiefly in the northern parts of Europe. There is little direct

evidence in regard to the wild horse, the remains of which do not occur in

the hearths of Azilian times.

Our knowledge of the life of the Spanish peninsula at a period closely

succeeding this is indirectly derived from the animal frescos in certain

caverns of northern Spain, which were formerly attributed to the Upper

Palæolithic but are now referred rather to the early Neolithic. Here are

found representations of the ibex, the stag, the fallow deer, the wild

cattle, and also of the wild horses. This would indicate that wild horses

were still roaming all over western Europe at the close of Upper

Palæolithic times. The presence of the moose in late Palæolithic times at

Alpera, on the high plateaus of Spain, has been determined; this animal

has also been found in the Pyrenees during the Azilian stage.(7)

The great contrast between the mammalian life of Magdalenian and that of

Azilian-Tardenoisian times is witnessed in the stations along the upper

Danube, as described by Koken.(8) In Höhlefels, Schmiechenfels, and

Propstfels, associated with implements of the _late_ Magdalenian industry,

are found ten types of animals belonging to the forests and four

characteristic of the forests and meadows, or fourteen species altogether.

With these are mingled two alpine forms, the ibex and the alpine shrew;

also two types of mammals belonging to the steppes, and no less than six

mammals and birds from the tundras, namely, the reindeer, the arctic fox,

the ermine, the arctic hare, the banded lemming, and the arctic ptarmigan.

In wide contrast to this assemblage of late Magdalenian life on the upper

Danube, there appear in Azilian times along the shores of the middle

Danube in the stations of Ofnet and of Istein the following characteristic

forest forms: _Sus scrofa ferus_ (wild boar), _Cervus elaphus_ (stag),

_Capreolus capreolus_ (roe-deer), _Bos_ (?) _primigenius_ (urus), _Lepus_

(rabbit or hare), _Ursus arctos_ (brown bear), _Felis leo_ (lion), _Gulo

luscus_ (common wolverene), _Lynchus lynx_ (lynx), _Vulpes_ (fox),

_Mustela martes_ (marten), _Castor fiber_ (European beaver), _Mus_

(field-mouse), _Turdus_ (thrush). It thus appears that the alpine, the

steppe, and the tundra faunæ had entirely disappeared from this region.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN INDUSTRY

This industry represents the last stage of the Old Stone Age. The decline

in the art of fashioning flints, begun in Magdalenian times, appears to

continue in the Azilian-Tardenoisian. As to the tiny symmetrical flints

which are characteristic of this period, among the microliths of almost

all the late Magdalenian stations pre-Tardenoisian forms are found which

may be regarded as prototypes of the geometric Tardenoisian flints;(9)

this represents a new fashion established in flint-making under influences

coming from the south.

There was also a natural or local Azilian evolution from the Magdalenian

types and technique. In general the flint implements which had so long

prevailed in western Europe become smaller in diameter and more carelessly

retouched, showing marked deterioration even from the late Magdalenian

stages. For the preparation of hides and the fashioning of bone we

discover unsymmetrical planing tools (_grattoirs_), also small,

well-formed oval scrapers (_racloirs_), and microlithic scrapers. Borers

(_perçoirs_) with oblique ends and gravers (_burins_) made of small flakes

are the types of implements which most frequently occur, but the great

variety of borers, so characteristic of the Aurignacian and the

Magdalenian industries, had entirely disappeared in Azilian times.

The marks of industrial degeneration are also conspicuous in the bone

implements, which show a very great deterioration in number and quality as

compared with the Magdalenian, and which are principally confined to three

types--the harpoons, the awls (_poinçons_), and the smoothers

(_lissoirs_), together with very small bone borers (_perçoirs_). The

distinctive feature of the Azilian bone industry is the flat harpoon of

stag horn; it is known that the use of stags' antlers for fashioning

harpoons began in the late Magdalenian, when most of them were still

being fashioned from reindeer horn. These flat Azilian harpoons succeed

the type of the double-rowed, cylindrical harpoons of the late

Magdalenian, and are found mainly where the rivers, lakes, or pools

offered favorable conditions for fishing. Thus the Azilian bone-harpoon

industry, like the Tardenoisian microlithic flint industry, was largely

pursued by fisherfolk.

[Illustration: FIG. 250. Geographic distribution of the principal Azilian

and Tardenoisian industrial stations in western Europe, also Campigny and

Robenhausen.]

We may imagine that the gradual disappearance of the reindeer, an animal

much more easily pursued and killed than the stag, was one of the causes

of the substitution of the various arts of fishing for those of hunting.

It is to the excessively small or microlithic flints that the name

Tardenoisian especially applies, and it is the vast multiplication of

these microliths and their wide distribution over the whole area of the

Mediterranean and of western Europe which constitutes the most distinctive

feature of this industrial stage.(10) The triangular flint (Fig. 249) is

certainly the most ancient Tardenoisian type. It occurs in the Azilian

stations of the Cantabrian Mountains and of the Pyrenees, accompanied by

the painted pebbles and with other flints of Azilian type, but without the

graving-tools; to the east it is found in the stations of Savoy; and along

the Danube it occurs at Ofnet, associated with remains of the lion and the

moose, also with ornamental necklaces composed of the perforated teeth of

the deer, identical with those found in the type station of Mas d'Azil in

the Pyrenees. To the north this typical early Azilian culture extends to

Istein, in Baden, where it includes the microlithic flint flakes, the

gravers, and the little round scrapers associated here also with the stag

and the prehistoric forest and meadow fauna of western Europe. Exactly the

same stage of industrial development occurs in the grotto of Höhlefels,

near Nuremberg, and in the shelter station of Sous Sac, Ain. We invariably

find proofs of the variety of these pygmy flints as well as of their

continuity from one station to another. All these facts compel us to

assign a very long period of time to the spread of these industrial types.

The question which arises as to the sources of this special Tardenoisian

industry again finds archæologists divided. Schmidt inclines to the

autochthonous theory and regards the microlithic flint industry as an

outgrowth of tendencies already well developed in the Magdalenian. Breuil,

on the other hand,(11) dwells strongly on the evidence for

circum-Mediterranean sources. In putting the questions, Who were the

Azilians? Whence did they come? What were their ancestors? he is disposed

to give the answer already quoted, that, whichever industry is examined,

we are always obliged to look toward the south, toward some point along

the Mediterranean, for the origin of these microlithic flints. In Italy,

which he believes to have remained in an Aurignacian industrial stage

throughout all the long period of Magdalenian time, he finds at Mentone a

layer overlying the Aurignacian and containing small flints recalling the

geometric forms of the Azilian, as well as a multitude of the small round

scrapers (_racloirs_) characteristic of Azilian times. The upper layers at

Mentone on the Riviera are paralleled by those observed near Otranto, in

Sicily. It is certain, he continues, that all around the Mediterranean

there was a number of distinct centres where microlithic implements of

geometric form appeared, and where the accompanying industries, in

different stages of development, were related to an Upper Palæolithic

culture consisting of a continuous Aurignacian type.

[Illustration: FIG. 251. Azilian stone implements of types surviving from

the Magdalenian and earlier Palæolithic times. After R. R. Schmidt. 1.

Finely flaked point from the large cave of Ofnet. 2, 3. Small Azilian

_grattoirs_, or planing tools, from Istein, on the upper Danube. 4.

Slender blade from Kleinkems. 5. Borer from Wüste Scheuer. 6. Polyhedral

borer from Wüste Scheuer. 7. Incurved scraper from Istein. 8, 9, 10.

Gravers or borers from Istein. 11. Double graver or borer with points at

the right and left of the upper end. 1 to 4, actual size; 5 to 11,

one-half actual size.]

[Illustration: FIG. 252. Azilian double-rowed harpoons of stag horn, from

Oban, on the west coast of Scotland. After Boule.]

The labors of de Morgan, Capitan, and others have thrown great light on

the Palæolithic of Tunis, where a flint culture was developed only

slightly different from that of the Azilian of Valle, Santander, of the

Mas d'Azil, Ariège, and of Bobache, Drôme. A resemblance is also found in

Portugal; and southern Spain, despite its poverty of typical implements,

shows a similar evolution. Near Salamanca, northwest of Madrid, Spain, the

grottos contain schematic figures and colored pebbles resembling the

Azilian. In Portugal the hearths of Mugem and Cabeço da Arruda are

distinguished by their triangular microliths and are undoubtedly

Pre-Neolithic, because there is neither pottery nor any trace of

domesticated animals, excepting, possibly, the dog.

To the north of Europe the discoveries in Belgium have especial

importance, for typical Azilian implements, including small round

scrapers, lateral gravers, elongated triangular microliths, and knife

flakes are found associated with the remains of the reindeer in the grotto

of Remouchamp and at Zonhoven. It appears in Belgium, as in Italy, that

the use of the Tardenoisian microlithic flint types is prolonged into a

later time than that of the typical Azilian flint implements--the

scrapers, gravers, borers, and knife flakes--which, as we have seen,

appear at the end of the true Magdalenian.

On the other side of the English Channel we again find these flints always

unmingled with pottery and usually distributed along the sea or river

shores. The best-known stations are those of Hastings, directly across

the Channel opposite Boulogne, and of Seven Oaks, near London; in Settle,

Yorkshire, is the Victoria Cave station. To the north, in Scotland, four

Azilian stations have been discovered around Oban, on the western coast

near the head of the Firth of Lorne, while Azilian harpoons have also been

found on the Isle of Oronsay, at its entrance.

Thus the spread of the very small Tardenoisian flint implements in the

final stages of the Palæolithic precedes the southern advent of the

Neolithic.

In Germany only six Azilian-Tardenoisian stations have thus far been

discovered: two to the east of Düsseldorf, one in the neighborhood of

Weimar, two on the headwaters of the Rhine, near Basle, and, by far the

most important, the large and small grottos of Ofnet, on a small tributary

of the Danube northwest of Munich. This last is exceptionally important

because it is the only station where skeletons have been found buried with

Azilian-Tardenoisian flints, thereby enabling us positively to determine

the contemporary human races.

BURIALS IN AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN TIMES

The strange interment which gives Ofnet its distinction belongs to the

period of Azilian-Tardenoisian industry.(12) This conclusion is not

weakened by the absence of Azilian harpoons or painted pebbles, because at

this time the cave of Ofnet served its frequenters only as a place of

burial; there are no hearths or flint workshops to indicate continued

residence, as during earlier Upper Palæolithic times.

This great ceremonial burial seems to afford the only positive evidence to

be found in all western Europe of the kind of people who were pursuing the

Azilian industry. The larger Ofnet grotto opens toward the southwest and

has a length of 39 feet and a width of 36 feet. It was first entered in

early Aurignacian times and shows successive layers of Aurignacian, early

Solutrean, and late Magdalenian cultures, above which lies a thick deposit

of the Azilian-Tardenoisian, in which is found the most remarkable

interment of all Palæolithic times.

[Illustration: FIG. 253. Section across the entrance of the great grotto

of Ofnet near the Danube, occupied at various times from the beginning of

the Upper Palæolithic to the close of the Bronze Age. After R. R. Schmidt.

_IX._ Deposits of the Middle Ages and of the La Tène and Hallstatt

cultures. _VIII._ Deposits of the Upper Neolithic. _VII._ Azilian layer

containing the great burial of 33 skulls. _VI._ Late Magdalenian layer

containing the banded lemmings of the tundras. _V._ Late Solutrean layer

with typical laurel-leaf spear points. _IV._, _III._ Deposits of late and

early Aurignacian age, _III._ containing arctic rodents. _II._ Dolomite

sand with a few teeth of the mammoth and bones of the woolly rhinoceros

marked by the teeth of hyænas.]

This is a ceremonial burial of thirty-three skulls of people belonging to

two distinct races: respectively, brachycephalic and dolichocephalic, and

certainly not related in any way to the Crô-Magnon race. In one group

twenty-seven skulls were found embedded in ochre and arranged in a sort of

nest, with the faces all looking westward. As the skulls in the centre

were more closely pressed together and crushed than those on the outside,

it seems probable that these skulls were added one by one from time to

time, those on the outside being the most recent additions. About a yard

distant a similar nest was found, containing six more skulls embedded and

arranged in exactly the same manner. The interment probably took place

shortly after death and certainly before the separate bones had been

disintegrated by decomposition, for not only the lower jaw but a number of

the neck vertebra were found with each skull. The heads had been severed

from the necks by a sharp flint, the marks of which are plainly visible on

some of the vertebræ.

[Illustration: FIG. 254. Burial nest of six skulls, all facing westward,

from the large grotto of Ofnet. After R. R. Schmidt.]

It is noteworthy that most of these skulls are those of women and young

children, there being only four adult male skulls. On this account some

advance the theory of cannibalism; others that, being taken captive by a

tribe of enemies, these unfortunate people were offered in sacrifice, in

which case decapitation was the means of death. But, then, how explain the

abundant ornaments of stag teeth and snail shells (_Helix nemoralis_) with

which the skulls of the women and little children were decorated, and the

treasured implements of flint with which all save one of the men and a few

of the women and children were provided?

There are precedents for all these singular features of the Ofnet

interment in other Upper Palæolithic burials, namely, the embedding in

ochre, the offerings of ornaments of teeth and of shells, the separate

interment of the skull--all these were customs more or less characteristic

of the Upper Palæolithic, but never observed in Neolithic times.

[Illustration: FIG. 255. Skulls of the two races of Ofnet. Three views of

a broad-headed or _brachycephalic_ skull (above) from the great burial at

Ofnet. Three views of a narrow-headed or _dolichocephalic_ skull (below)

from the same grotto. After R. R. Schmidt. One-quarter life size.]

It will be recalled that the custom of burying the entire body, as well as

that of embedding the body in ochre, is first observed among the late

Neanderthals and obtained throughout the entire Upper Palæolithic from the

Aurignacian burials of Grimaldi to the Azilian, of Mas d'Azil. No other

case, however, is known of the westward turning of the face: in most of

the Upper Palæolithic burials the face of the departed looks toward the

opening of the grotto; but, although the grotto of Ofnet opens toward the

southwest, the skulls, without exception, were facing exactly to the west

and looking toward the wall rather than toward the entrance of the cavern.

THE NEW BROAD-HEADED AND NARROW-HEADED RACES OF OFNET

The burials at Ofnet are the first observed in western Europe which

present a mingling of races. This in itself is a fact of great interest;

it is a prelude to what characterizes all the populations of western

Europe at the present time, namely, the presence of races widely separated

in origin and in anatomical structure, but closely united by similar

customs, industries, and beliefs.

A second fact of even greater importance is the proof of the arrival in

western Europe toward the close of Palæolithic times of two entirely new

human stocks; one broad-headed, resembling the modern Alpine or Celtic

type; the other narrow-headed, resembling the modern 'Mediterranean' type

of Sergi. Beside these pure types there are several blended forms which

are intermediate or mesaticephalic.

Of the eight brachycephalic heads, six are those of children; the two

adult brachycephalic crania belong to young women and are, therefore, not

quite so characteristic as male skulls would be, for in general racial

type is more strongly marked in men than in women; the remaining skulls

are either of a blended form or purely dolichocephalic.

The relationship of the broad-headed race to other prehistoric and

existing broad-headed races of western Europe is also a matter of very

great interest. The Ofnet brachycephals are regarded by Schliz(13) as

closely similar to the type skull of the so-called Grenelle race, which,

in turn, is closely similar to the Furfooz type. Thus the cephalic index

of one (Fig. 255) of these broad, flattened skulls of Ofnet is 83.33 per

cent; the face is relatively narrow, the zygomatic index being low--76.34

per cent; the brain capacity of the female skulls does not exceed 1,320

c.cm. The skull is further described as small, smooth, and delicately

modelled, with a correspondingly feeble dentition, the teeth being small;

the processes of muscular attachment are slightly developed, all of which

characters indicate that the skull belonged to a woman about twenty-five

years of age. The forehead is low, broad, and prominent. It is altogether

typically parallel to the 'skull of Grenelle,' as well as to the female

'skull of Auvernier' described by Kollmann. The peculiarity of this

broad-headed race, like that of Grenelle and of Furfooz, is that, while

the forehead is of only moderate breadth, the posterior part of the skull

is extremely broad. The broad-headed people of Ofnet are thus definitely

considered by Schliz(14) as members of the Furfooz-Grenelle race.

The narrow-headed race of the Ofnet burials is distinct in every respect

and presents resemblances to the branch of the 'Mediterranean' race found

in the foreground of the Alpine regions to-day, in which the head is of a

pear-shaped type. The best preserved of these dolichocephalic skulls (Fig.

255) presents an index of 70.50 per cent, with a brain capacity in the

male of 1,500 c.cm., while the smallest brain capacity is that found in

one of the female skulls with 1,100 c.cm. Among the five adult purely

dolichocephalic skulls the face is not in the least of the broad or

disharmonic Crô-Magnon type, but is in proportion with the cranium, and is

thus truly _harmonic_. The resemblance of this narrow-headed Ofnet skull

to that of the Brünn race, which we have described as occurring in

Moravia in Solutrean times, is only partial, and Schliz concludes that

among the narrow-headed people of Ofnet we have a form of dolichocephaly

which is not identical with any of the known early dolichocephalic forms

of western Europe, but which pursues an independent line of development

similar to the narrow-headed races in the borders of the Alpine region of

the present day. Thus this head type, of a uniform elliptic contour, seems

to have become a stable racial element of the Alpine population, since we

meet it again in later prehistoric times in the region of the southern and

western foreground of the Alps. Among the children's skulls, two are of

the narrow-headed, pear-shaped type similar to the Alpine dolichocephals

of to-day, that is, with a narrow forehead and very broad posterior

portions of the skull.

CENTRAL ORIGIN OF THE BROAD-HEADED (ALPINE?) RACES

The affinity of the broad-headed Azilian-Tardenoisian tribes of the Danube

to those found in the Upper Palæolithic of northwestern Europe seems to be

clearly established. The latter are sometimes known as the Grenelle race

and sometimes as the Furfooz race. Boule(15) observes in regard to the

skeletal remains of Grenelle which were found in the alluvium near Paris,

in 1870, that it is quite impossible now, forty years after their

discovery, to demonstrate their geologic antiquity. This is not the case

with the Furfooz broad-heads, the age of which we regard as well

established, but since the head type appears to be the same in both cases,

we may speak of this race as the Furfooz-Grenelle.

In a cave near Furfooz, in the valley of the Lesse, Belgium, sixteen

skeletons were discovered by Dupont in 1867. With the bones were found

implements of reindeer horn and remains of the late Pleistocene fauna of

northern Europe.(16) The reindeer and the tundra fauna of Belgium were

contemporaneous with the early Tardenoisian culture and with the stag and

forest fauna of southern France, so that the skeletons of Furfooz may

safely be referred to Azilian-Tardenoisian times.

[Illustration: FIG. 256. Broad-headed skull of uncertain archæologic age,

either Palæolithic or Neolithic, discovered at Grenelle, near Paris, in

1870. After de Quatrefages and Hamy. One-quarter life size.]

[Illustration: FIG. 257. Opening of the grotto of Furfooz on the Lesse, a

tributary of the Meuse, near Namur, Belgium, where the skeletal remains of

16 individuals and the type skulls of the broad-headed Furfooz race were

discovered in 1867. After Dupont.]

Only two of the Furfooz skulls were preserved in good shape; they are of

brachycephalic or sub-brachycephalic form, and, following the suggestion

of de Quatrefages and Hamy, these skulls have been spoken of as belonging

to the 'brachycephalic Furfooz race.' The men of this race may certainly

be regarded as belonging to Upper Palæolithic times, whereas the

brachycephalic race found at Grenelle, near Paris, is probably Neolithic.

This by no means prevents the Furfooz and the Grenelle types belonging to

the same general brachycephalic race; it is altogether probable that they

do, and that with them may be included the Ofnet broad-heads.

[Illustration: FIG. 258. Section of the grotto of Furfooz, showing the

burial of 16 skeletons of the Furfooz race and the entrance of the grotto

blocked by a mass of stone. After Dupont.]

[Illustration: FIG. 259. One of the type skulls of the broad-headed

Furfooz race, from the burial grotto of Furfooz, Belgium. After de

Quatrefages and Hamy. One-quarter life size.]

[Illustration: FIG. 260. Restoration of the broad-headed man of Grenelle,

modelled by Mascré, under the direction of A. Rutot. This type of head is

similar to that of Ofnet.]

There are several opinions regarding the geographic centres from which

these broad-heads entered Europe; it is generally believed that they came

from the high plateaus of central Asia. By Giuffrida-Ruggeri the Furfooz

race is identified with the existing broad-headed Alpine race (_Homo

sapiens alpinus_), and is mistakenly adduced as proof that the Alpine race

originated in Europe and is not in any way related to the Mongolian races

of central Asia. A more conservative view(17) is that the recent European

broad-headed types commonly included under the Alpine race cannot yet be

traced back to the Furfooz-Grenelle ancestors, because their connection is

too problematical. Schliz, on the other hand, considers that the

Furfooz-Grenelle race survived in northwestern Europe and corresponds with

that which became the builders of the megalithic dolmens of Neolithic

times, the latter being but slightly modified descendants of the original

Furfooz race; he believes, moreover, that these broad-headed peoples first

occupied central Europe and then extended to western Europe, where they

correspond to the Alpine race, at least in part; that they also migrated

to the north and were the basis of the broad-headed races now found in

Holland and Denmark.

SOUTHERN ORIGIN OF THE NARROW-HEADED (MEDITERRANEAN?) RACES

While it seems probable that the broad-heads represent a central migration

from Eurasia, evidence of an industrial and cultural character indicates

that the narrow-heads came from the south; this is seen both in the south

Mediterranean origin of the Tardenoisian flint industry and in the new

schematic influences on the decadent art of Upper Palæolithic times.

It seems, observes Breuil, as if the schematic influences in art during

Upper Palæolithic times always extend from the south toward the north;

they predominate entirely in the painted rocks of Andalusia, in the

Pyrenees, and in Dordogne. In the grotto of Marsoulas, Haute-Garonne, the

Azilian _motifs_ are clearly superposed upon the Magdalenian polychromes.

This purely schematic phase, which abruptly follows the figure art of

middle Magdalenian times, first made itself felt in the late Magdalenian.

There was a sudden loss of realism which does not indicate affiliation but

rather the infiltration of strange elements from the south; the precursors

of the destructive invasion of the Azilian-Tardenoisian tribes who were

driven from their Mediterranean homes by the westward advance of the

conquering Neolithic races. We imagine(18) that in southern Spain there

dwelt in Upper Palæolithic times a population differing from the

Magdalenians of France and of the Cantabrian Mountains in their lower

artistic tastes. It would therefore appear that the schematic art had its

home toward the south of the peninsula of Spain about the time of the

invasion of the Azilian culture in France.

NORTHERN ORIGIN OF THE BALTIC (TEUTONIC?) RACES

For the first time the retreat of the Scandinavian ice-fields and the less

severe climate permitted a northern migration route along the shores of

the Baltic. This is the first known migration of any tribes along this

route, which throughout all glacial times had been blocked by the vicinity

of the Scandinavian and Baltic ice-fields, but which was now opened by the

approach of the more genial climate which succeeded the long Postglacial

Stage. Whether this Baltic invasion was the advance wave of a northern

long-headed Teutonic race is wholly a matter of conjecture.

"Other peoples," observes Breuil,(19) "known at present only from their

industries, were advancing toward the close of the Upper Palæolithic along

the northern and southern shores of the Baltic and persisted for an

appreciable time before the arrival of the tribes introducing the early

Neolithic Campignian culture which accumulated in the kitchen-middens

along the same shores. Like the southern races of Azilian-Tardenoisian

times, these northerly tribes were truly Pre-Neolithic, ignorant both of

agriculture and of pottery; they brought with them no domesticated animals

excepting the dog, which is known at Mugem, at Tourasse, and at Oban, in

northwestern Scotland. In the use of bone harpoons of elegant form and in

the taste displayed in fine decorations engraved upon bone, these tribes

suggest the culture of the Magdalenians, but a close examination shows

that it could not have been derived from the Magdalenian type. The

community of style with the painted and engraved figures found in western

Siberia and in the central Ural region and north of the Altai Mountains

denotes rather an Asiatic and Siberian origin.

"The decorative designs of these Baltic peoples were very different from

those of the Crô-Magnons in Magdalenian times, and are not schematic; the

conception of the animal figures, although naturalistic, is as crude as

that of the early Aurignacian figures, and is far inferior to that of the

Magdalenian stage." "It is probable," continues Breuil, "that in these

northerly regions the closing cultures of the Upper Palæolithic developed

along more or less parallel lines with those observed in the south in

giving rise to ethnographic elements which travelled along the littoral

regions of the northern seas."

[Illustration: FIG. 261. Implements and decorations showing the

conventional and crude animal designs of the art of the Baltic, from

Maglemose, Denmark. After Reinecke and Obermaier. The implements include

bone harpoons, fish-hooks, horn chisels, awls, spear points, and

smoothers. About one-fifth actual size.]

This race and culture is described by Obermaier(20) as follows:

When primitive man took possession of Denmark the sea-coast was so remote

that he could also reach southern Scandinavia. The station of Maglemose in

the 'Great Moor,' discovered and described by F. L. Sarauw, of Copenhagen,

in 1900, is near the harbor of Mullerup on the western coast of Zealand

and not far from the shore of an ancient freshwater lake formation. These

people were lake-dwellers, living perhaps on rafts but not on dwellings

supported by piles. From these rafts it is supposed the implements dropped

into the lake. The 881 flint implements found here include scrapers,

borers, cleavers, and knives, as well as microlithic flints. They show no

trace of the Neolithic art of polishing, merely suggesting certain chipped

styles observed in the 'kjöddenmöddings.' (See Figs. 263, 264, and 265.)

The influence of the Palæolithic is much stronger, especially in the case

of the microlithic Tardenoisian types. In the industrial culture of

Maglemose, however, far more important than stone are implements of horn

and bone. These the Maglemose folk obtained from the wild ox, moose, stag,

and roe-deer, fashioning them into tools of various types, some of which

are shown in Fig. 261. Many of these tools are ornamented with

conventional designs or very crude animal outlines on one or both

surfaces.

The forests of this time consisted of the characteristic northern flora

including numerous evergreens, the birch, aspen, hazel, and elm, but

without any trace of the oak. There is absolutely no trace of pottery in

the Maglemose deposits. Of great interest is the fact that skeletal

remains of the domestic dog are found here.

The Maglemose culture of the Baltic region is regarded as contemporary

with the Azilian and Tardenoisian in the south. It contains types, not of

flint but of bone, which are prophetic of the Neolithic. Traces of this

culture have been found throughout northern Germany, in Denmark, and in

southern Sweden, as well as to the east and in the Baltic provinces.

Although no human remains have as yet been discovered, it is highly

probable that these people belonged to the northern Teutonic races.

CONCLUSION AS TO THE RELATIONSHIPS OF THE PALÆOLITHIC RACES

Thus in southern, central, and northern Europe the close of Upper

Palæolithic times is marked by the invasion of new Eurasiatic races, all

in a Pre-Neolithic stage of industry and art. It is not improbable that

these races were advance waves from the same geographic regions as the

Neolithic tribes which followed them.

From the earliest Palæolithic to Neolithic times it does not appear that

western Europe was ever a centre of human evolution in the sense that it

gave rise to a single new species of man. The main racial evolution and

the earlier and later branches of the human family were established in the

east and successively found their way westward; nor is there at present

any ground for believing that any very prolonged evolution or

transformation of human types occurred in western Europe.

We should regard as wholly unproved the notion that either of these

Palæolithic races of western Europe gave rise to others which succeeded

them in geologic time; the only sequence of this sort to which some degree

of probability may be attached is that the Heidelberg race was ancestral

to the Neanderthal race.

In most instances, such races as the Piltdown, the Crô-Magnon, the Brünn,

the Furfooz-Grenelle, and the Mediterranean arrived fully formed, with all

their mental and physical attributes and tendencies very distinctly

developed. There is some evidence, but not of a very conclusive kind, that

the modification of certain of these races in western Europe was partly in

the nature of a decline; this was apparently the case both with the

Neanderthals and with the Crô-Magnons.

We may therefore imagine that the family tree or lines of descent of the

races of the Old Stone Age consisted of a number of entirely separate

branches, which had been completely formed in the great Eurasiatic

continent, a land mass infinitely larger and more capable of producing a

variety of races than the diminutive peninsular area of western Europe.

A review of these races in descending order, in respect to stature, the

cephalic index, and brain capacity, is presented in the following table:

+-------------------------------------------------------------------

|---------------------|-------|-------|--------|---------|---------|

| (average). | 90 | 59 | ... |1400-1500| 5 7 |

| | | | | | |

| (brachycephalic) | ... | ... | 86.21 | 1400 | ... |

| (dolichocephalic)| ... | ... | 70.50 | 1500 | ... |

| Crô-Magnon type) | ... | ... | 73.76 | 1590 | 6 |

| Grimaldi |} | {|?63- |1775-1880|5 10-1/2-|

| (Crô-Magnons) |} ... | ... {|?76.27 | ... | 6 4-1/2|

| Chancelade | ... | ... | 72.02 | 1700 | 4 11 |

| Aurignac | ... | ... | 65.7 | ... | 5 3 |

| (negroid) | ... | ... | 69.27 | 1580 | 5 1 |

| Brünn I | 75 | 51.22 | 65.7 or| 1350 | ... |

| | | | 68.2 | | |

| (_H. | | | | | |

| La Chapelle | 65 | 40.5 | 75 | 1626 | 5 3 |

| Spy II | 67 | 44.3 | 75.7 |? 1723 | 5 3 |

| Spy I | 57.5 | 40.9 | 70 |? 1562 | 5 4 |

| La Ferrassie I | ... | ... | ... | ... | 5 5 |

| La Ferrassie II | ... | ... | ... | ... | 4 10-1/2|

| La Quina | ... | ... | ... | 1367 | ... |

| Krapina D | 66 | 42.2 |?83.7 | ... | ... |

| Neanderthal | 62 | 40.4 | 73.9 | 1408 | 5 4 |

| Gibraltar | 66 or| 40 | 77.9 | 1250 or| ... |

| | 73-74| | | 1296 | |

| Piltdown | ... | ... |?78 or |? 1300 | ... |

| | | |?79 |? 1500 | |

| (_Pithecanthropus_)| 52.5 | 34.2 | 73.4 or| 850-1000| 5 7 |

| | | | 70 | 900 | |

| Apes (maximum) | 56 | 37.7 | ... | 600 | ... |

| | | | | | |

+-------------------------------------------------------------------

------------+

|Comparative|

| Length of |

|Arm and Leg|

|-----------|

| |

| 69.73% |

| |

| ... |

| |

| ... |

| |

| ... |

|66.05%-69% |

| |

| ... |

| |

| 63.12% |

| |

| ... |

| |

| ... |

|? 68% |

| 68% |

| ... |

| |

| ... |

| |

| ... |

| |

| ... |

| |

| 104% |

|(chimpanzee|

| minimum.)|

------------+

The chief authorities for these measurements are Schwalbe, Dubois,

Keith, Smith, Woodward, Boule, Sollas, Sera, Klaatsch, Fraipont,

Makowsky, Verneau, Testut, and Broca.

[Illustration: FIG. 262. Tree showing the main theoretic lines of descent

of the chief Pre-Neolithic races discovered in western Europe. (The

Grimaldi race is omitted on account of its aberrant character. The

northern Teutonic long-heads are also omitted.) The Trinil, Heidelberg,

and Neanderthal races are represented as offshoots of one great branch.

The Piltdown race is represented as an independent branch of quite unknown

relations to the other races. It is probable that the five or six branches

of _Homo sapiens_ discovered in the Upper Palæolithic separated from each

other in Lower Palæolithic times in Asia. Of these the Brünn race is by

far the most primitive.]

The migration routes of invasion of the successive Lower Palæolithic

races--the Piltdown, the Heidelberg, and the Neanderthal--are entirely

unknown; we can only infer from the wide distribution of the Chellean and

Acheulean cultures to the south, along the northern African coast, as well

as to the east, that these races may have had a southerly or

circum-Mediterranean origin. This does not mean that either of these Lower

Palæolithic races were of negroid or Ethiopian affinity, because the

Neanderthals show absolutely no negroid characters. In fact, throughout

all Palæolithic time the solitary instance of the two Grimaldi skeletons

furnishes the sole anatomical evidence we possess of the entrance of a

negroid people into Europe, which contrasts widely with the overwhelming

evidence of the dominance in western Europe first of the non-negroid

Neanderthals, and then of the Crô-Magnons who probably belonged to the

Caucasian stock.

The evidence as to the sources and migrations of the Upper Palæolithic

races is also indirect. The theory of the Crô-Magnons entering Europe by

the southerly or Mediterranean route we have seen to rest upon purely

cultural or industrial grounds, namely, the spread of the Aurignacian

industry around the Mediterranean shores. On the other hand, the

succeeding culture, the Solutrean, and the succeeding race to enter

Europe, the Brünn, both appear to be of central or of direct easterly

origin. It is only toward the close of the Upper Palæolithic that another

southerly or Mediterranean invasion occurs, bringing in the microlithic

Tardenoisian culture, which, although anatomical evidence is wanting,

would appear to be an advance wave of the great invasion of the true

'Mediterranean' race. During the Upper Palæolithic Epoch another invasion

apparently occurs from the east along the central migration route, namely,

that of the broad-headed Furfooz-Grenelle races.

Thus in surveying the whole period of the Old Stone Age we find that there

is some evidence for the theory of an alternation of southerly, of

easterly, and finally of northeasterly invasions of races bringing in new

industries and ideas.

TRANSITION TO THE NEOLITHIC. THE CAMPIGNIAN. THE ROBENHAUSIAN

Apart from the special and somewhat debated question of the place of the

Campignian culture in the prehistory of Europe we may close our survey of

the Upper Palæolithic by pointing out some of its contrasts with the

Neolithic.

[Illustration: FIG. 263. Stages in the manufacture of the Neolithic stone

ax, or _hache_. After de Mortillet. 534. _Hache_ of flint, roughly flaked

into shape, from Olendon, Calvados. 535. _Hache_ of flint from Oise, ready

for polishing. It has been finely chipped to a shape of perfect symmetry,

with especial care to smooth out and reduce the large facets made by the

preliminary flaking. 536. _Hache_ of flint after the first polishing, from

Abbeville, on the Somme. The cutting edge has been completely polished,

but along the sides the facets made by flaking are plainly visible. 537.

_Hache_ of flint completely polished, from Le Vesinet, Seine-et-Oise. In

this last stage one scarcely notices the faint traces of facets which show

that this _hache_ has passed through all the preceding stages. Two-ninths

actual size.]

The arrival of the Neolithic cultures and industries in western Europe

marks one of the most profound changes in all prehistory and introduces us

to a new period which must be treated in an entirely different historic

spirit. This new era began between 7,000 to 10,000 years ago, or with the

close of the Daun stage, the last geologic feature of Postglacial times.

There are two theories regarding the close of Upper Palæolithic and the

beginning of Neolithic times. The older theory, which still has some

adherents, is that the Upper Palæolithic races and industries suddenly

gave way before the arrival of new and superior races bringing in the

Neolithic culture. The newer theory is that there are evidences of gradual

transfusions from the Upper Palæolithic into the Neolithic cultures and

that these are found in some of the oldest Neolithic sites.

[Illustration: FIG. 264. Stone hatchet, or _tranchet_, from the type

station of Campigny, after Salmon, d'Ault du Mesnil, and Capitan. One-half

actual size.]

[Illustration: FIG. 265. Stone pick, or _pic_, from the type station of

Campigny, after Salmon, d'Ault du Mesnil, and Capitan. About one-half

actual size.]

In 1898 there appeared an article(21) by Philippe Salmon, d'Ault du

Mesnil, and Capitan, entitled, "Le Campignien," defending the theory of an

early and transitional Neolithic stage, the _Campignian_.(22) The type

station of this early culture was pointed out by Salmon in 1886; it lies a

little more than a mile northwest of the village of Blangy, on the River

Bresle, on a site well placed for natural defense. The remains of the

hut-dwellings of this camp and of various industrial objects appear to

indicate that this station belongs to the earliest phase of the Neolithic

Period. These Campignians owe little to the culture or industry of the

races which previously occupied this region of western Europe; they are

entire strangers, purely Neolithic in type.

While this is the age of polished, as distinguished from chipped, stone,

the axe (_hache_) of polished stone is still very rare in the Campignian.

There prevail flaked flint types common to all the previous stages of the

Stone Age, such as the knives (_couteaux_), planers (_grattoirs_), and

spear or dart heads (_pointes de sagaie_), but we notice the appearance of

two entirely new flint implements: first, the triangular knife or stone

hatchet (_tranchet_), of the type (Fig. 264) common in the Danish

kitchen-middens; this knife has a broad, sharp cutting edge flaked on one

side; second (Fig. 265), there is a sort of elongated axe or pick (_pic_)

with chipped sides and an end more or less conical in shape.(23) These

people also made use of large flakes of flint. If we regard the

Campignian as a prolonged industrial stage in northern Europe, it

certainly precedes the appearance of abundant axe heads of polished flint.

In France it seems to appear occasionally as a local phase of the

Neolithic.

[Illustration: FIG. 266. Restoration of the Neolithic man of Spiennes,

Belgium, modelled by Mascré under the direction of A. Rutot.]

The prevailing opinion at present is that the Campignian distinctly

precedes the typical Neolithic of the Swiss lake-dwellings, a stage known

as the _Robenhausian_. Thus the Neolithic culture becomes fully

established in the period of the Swiss Lake Dwellings, remains of which

are found at Moosseedorf, Wauwyl, Concise on Lake Neufchâtel, and

Robenhausen on Lake Pfaeffikon. The latter is the _Robenhausian_ type

station.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE NEOLITHIC EPOCH

The first of these is the presence of implements of polished stone which

find their way gradually into western Europe. The neoliths at first are

greatly outnumbered by chipped and flaked implements, and some of the

latter show a survival of the familiar types of the Old Stone Age, while

others belong to entirely distinct types which had an independent

development in the far East.

The chief economic change is seen in the rudimentary knowledge of

agriculture and in the use of a variety of plants and seeds, accompanied

by the gradual appearance of implements for the preparation of the soil

and for harvesting the crops. This new source of food supply leads to the

establishment of permanent stations and camps and more or less to the

abandonment of nomadic modes of life. Near the ancient camp sites and

villages, therefore, are found implements for the preparation of skins and

hides, because the chase was still maintained for purposes of clothing as

well as for food.

Still more distinctive of the Neolithic is the introduction of pottery,

which is at first used in the preparation of food. In the hearths or

kitchen-middens and in the refuse heaps of the camps we no longer find

evidence of the splitting of the jaws of mammals and of the long and short

bones of the limbs, or even of the larger foot bones, in search of marrow,

which is such a universal feature of the Upper Palæolithic deposits.

The artistic impulse of the north is very crude and naturalistic. In the

Spanish peninsula, accompanying and following the schematic period

described in the early part of this chapter, there was a long stage of

development in which men were painting on rocks, mostly in the form of

silhouettes, naturalistic figures of animals and of people.(24)

The presence of the moose in these drawings concurs with that of the two

bison represented in the cavern of Cogul and would tend to indicate that

these paintings belong to Upper Palæolithic times, although it is now

considered that they are of early Neolithic age. The character of these

animal designs is totally different from that of the Magdalenian period in

the north and is analogous rather to that of the Bushmen of South Africa.

The authors of these frescos represent not only the ibex, stag, and wild

cattle but also the horse, moose, fallow deer, wolf, and occasionally the

birds. There are many features in this art which show its absolute

independence of origin from that of the Magdalenian of the north, among

them the frequent presence of composition and the almost invariable

presence of human figures.

[Illustration: FIG. 267. Fresco from the rock shelter of Alpera, Albacete,

Spain, painted in dark red and representing a stag hunt, the hunters being

armed with bows and arrows. Attributed to the southern races arriving in

Neolithic times. After Breuil and Obermaier.]

The frescos in the Spanish caverns of Alpera and of Cogul recall those of

southern France but are almost always grouped in series of the chase, of

encampment, and perhaps of war. This frequency of human figures, the

representations of the bow and arrow, and the presence of a small animal

which may be recognized as the domesticated dog are indications of an

entirely distinct race coming from the south and bringing in a new spirit

in art which has no relation whatever to that of the Magdalenian.

NEOLITHIC MAMMALIAN LIFE

Even in the oldest Neolithic deposits no trace of the horse as an object

of food appears. The domestication of this animal was introduced from the

east, and thus it ceased to be an object of the chase. The newly arriving

tribes were undoubtedly attracted by the abundance of horses, both of the

forest and Celtic types, which had survived from Upper Palæolithic times.

A very distinctive feature of the modern horses, however, should be

mentioned, that is, the presence of a forelock covering the face, no trace

of which is indicated in any of the Upper Palæolithic carvings or

engravings.

The wild animal life of western Europe at this time is a direct survival

of the great Eurasiatic forest and meadow fauna which we have traced from

the earliest Palæolithic times. It includes the bison, the long-horned

urus, the stag, the roe-deer, the moose, the wild boar, the forest horse,

the Celtic horse, the beaver, the hare, and the squirrel. The fallow deer

(_Cervus dama_) also appears more abundantly. Among the carnivora are the

brown bear, the badger, the marten, the otter, the wolf, the fox, the

wildcat, and the wolverene. The lion has disappeared entirely from western

Europe. The reindeer survives only in the north.

As observed above, two of these wild animals were early chosen by the

invaders for domestication, namely, the plateau or Celtic horse and the

forest horse. The former type is found in the Neolithic deposits of Essex,

England. The wild urus (_Bos primigenius_) was hunted but was not

domesticated.

Two new varieties of domestic cattle appear, neither of which has been

previously observed in western Europe. The first of these is the 'Celtic

shorthorn' (_Bos longifrons_), the probable ancestor of the small breeds

of British short-horned and hornless cattle. The second is the 'longhorn'

(_Bos taurus_), which shows some points of resemblance to the 'urus' (_Bos

primigenius_) but is not directly related to it. Direct wild ancestors of

this latter animal are said to occur in the Pleistocene of Italy. A new

type of pig also appears, the so-called turf pig (_Sus scrofa palustris_).

The Neolithic invaders, or men of the New Stone Age, thus brought with

them, or domesticated from among the animals which they found in the

forests of western Europe, a great variety of the same types of animals as

those domesticated to-day, namely, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and

dogs.

[Illustration: FIG. 268. Map showing the geographic distribution of the

three principal cranial types of man inhabiting western Europe at the

present time. Prepared after Ripley's maps in his _Races of Europe_. Also

the restricted area neighboring the Vézère valley, where the supposed

descendants of the disharmonic type of the Crô-Magnons are still to be

found. Other small Crô-Magnon colonies are not represented. The

heavy-faced lines show those districts where the race indicated is most

numerous and found in the greatest perfection of type.]

THE PREHISTORIC AND HISTORIC RACES OF EUROPE

Before the close of Neolithic times all the direct ancestors of the modern

races of Europe had not only established themselves, but had begun to

separate into those larger and smaller colonies which now mark out the

great anthropological divisions of western Europe. It is therefore

interesting to glance at the cranial distinctions of the men who

successively entered western Europe in Upper Palæolithic and Neolithic

times. The upper part of the table corresponds with that of Ripley.(25)

MODERN, NEOLITHIC, AND UPPER PALÆOLITHIC EUROPEAN RACES OF THE EXISTING

SPECIES OF MAN (_HOMO SAPIENS_)

+--------------------------------------------------------------

| | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | |

|----|-------------|-------|-------|---------|-------|--------|

|----|-------------|-------|-------|---------|-------|--------|

|----|-------------|-------|-------|---------|-------|--------|

| | | | | | | |

|----|-------------|-------|-------|---------|-------|--------|

| |GRENELLE | | | ? | ? | ? |

|----|-------------|-------|-------|---------|-------|--------|

| II.|BRÜNN- |Long. |Low, | | | |

| |PŘEDMOST | |medium.| ? | ? | ? |

|----|-------------|-------|-------|---------|-------|--------|

| I.|CRÔ-MAGNON. |Long. |Low and| ? | ? |Tall to |

+--------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------+

| |Cephalic|

| Nose | Index |

| |Average |

| |per cent|

|---------|--------|

|Narrow, | 75 |

|aquiline.| |

|---------|--------|

|Rather | |

|broad. | 75 |

| | |

|---------|--------|

|Variable;| 87 |

|rather | |

|broad; | |

|heavy | |

| | |

|---------|--------|

| | |

| ? | 79-85 |

| | |

|---------|--------|

| | 68.2 or|

| ? | 65.7 |

| | |

|---------|--------|

|Narrow, | ? 63- |

|aquiline.| ? 76.27|

-------------------+

It would appear that five out of these six great racial types had entered

Europe before the close of Upper Palæolithic times, namely, I to V in the

above table.

How about the sixth type; the narrow-headed, light-haired people of the

north, the modern Teutonic type? This question cannot be answered at

present. We have, however, high authority for the invasion of a new

northern race, which may have been of the Teutonic type, as occurring

before the close of Palæolithic times. These were the people described

above, migrating along the shores of the Baltic with a new northern

Maglemose culture and crude naturalistic art.

CONCLUSIONS AS TO THE OLD STONE AGE

The above outline of the beginnings of the Neolithic Age shows that the

Palæolithic represents a complete cycle of human development; we have

traced its rise, its perfection, its decline. During this dawning period

of the long prehistory of Europe the dominant features are the very great

antiquity of the spirit of man and the fundamental similarity between the

great steps of prehistory and of history.

The rise of the spirit of man through the Old Stone Age cannot be traced

continuously in a single race because the races were changing; as at the

present time, one race replaced another, or two races dwelt side by side.

The sudden appearance in Europe at least 25,000 years ago of a human race

with a high order of brain power and ability was not a leap forward but

the effect of a long process of evolution elsewhere. When the prehistoric

archæology of eastern Europe and of Asia has been investigated we may

obtain some light on this antecedent development.

During this age the rudiments of all the modern economic powers of man

were developed: the guidance of the hand by the mind, manifested in his

creative industry; his inventive faculty; the currency or spread of his

inventions; the adaptation of means to ends in utensils, in weapons, and

in clothing. The same is true of the æsthetic powers, of close

observation, of the sense of form, of proportion, of symmetry, the

appreciation of beauty of animal form and the beauty of line, color, and

form in modelling and sculpture. Finally, the schematic representation and

notation of ideas so far as we can perceive was alphabetic rather than

pictographic. Of the musical sense we have at present no evidence. The

religious sense, the appreciation of some power or powers behind the

great phenomena of nature, is evidenced in the reverence for the dead, in

burials apparently related to notions of a future existence of the dead,

and especially in the mysteries of the art of the caverns.

All these steps indicate the possession of certain _generic_ faculties of

mind similar to our own. That this mind of the Upper Palæolithic races was

of a kind capable of a high degree of education we entertain no doubt

whatever because of the very advanced order of brain which is developed in

the higher members of these ancient races; in fact, it may be fairly

assumed from experiences in the education of existing races of much lower

brain capacity, such as the Eskimo or Fuegian. The emergence of such a

mind from the mode of life of the Old Stone Age is one of the greatest

mysteries of psychology and of history.

The rise and fall of cultures and of industries, which is at this very day

the outstanding feature of the history of western Europe, was fully

typified in the very ancient contests with stone weapons which were waged

along the borders of the Somme, the Marne, the Seine, and the Danube. No

doubt, each invasion, each conquest, each substitution of an industry or a

culture had within it the impelling contest of the spirit and will of man,

the intelligence directing various industrial and warlike implements, the

superiority either of force or of mind.

(=1=) Cartailhac, 1903.1, pp. 330, 331.

(=2=) Déchelette, 1908.1, vol. I, pp. 314-320.

(=3=) _Op. cit._, p. 320.

(=4=) _Op. cit._, pp. 505-510.

(=5=) Breuil, 1912.6, pp. 2-6.

(=6=) _Ibid._, 1912.7, pp. 232, 233.

(=7=) _Ibid._, 1912.6, p. 20.

(=8=) Koken, 1912.1, pp. 172, 173, 176-178, 180, 181, 201.

(=9=) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 40.

(=10=) Breuil, 1912.7, p. 225.

(=11=) _Op. cit._, p. 233.

(=12=) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 41.

(=13=) Schliz, 1912.1, pp. 242-244.

(=14=) _Op. cit._, p. 252.

(=15=) Boule, 1913.1, p. 210.

(=16=) Dupont, 1871.1.

(=17=) Fischer, 1913.1, p. 356.

(=18=) Breuil, 1912.5.

(=19=) _Ibid._, 1912.7, pp. 235, 236.

(=20=) Obermaier, 1912.1, pp. 467-469.

(=21=) Salmon, 1898.1.

(=22=) Munro, 1912.1, pp. 275-277.

(=23=) Déchelette, 1908.1, vol. I, p. 326.

(=24=) Breuil, 1912.5, p. 560.

(=25=) Ripley, 1899.1, p. 121.

APPENDIX

NOTE I

LUCRETIUS AND BOSSUET ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN

Lucretius's conception[BC] of the gradual development of human culture

undoubtedly came from Greek sources beginning with Empedocles. His

indebtedness is beautifully expressed in the opening lines of Book III of

his _De Rerum Natura_:

"O Glory of the Greeks! who first didst chase

The mind's dread darkness with celestial day,

The worth illustrating of human life--

Thee, glad, I follow--with firm foot resolved

To tread the path imprinted by thy steps;

Not urged by competition, but, alone,

Studious thy toils to copy; for, in powers,

How can the swallow with the swan contend?

Or the young kid, all tremulous of limb,

Strive with the strength, the fleetness of the horse;

Thou, sire of science! with paternal truths

Thy sons enrichest: from thy peerless page,

Illustrious chief! as from the flowery field

Th' industrious bee culls honey, we alike

Cull many a golden precept--golden each--

And each most worthy everlasting life.

For as the doctrines of thy godlike mind

Prove into birth how nature first uprose,

All terrors vanish; the blue walls of heaven

Fly instant--and the boundless void throughout

Teems with created things."

The same conception[BD] of the early periods in the development of

humanity is found in the _Histoire universelle_ of Bossuet, in a curious

passage undoubtedly suggested by Lucretius:

"Tout commence: it n'y a point d'histoire ancienne où il ne paraisse, non

seulement dans ces premiers temps, mais encore longtemps après, des

vestiges manifestes de la nouveauté du monde. On voit les lois s'établir,

les mœurs se polir, et les empires se former: le genre humain sort peu à

peu de l'ignorance; l'expérience l'instruit, et les arts sont inventés ou

perfectionnés. A mesure que les hommes se multiplient, la terre se peuple

de proche en proche: on passe les montagnes et les précipices; on traverse

les fleuves et enfin les mers, et on établit de nouvelles habitations. La

terre, qui n'était au commencement qu'une forêt immense, prend une autre

forme; les bois abattus font place aux champs, aux pâturages, aux hameaux,

aux bourgades, et enfin aux villes. On s'instruit à prendre certains

animaux, à apprivoiser les autres, et à les accoutumer au service. On eut

d'abord à combattre les bêtes farouches: les premiers héros se signalèrent

dans ces guerres; elles firent inventer les armes, que les hommes

tournèrent après contre leurs semblables. Nemrod, le premier guerrier et

le premier conquérant, est appelé dans l'écriture un fort chasseur. Avec

les animaux, l'homme sut encore adoucir les fruits et les plantes; il plia

jusqu'aux métaux à son usage, et peu à peu il y fit servir toute la

nature."

NOTE II

HORACE ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN

Horace[BE] also adopted the Greek conception of the natural evolution of

human culture:

"Your men of words, who rate all crimes alike,

Collapse and founder, when on fact they strike:

Sense, custom, all, cry out against the thing,

And high expedience, right's perennial spring.

When men first crept from out earth's womb, like worms,

Dumb speechless creatures, with scarce human forms,

With nails or doubled fists they used to fight

For acorns or for sleeping-holes at night;

Clubs followed next; at last to arms they came,

Which growing practice taught them how to frame,

Till words and names were found, wherewith to mould

The sounds they uttered, and their thoughts unfold;

Thenceforth they left off fighting, and began

To build them cities, guarding man from man,

And set up laws as barriers against strife

That threatened person, property, or wife.

'Twas fear of wrong gave birth to right, you'll find,

If you but search the records of mankind.

Nature knows good and evil, joy and grief,

But just and unjust are beyond her brief:

Nor can philosophy, though finely spun,

By stress of logic prove the two things one,

To strip your neighbor's garden of a flower

And rob a shrine at midnight's solemn hour."

NOTE III

ÆSCHYLUS ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN

Æschylus, in _Prometheus Bound_,[BF] presents one of the earliest known as

well as one of the noblest conceptions of the natural development of the

human faculties:

"And let me tell you--not as taunting men,

But teaching you the intention of my gifts,

How, first beholding, they beheld in vain,

And hearing, heard not, but, like shapes in dreams,

Mixed all things wildly down the tedious time,

Nor knew to build a house against the sun

With wicketed sides, nor any woodwork knew,

But lived, like silly ants, beneath the ground

In hollow caves unsunned. There came to them

No steadfast sign of winter, nor of spring

Flower-perfumed, nor of summer full of fruit,

But blindly and lawlessly they did all things,

Until I taught them how the stars do rise

And set in mystery, and devised for them

Number, the inducer of philosophies,

The synthesis of Letters, and, beside,

The artificer of all things, Memory

That sweet Muse-mother."

NOTE IV

'UROCHS,' OR 'AUEROCHS,' AND 'WISENT'

Kobelt[BG] discusses the habits of the wild cattle and of the bison as

follows:

"One is inclined to consider the ancient wild cattle of Europe, the

Urochs, or Auerochs, as the inhabitants of boggy forests. The Auerochs

survived to the seventeenth century in the forests of Poland and then

became extinct. It is described as of a black color with a light stripe

along the back.

"The bison, or Wisent, is generally regarded as the inhabitant of the open

steppe, or at least of dryer, opener woods; it differs so little from the

American bison that both can be considered only as races of one species,

the _Bison priscus_ of Pleistocene times, which spread over the temperate

zone of both hemispheres. The American bison has always avoided the woods

and roamed the prairies in countless herds. But all reliable historic

records describe the Wisent as a forest animal, and its few remaining

survivors are entirely limited to the forests. Apparently it was never so

widely and generally distributed as the Auerochs and reached western

Europe later, for it is not found in the north, and never in conjunction

with the mammoth and rhinoceros. Remains of the bison have also been found

in Asia Minor. In Lithuania the bison lives together in herds, resenting

the approach of all strangers. In the Caucasus it lives wild in certain

high valleys and here it is a true mountain animal, its favorite haunts

being the forests of beech, hornbeam, and evergreens from 4,000 to 8,000

feet above sea-level. Only in winter does it descend to lower levels. It

is uncertain whether the Wisent does not also occur in Siberia. Kohn and

Andree assert positively that it is found in large numbers in the wooded

mountains of Sajan, in Siberia (1895)."

According to Kobelt, much confusion in the nomenclature of these animals

has resulted from the fact that, after the extinction of the 'Urochs,' or

'Auerochs,' in the seventeenth century, the term 'Auerochs' was frequently

used by writers as synonymous with 'Wisent,' or bison, an entirely

different animal.

NOTE V

THE CRÔ-MAGNONS OF THE CANARY ISLANDS[BH]

"In the museums of the Grand Canary, Teneriffe, and Palma a considerable

number of prehistoric vessels are preserved. Anthropologists are agreed

that the natives of the archipelago at the time of its conquest, in the

fifteenth century, were a composite people made up of at least three

stocks: a Crô-Magnon type, a Hamitic or Berber type, and a brachycephalic

type. These natives were in a Neolithic stage of civilization. Their arms

were slings, clubs, and spears. Most of the people went naked, except for

a girdle round the loins, and there was no intercommunication between the

islands. Their stone implements were of obsidian or of basalt. Only four

polished axes are known from the Grand Canary and one from Gomera. The

axes are of chloromelanite, and of a type contemporary with megalithic

structures in France. The first colonists probably brought the knowledge

of making pottery with them, but each island developed an individuality of

its own. Even the painted ware of the Grand Canary appears to be of local

origin and not due to external influence. Although undoubted Lybian

inscriptions in the Grand Canary and lava querns of Iron Age type prove

that the archipelago was visited before its conquest by the Spaniards

without affecting the general civilization of its inhabitants."

GUANCHE CHARACTERISTICS RESEMBLING CRÔ-MAGNON[BI]

The following excerpts are quoted from the account given by the

distinguished anthropologist, Dr. René Verneau, of his observations during

a five years' residence in the Canary Islands.

Page 22.

"Without doubt the race that has played the most important rôle in the

Canaries is the Guanche. They were settled in all the islands, and in

Teneriffe they preserved their distinctive characteristics and customs

until the conquest by Spain in the fifteenth century.

"The Guanches, who at that time were described as giants, were of great

stature. The minimum measure of the men was 1.70 m. (5 ft. 7 in.).

"I myself met a number of men in the various islands who measured over

1.80 m. (5 ft. 11 in.). Some attained a height of 2 m. (6 ft. 6-1/2 in.).

At Fortaventure the _average_ height of the men was 1.84 m. (6 ft. 3/10

in.), perhaps the greatest known in any people.

"It is a curious fact that the women who gave birth to such men were

comparatively small--I observed a difference of about 20 cm. (8 in.) in

the heights of the two sexes.

"Their skin was light colored--if we may believe the poet Viana--and

sometimes even absolutely white. Dacil, the daughter of the last Guanche

chief of Teneriffe, the valiant Bencomo, who struggled so heroically for

the independence of his country, had a very white complexion and her face

was quite freckled. The hair of the true Guanche should be blond or light

chestnut, and the eyes blue.

"The most striking characteristic of the Guanche race was the shape of the

head and the features of the face. The long skull gave shape to a

beautiful forehead, well developed in every way. Behind, above the

occipital, one notices a large plane contrasting strongly with the marked

prominence of the occipital itself. In addition, the parietal eminences,

placed very high and very distinct from each other, combined to give the

head a _pentagonal form_."

Page 29.

"The Guanche chiefs were much respected. At Teneriffe the coronation of

the chief took place in an enclosure surrounded with stones (the Togaror),

in the presence of nobles and people. One of his nearest kinsmen brought

him the insignia of power. According to Viera y Clavijo, this was the

humerus of one of his ancestors, carefully preserved in a case of leather;

according to Viana, it was the skull of one of his predecessors.

"The chief (Menceg) placed the relic on his head, pronouncing the

sacramental formula: 'I swear upon the bone of him who has borne this

royal crown, that I will imitate his acts and work for the happiness of

my subjects.' Each noble, in turn, then received the bone from the hands

of the chief, placed it upon his shoulder and swore fidelity to his

sovereign.... These chiefs led a very simple life: their food was like

that of the people, their apparel but little more elaborate, and their

dwellings--like those of their subjects--consisted of _caves_, only theirs

were a little larger than those of the common people. They did not disdain

to inspect their flocks or their harvests in person, and were, indeed, no

richer than the average mortal."

Page 31.

"Above all, the ancient Canarians sought to develop strength and agility

in their children. From an early age the boys devoted themselves to games

of skill in order to fit them to become redoubtable warriors. The men

delighted in all bodily exercises and, above all, in wrestling. At Gran

Canaria (Grande Canarie) they often held veritable tourneys, which were

attended by an immense number of people. These could not take place

without the consent of the nobles and of the high priest.

"Permission obtained, the combatants presented themselves at the place of

meeting. This was a circular or rectangular enclosure, surrounded by a

very low wall, allowing free view of the details of the combat. Each

warrior took his place upon a stone of about 40 cm. diameter (15-1/2 in.).

His offensive weapons consisted of three stones, a club, and several

knives of obsidian: his defensive weapon was a simple lance. The skill of

defense consisted in evading the stones by movements of the body, or

parrying the blows with the lance, without moving from the stone on which

stand had been taken. These combats often resulted fatally for one of the

combatants."

Page 34.

"The Guanche understood the use of the sword, and although it was of wood

(pine), it could cut, they say, as if it were of steel.

"To parry blows, they used a lance, as mentioned above, but they also had

shields made of a round of the dragon-tree (_Dracæna draco_).

"The Guanches were essentially shepherds. While their flocks pastured they

played the flute, singing songs of love or of the prowess of their

ancestors. Those songs which have come down to us show them to have been

by no means devoid of poetic inspiration.

"When the care of their stock permitted, they employed their leisure in

fishing. For this they employed various means--sometimes nets, sometimes

fish-hooks, sometimes a simple stick."

Page 47.

"The Guanches were above all troglodytes--that is to say, they lived in

caves. There is no lack of large, well-sheltered caves in the Canary

Islands. The slopes of the mountains and the walls of their ravines are

honeycombed with them. The islanders may have their choice.

"The caves are almost never further excavated. They are used just as they

are.

"Here is a description of one of these caves, the _Grotto of Goldar_:

"The interior is almost square--5 m. (16 ft. 4 in.) along the left side,

5.50 m. (18 ft.) along the right. The width at the back is 4.80 m. (15 ft.

6 in.). A second cave, much smaller, opens from the right wall. All these

walls are _decorated with paintings_. The ceiling is covered with a

uniform coat of red ochre, while the walls are decorated with various

geometric designs in red, black, gray, or white. High up runs a sort of

cornice painted red, and on this background, in white, are groups of two

concentric circles, whose centre is also indicated by a white spot. On the

rear wall the cornice is interrupted by triangles and stripes of red."

Page 61.

"The Guanches never polished their stone weapons."

Page 168.

"Inhabited caves are very numerous at Fortaventure. The population in

certain parts--Mascona, for example--must be quite numerous to judge by

the number of these caves. At a little distance, in the place known as

Hoya de Corralejo, one may still see the _Togaror_, or tribal meeting

place. It is an almost circular enclosure about 40 m. (131 ft. 2 in.) in

diameter, surrounded by a low wall of stones. Six huts, from 2.50 to 4 m.

(8 ft. 2-1/2 in.--13 ft. 1-1/2 in.) in diameter, designed no doubt for the

sacred animals, stood near the Togaror."

Page 245.

"A great number of Canarians still live in caves. Near Caldera de Bandama

(Gran Canaria) there is a whole village of cave dwellers."

Page 264.

At Teneriffe Dr. Verneau received hospitality in a cabin worthy of the

Palæolithic Age.

"I had no need to make any great effort to imagine myself with a

descendant of those brave shepherds of earlier times. My host was an

example of the type--even though the costume was lacking--and his dwelling

completed the illusion. The walls, which gave free access to the wind,

supported a roof composed of unstripped tree trunks covered with branches.

Stones piled on top prevented the wind from tearing it off.

"Hung up on poles to dry were goatskins, destined to serve as sacks for

the gofio (a kind of millet), bottles for water, and shoes for the family.

A reed partition shut off a small corner where the children lay stretched

out pell mell on skins of animals. For furniture, a chest, a _hollowed-out

stone_ which _served as a lamp_, shells which served the same purpose, a

water jar, three stones forming a hearth in one corner, and that was all."

(And this host was the most important personage in the place.)

Page 289.

Another time, also at Teneriffe, Dr. Verneau had a similar experience.

"An old shepherd invited me to his house and offered me some milk. What

was my surprise on seeing the furnishing of his hut! In one corner was a

bed of fern, near by a Guanche mill and a large jar, in all points similar

to those used by the ancient islanders. A reed flute, a wooden bowl and a

goatskin sack full of gofio completed the appointments of his home. I

could scarcely believe my eyes on examining the jar and the mill. Seeing

my astonishment, the old man explained that he had found them in a cave

where 'the Guanches' lived, and that he had used them for many years. I

could not persuade him to part with these curiosities. To my offers of

money he answered that he needed none for the short time he had still to

live."

NOTE VI

THE LENGTH OF POSTGLACIAL TIME AND THE ANTIQUITY OF THE AURIGNACIAN

CULTURE

The most recent discussion on the length of Postglacial time was that held

at the Twelfth International Congress of Geology, in Ottawa, in 1913

(_Congrès Géologique International, Compte-rendu de la XII Session_,

Canada, 1913, pp. 426-537). The notes abstracted by Dr. Chester A. Reeds

from the various papers are as follows:

"American estimates of Postglacial time have been made chiefly from the

recession of waterfalls since the final retreat of the great ice-fields in

North America. The retreat of the Falls of St. Anthony, Minnesota, has

been estimated by Winchell at 8,000 years and by Sardeson at 30,000 years.

The retreat of the Falls of Niagara has been estimated as requiring from

7,000 to 40,000 years; it has proved a very uncertain chronometer, because

of the great variation in the volume of water at different stages in its

history. The recession of Scarboro Heights and other changes due to wave

action on Lake Ontario have been estimated by Coleman as requiring from

24,000 to 27,000 years. Fairchild has estimated that 30,000 years have

elapsed since the ice left the Lake Ontario region of New York.

"In Europe the most accurate chronology is that of Baron de Geer on the

terminal moraines and related marine clays of northern Sweden. For the

retreat of the ice northward over a distance of 370 miles in Sweden 5,000

years were allowed; for the time since the disappearance of the ice in

Sweden, 7,000 years; for the retreat of the ice from Germany across the

Baltic, 12,000 years; giving a total of 24,000 years as compared with a

total of between 30,000 and 50,000 years allowed by Penck for the retreat

of the ice-fields of the Alps."

NOTE VII

THE MOST RECENT DISCOVERIES OF ANTHROPOID APES AND SUPPOSED ANCESTORS OF

MAN IN INDIA

It is possible that within the next decade one or more of the Tertiary

ancestors of man may be discovered in northern India among the foot-hills

known as the Siwaliks. Such discoveries have been heralded, but none have

thus far been actually made. Yet Asia will probably prove to be the centre

of the human race. We have now discovered in southern Asia primitive

representatives or relatives of the four existing types of anthropoid

apes, namely, the gibbon, the orang, the chimpanzee, and the gorilla, and

since the extinct Indian apes are related to those of Africa and of

Europe, it appears probable that southern Asia is near the centre of the

evolution of the higher primates and that we may look there for the

ancestors not only of prehuman stages like the Trinil race but of the

higher and truly human types.

As early as 1886 several kinds of extinct Old World primates, including

two anthropoid apes related to the orang and to the chimpanzee, were

reported from the Siwalik hills in northern India, and recently Dr.

Pilgrim, of the Geological Survey, has described three new species of

Siwalik apes resembling _Dryopithecus_ of the Upper Miocene of Europe,

also an anthropoid which he has named _Sivapithecus_ and regards as

actually related to the direct ancestors of man, a conclusion which may or

may not prove to be correct. Another extinct Indian ape, _Palæopithecus_,

is of very generalized type and is related to all the anthropoid apes.

NOTE VIII

ANTHROPOID APES DISCOVERED BY CARTHAGINIAN NAVIGATORS[BJ]

The _Periplus of Hanno_ purports to be a Greek translation of a

Carthaginian inscription on a tablet in the "temple of Chronos" (Moloch)

at Carthage, dedicated by Hanno, a Carthaginian navigator, in

commemoration of a voyage which he made southward from the Strait of

Gibraltar along the western coast of Africa as far as the inlet now known

as Sherboro Sound, the next opening beyond Sierra Leone.

Hanno is a very common Carthaginian name, but recent writers think it not

improbable that this Hanno was either the father or the son of that

Hamilcar who led the great Carthaginian expedition to Sicily in 480 B. C.

In the former case the _Periplus_ might be assigned to a date about 520 B.

C.; in the latter, some fifty years later.

The narrative was certainly extant at an early period, for it is cited in

the work on _Marvellous Narratives_ ascribed to Aristotle, which belongs

to the third century B. C., and Pliny also expressly refers to it. The

authenticity of the work is now generally conceded.

According to the narrative the farthest limit of Hanno's voyage, which was

undertaken for purposes of colonization, brought him and his companions to

an island containing a lake with another island in it which was full of

wild men and women with hairy bodies, called by the interpreters gorillas.

The Carthaginians were unable to catch any of the men but they caught

three of the women, whom they killed, and brought their skins back with

them to Carthage. "Pliny, indeed, adds that the skins in question were

dedicated by Hanno in the temple of Juno at Carthage, and continued to be

visible there till the destruction of the city. There can be no difficulty

in supposing these 'wild men and women' to have been really large apes of

the family of the chimpanzee, or pongo, several species of which are in

fact found wild in western Africa, and some of them, as is now well known,

attain a stature fully equal to that of man."

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1905.1 Geology. (With Salisbury, R. D.) American Science Series, Advanced

Course, vols. I and II. Second edition, revised, New York, 8vo, 1905.

=de Charpentier, J.=

1841.1 Essai sur les glaciers et sur le terrain erratique du bassin du

Rhône. Lausanne, 8vo, 1841.

=Chauvent, G.=

1899.1 Sur l'existence d'une faune d'animaux arctiques dans la Charente à

l'époque quaternaire. (With Boule, M.) See Boule, M., 1899.1.

=de Christol.=

1829.1 Notice sur les ossemens humains fossiles des cavernes du

département du Gard. _Ext._ [Acad. Montpellier], 25 pp. et planche.

Montpellier, 8vo, 1829.

=Christy, H.=

1875.1 Reliquiæ Acquitanicæ. (With Lartet, E.) See Lartet, E., 1875.1.

=Collignon, R.=

1890.1 L'anthropologie au conseil de revision; méthode à suivre. Son

application à l'étude des populations des Côtes-du-Nord. _Bull. Soc.

d'Anthropol._, Paris, sér. 4, tome I, 1890, pp. 736-805.

=Commont, V.=

1906.1 Les découvertes récentes à Saint-Acheul, l'Acheuléen. _Rev. de

l'Ecole d'Anthropol._, Paris, année XVI, 1906, pp. 228-241.

1908.1 Les industries de l'ancien Saint-Acheul. _L'Anthropol._, tome XIX,

1908, pp. 527-572.

1909.1 L'industrie moustérienne dans la region du nord de la France.

Congr. _Préhist. de France, V{e} Sess._, 1909, pp. 115-157.

1909.2 Saint-Acheul et Montières. Notes de géologie, de paléontologie et

de préhistoire. _Mém. Soc. Géol. du Nord_, tome VI, iii.

1912.1 Moustérien à faune chaude dans la vallée de la Somme à

Montières-les-Amiens. _Congr. Intern. d'Anthropol. et d'Archéol. préhist.,

C. R., XIV{e} Sess._, Genève, 1912, pp. 291-300.

=Cope, E. D.=

1893.1 The Genealogy of Man. _Amer. Nat._, vol. XXVII, 1893, pp. 321-335.

=Dana, J.=

1875.1 Manual of Geology: Treating of the Principles of the Science with

Special Reference to American Geological History. Second edition, New

York, 8vo, 1875.

=Darwin, C.=

1871.1 The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex. Vols. I and

II. London (Murray), 8vo, 1871.

1909.1 The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex. Second

edition, revised and enlarged, New York (Appleton), 8vo, 1909.

1909.2 The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the

Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life. With additions and

corrections. From sixth and last English edition, New York (Appleton),

8vo, 1909.

=Dawkins, W. Boyd.=

1880.1 Early Man in Britain and His Place in the Tertiary Period. London,

1880.

1883.1 On the Alleged Existence of _Ovibos moschatus_ in the Forest-Bed,

and on its Range in Space and Time. _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, London,

1883, vol. XXXIX, pp. 575-581.

=Dawson, C.=

1913.1 On the Discovery of a Palæolithic Human Skull and Mandible in a

Flint-Bearing Gravel overlying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown,

Fletching (Sussex). With an Appendix by Prof. G. Elliot Smith. (With A. S.

Woodward.) _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, London, vol. LXIX, part I, 1913,

pp. 117-151, Pls. 15-21.

1913.2 Prehistoric Man in Sussex. _Zoologist_, ser. 4, vol. 17, pp. 33-36.

1914.1 Supplementary Note; On the Discovery of a Palæolithic Human Skull

and Mandible in a Flint-Bearing Gravel, etc. (With A. S. Woodward.) With

an Appendix by Prof. Grafton Elliot Smith. _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._,

vol. LXX, 1914, pp. 82-99, Pls. 14, 15.

=Déchelette, J.=

1908.1 Manuel d'archéologie préhistorique celtique et gallo-romaine. Tome

I--Archéologie préhistorique (1908). Tome II--Archéologie celtique ou

protohistorique. Première partie--Age du Bronze (1910). Deuxième

partie--Premier Age du Fer ou Epoque de Hallstatt (1913). Appendices

(1910). Appendices (Supplément) (1912). Paris, 8vo, 1910-1913.

=Desnoyers, J.=

1863.1 Note sur des indices matériels de la coexistence de l'homme avec

_l'Elephas meridionalis_ dans un terrain des environs de Chartres, plus

ancien que les terrains transport quaternaires des vallées de la Somme et

de la Seine. _C. R. Acad. Sci._, Paris, tome 56, 1863, pp. 1073-1083.

=Dietrich, W. O.=

1910.1 Neue fossile Cervidenreste aus Schwaben. _Jahreshefte, Ver. vaterl.

Naturk._, Württemberg, 66 Jahrg., 1910, pp. 318-336.

=Dubois, E.=

1894.1 _Pithecanthropus erectus_, eine Menschenaehnliche Uebergangsform

aus Java. Batavia, 4to, 1894.

=Dupont, É.=

1866.1 Etudes sur les fouilles scientifiques exécutées pendant l'hiver de

1865-1866 dans les cavernes des bords de la Lesse. _Bull. Acad. R. de

Belgique_, sér. 2, tome XXII, 1866, pp. 31-54.

1871.1 Les temps antéhistoriques en Belgique. L'homme pendant les âges de

la pierre dans les environs de Dinant-sur-Meuse. Deuxième édition.

Bruxelles (Muquardt), 8vo, 1871.

=Eccardus, J. G.=

1750.1 De Origine et Moribus Germanorum eorumque vetustissimis colonis,

migrationibus ac rebus gestis. (Ioh. Guil. Schmidii), 4to, Goettingæ, ciↄ

iↄ ccl (1750).

=Elbert, J.=

1908.1 Über das Alter der Kendeng-Schichten mit _Pithecanthropus erectus_

Dubois. _N. Jahrb. Mineral. Géol. u. Pal._, XXV Beil.-Bd., 1908, pp.

648-662.

=Ewart, J. C.=

1904.1 The Multiple Origin of Horses and Ponies. _Trans. Highl. Agri. Soc.

Scotland_, 1904, pp. 1-39.

1907.1 On the Skulls of Horses from the Roman Fort at Newstead, near

Melrose, with Observations on the Origin of the Domestic Horses. _Trans.

R. Soc. Edinburgh_, vol. XLV, part III, no. 20, 1907, pp. 555-587.

1909.1 The Possible Ancestors of the Horses Living under Domestication.

_Science_, n. s., vol. XXX, no. 763, August 13, 1909, pp. 219-223.

=de Ferry, H.=

1869.1 L'Age du Renne en Mâconnais. Mémoire sur le gisement archéologique

du clos du Charnier à Solutré, Département de Saône-et-Loire. (Compte

rendu des fouilles opérées en 1867 et 1868 par MM. H. de Ferry et A.

Arcelin.) _Trans. Intern. Congr. Préhist. Archéol., III{e} Sess._, London,

1868 (published 1869), pp. 319-350, Pls. I, II.

=Fischer, E.=

1913.1 Fossile Hominiden. _Sonderabd. Handwörterbuch Naturwiss._, Bd. IV,

pp. 332-360, Jena, 8vo, 1913.

=Fraipont, J.=

1887.1 La race de Neanderthal ou de Canstadt en Belgique. (With Lohest,

M.) _Arch. Biol._, tome VII, 1887, pp. 587-757.

=Fraunholz, J.=

1911.1 Die Kastlhäng-Höhle, eine Renntierjägerstation im bayerischen

Altmühltale. Mit einem Beitrag von Max Schlosser. (With Obermaier.)

_Beiträge, Anthropol. u. Urgesch. Bayerns_, Bd. XVIII, 1911. (Unpaged

separate.)

=Gaudry, A.=

1876.1 Matériaux pour l'histoire des temps quaternaires. Fasc. I. Paris,

4to, 1876.

1890.1 Le Dryopithèque. _Mém. Soc. Géol. de France, Pal. Mém._ no. 1.

Paris, 4to, 1890.

=Geikie, J.=

1894.1 The Great Ice Age and Its Relation to the Antiquity of Man. Third

edition, largely rewritten. London, 8vo, 1894.

1914.1 The Antiquity of Man in Europe, being the Munro Lectures, 1913.

Edinburgh, 8vo, 1914.

=Godwin-Austen.=

1840.1 On the Geology of the Southeast of Devonshire. _Trans. Geol. Soc._,

ser. 2, vol. VI, pp. 433-489, Pl. XLII.

=Gorjanovič-Kramberger, K.=

1901.1 Der paläolithische Mensch und seine Zeitgenossen aus dem Diluvium

von Krapina in Kroatien. _Mitt. Anthrop. Gesell. Wien_, Bd. 31, pp.

163-197, 4 Pls., 13 Figs.

1903.1 Nachtrag (to the above). _Mitt. Anthrop. Gesell. Wien_, Bd. 32, pp.

189-216, 4 Pls., 17 Figs.

1906.1 Der diluviale Mensch von Krapina in Kroatien. Ein Beitrag zur

Paläoanthropologie. Studien über Entwicklungsmechanik des Primatskelettes

mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Anthropologie und Descendenzlehre....

Herausgegeben von Dr. Otto Walkhoff, Wiesbaden, 4to, 1906.

1909.1 Der vordere Unterkieferabschnitt des altdiluvialen Menschen in

seinem genetischen Verhältnis zum Unterkiefer des rezenten Menschen und

den der Anthropoiden. _Zeitschr. Abstammungs-u. Vererbungsl._, Bd. I, pp.

411-439.

=Harlé, E.=

1899.1 Notes sur la Garonne. _Bull. Soc. d'Hist. Nat. Toulouse_, année

XXXII (Oct., 1899), pp. 149-198.

1908.1 Faune quaternaire de la province de Santandér (Espagne). _Bull.

Soc. Géol. de France_, sér. 4, tome VIII, 1908, pp. 82-83.

1910.1 Les mammifères et oiseaux quaternaires connus jusqu'ici en

Portugal. Mémoire suivi d'une liste générale de ceux de la Péninsule

Ibérique. Ext. tome VIII, "_Communicações_," _Service Géol. du Portugal_.

=Haug, E.=

1907.1 Traité de Géologie. Tome I--Les Phénomènes géologiques (1907). Tome

II--Les Périodes géologiques (1911). Paris, 8vo.

=Hauser, O.=

1909.1 _Homo aurignacensis_ Hauseri, etc. See Klaatsch, H., 1909.1.

=Heim, A.=

1894.1 Ueber das absolut Alter der Eiszeit. _Vierteljahrschrif. naturf.

Gesell. Zurich_, Bd. 39, 1894, pp. 180-186.

=Hilzheimer.=

1913.1 Studienreise zu den paläolithischen Fundstellen der Dordogne. See

Wiegers, 1913.1.

=Hrdlička, Dr. A.=

1914.1 The Most Ancient Skeletal Remains of Man. _Report, Smithsonian

Institution_, etc., 1913, pp. 491-552, Pls. 1-41. Publication 2300.

Government Printing Office, Washington, 8vo, 1914.

=Huntington, E.=

1907.1 The Pulse of Asia. New York, 8vo, 1907.

=James, W.=

1902.1 The Varieties of Religious Experience. A Study in Human Nature.

Being the Gifford Lectures on Natural Religion delivered at Edinburgh in

1901-1902. New York, 8vo, 1902.

=Johnson, J. P.=

1913.1 The Stone Implements of the Tasmanians. _Nature_, vol. 92, no.

2298.

=Keane, A. H.=

1901.1 Ethnology. Cambridge Geographical Series. Stereotyped edition.

Cambridge, 8vo. 1901.

=Keith, A.=

1911.1 Ancient Types of Man. Harper's Library of Living Thought. New York,

12mo. 1911.

1911.2 Discovery of the Teeth of Palæolithic Man in Jersey. _Nature_, vol.

86, no. 2169, May 25, 1911, p. 414.

1911.3 The Early History of the Gibraltar Cranium. _Nature_, vol. 87, no.

2184, September 7, 1911, pp. 313, 314.

1912.1 Cranium of the Crô-Magnon Type found by Mr. W. M. Newton in a

Gravel Terrace near Dartford. _Rpt. 82d Meeting, Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci._,

Dundee, 1912, pp. 516, 517.

1912.2 Hunterian Lecture on Certain Phases in the Evolution of Man.

(Abstract.) _Brit. Med. Journ._, 1912, vol. I, pp. 734-737, 788-790.

1913.1 The Piltdown Skull and Brain Cast. _Nature_, vol. 92, no. 2294,

October 16, 1913, pp. 197-199.

1913.2 The Piltdown Skull and Brain Cast. _Nature_, vol. 92, no. 2297,

November 6, 1913, p. 292.

1913.3 The Piltdown Skull and Brain Cast. _Nature_, vol. 92, no. 2299,

November 20, 1913, pp. 345, 346.

=Kennard, A. S.=

1913.1 [Discussion of] On the Discovery of a Palæolithic Human Skull and

Mandible ... at Piltdown, Fletching (Sussex). See Dawson, C., 1913.1, p.

150.

=King, W.=

1864.1 The Reputed Fossil Man of the Neanderthal. _Quart. Journ. Sci._,

vol. I, pp. 88-97, Pls. I, II.

=Klaatsch, H.=

1909.1 _Homo aurignacensis Hauseri_, ein paläolithischer Skeletfund aus

dem unteren Aurignacien der Station Combe-Capelle bei Montferrand

(Périgord). (With Hauser.) _Prähist. Zeitschr._, Bd. I, 1909 (Heft 3-4,

1910), pp. 273-338.