FOOTNOTES:

[1] President Lincoln was Grant's most unwavering supporter. Many

amusing stories are told of his replies to various deputations which

waited upon him to ask for Grant's removal. On one occasion he asked

the critics to ascertain the brand of whisky favoured by Grant, so

that he could send kegs of it to the other generals. The question of

Grant's abstemiousness was and is of little importance. The cause at

stake over-rode every prejudice and the people of the United States,

since the war, have been in general content to leave the question

alone, as was evidenced by the outcry raised in 1908, when President

Taft reopened it in a speech at Grant's tomb.

[2] The permanent tomb is of white granite and white marble and is

150 ft. high with a circular cupola topping a square building 90 ft.

on the side and 72 ft. high; the sarcophagus, in the centre of the

building, is of red Wisconsin porphyry. The cornerstone was laid by

President Harrison in 1892, and the tomb was dedicated on the 27th of

April 1897 with a splendid parade and addresses by President McKinley

and General Horace Porter, president of the Grant Monument

Association, which from 90,000 contributions raised the funds for the

tomb.

GRANT (from A.-Fr. _graunter_, O. Fr. _greanter_ for _creanter_, popular

Lat. _creantare_, for _credentare_, to entrust, Lat. _credere_, to

believe, trust), originally permission, acknowledgment, hence the gift

of privileges, rights, &c., specifically in law, the transfer of

property by an instrument in writing, termed a deed of grant. According

to the old rule of common law, the immediate freehold in corporeal

hereditaments lay in livery (see FEOFFMENT), whereas incorporeal

hereditaments, such as a reversion, remainder, advowson, &c., lay in

grant, that is, passed by the delivery of the deed of conveyance or

grant without further ceremony. The distinction between property lying

in livery and in grant is now abolished, the Real Property Act 1845

providing that all corporeal tenements and hereditaments shall be

transferable as well by grant as by livery (see CONVEYANCING). A grant

of personal property is properly termed an assignment or bill of sale.

GRANTH, the holy scriptures of the Sikhs, containing the spiritual and

moral teaching of Sikhism (q.v.). The book is called the _Adi Granth

Sahib_ by the Sikhs as a title of respect, because it is believed by

them to be an embodiment of the gurus. The title is generally applied to

the volume compiled by the fifth guru Arjan, which contains the

compositions of Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh religion; of his

successors, Guru Angad, Amar Das, Ram Das and Arjan; hymns of the Hindu

bhagats or saints, Jaidev, Namdev, Trilochan, Sain, Ramanand, Kabir, Rai

Das, Pipa, Bhikhan, Beni, Parmanand Das, Sur Das, Sadhna and Dhanna Jat;

verses of the Mahommedan saint called Farid; and panegyrics of the gurus

by bards who either attended them or admired their characters. The

compositions of the ninth guru, Teg Bahadur, were subsequently added to

the _Adi Granth_ by Guru Govind Singh. One recension of the sacred

volume preserved at Mangat in the Gujrat district contains a hymn

composed by Mira Bai, queen of Chitor. The _Adi Granth_ contains

passages of great picturesqueness and beauty. The original copy is said

to be in Kartarpur in the Jullundur district, but the chief copy in use

is now in the Har Mandar or Golden Temple at Amritsar, where it is daily

read aloud by the attendant Granthis or scripture readers.

There is also a second _Granth_ which was compiled by the Sikhs in 1734,

and popularly known as the _Granth of the tenth Guru_, but it has not

the same authority as the _Adi Granth_. It contains Guru Govind Singh's

_Japji_, the _Akal Ustit_ or Praise of the Creator, thirty-three

_sawaias_ (quatrains containing some of the main tenets of the guru and

strong reprobation of idolatry and hypocrisy), and the _Vachitar Natak_

or wonderful drama, in which the guru gives an account of his parentage,

divine mission and the battles in which he was engaged. Then come three

abridged translations by different hands of the _Devi Mahatamya_, an

episode in the _Markandeya Puran_, in praise of Durga, the goddess of

war. Then follow the _Gyan Parbodh_ or awakening of knowledge, accounts

of twenty-four incarnations of the deity, selected because of their

warlike character; the _Hazare de Shabd_; the _Shastar Nam Mala_, which

is a list of offensive and defensive weapons used in the guru's time,

with special reference to the attributes of the Creator; the _Tria

Charitar_ or tales illustrating the qualities, but principally the

deceit of women; the _Kabit_, compositions of a miscellaneous character;

the _Zafarnama_ containing the tenth guru's epistle to the emperor

Aurangzeb, and several metrical tales in the Persian language. This

_Granth_ is only partially the composition of the tenth guru. The

greater portion of it was written by bards in his employ.

Form of the Granth.

The two volumes are written in several different languages and dialects.

The _Adi Granth_ is largely in old Punjabi and Hindi, but Prakrit,

Persian, Mahratti and Gujrati are also represented. The _Granth of the

Tenth Guru_ is written in the old and very difficult Hindi affected by

literary men in the Patna district in the 16th century. In neither of

these sacred volumes is there any separation of words. As there is no

separation of words in Sanskrit, the _gyanis_ or interpreters of the

guru's hymns prefer to follow the ancient practice of junction of words.

This makes the reading of the Sikh scriptures very difficult, and is one

of the causes of the decline of the Sikh religion.

The hymns in the _Adi Granth_ are arranged not according to the gurus or

bhagats who compose them, but according to rags or musical measures.

There are thirty-one such measures in the _Adi Granth_, and the hymns

are arranged according to the measures to which they are composed. The

gurus who composed hymns, namely the first, second, third, fourth, fifth

and ninth gurus, all used the name Nanak as their nom-de-plume. Their

compositions are distinguished by mahallas or wards. Thus the

compositions of Guru Nanak are styled mahalla one, the compositions of

Guru Angad are styled mahalla two, and so on. After the hymns of the

gurus are found the hymns of the bhagats under their several musical

measures. The Sikhs generally dislike any arrangement of the _Adi

Granth_ by which the compositions of each guru or bhagat should be

separately shown.

The Sikh doctrines.

All the doctrines of the Sikhs are found set forth in the two _Granths_

and in compositions called _Rahit Namas_ and _Tanakhwah Namas_, which

are believed to have been the utterances of the tenth guru. The cardinal

principle of the sacred books is the unity of God, and starting from

this premiss the rejection of idolatry and superstition. Thus Guru

Govind Singh writes:

"Some worshipping stones, put them on their heads;

Some suspend lingams from their necks;

Some see the God in the South; some bow their heads to the West.

Some fools worship idols, others busy themselves with worshipping

the dead.

The whole world entangled in false ceremonies hath not found God's

secret."

Next to the unity of God comes the equality of all men in His sight, and

so the abolition of caste distinctions. Guru Nanak says:

"Caste hath no power in the next world; there is a new order of beings,

Those whose accounts are honoured are the good."

The concremation of widows, though practised in later times by Hinduized

Sikhs, is forbidden in the _Granth_. Guru Arjan writes:

"She who considereth her beloved as her God,

Is the blessed _sati_ who shall be acceptable in God's Court."

It is a common belief that the Sikhs are allowed to drink wine and other

intoxicants. This is not the case. Guru Nanak wrote:

"By drinking wine man committeth many sins."

Guru Arjan wrote:

"The fool who drinketh evil wine is involved in sin."

And in the Rahit Nama of Bhai Desu Singh there is the following:

"Let a Sikh take no intoxicant; it maketh the body lazy; it diverteth

men from their temporal and spiritual duties, and inciteth them to

evil deeds."

It is also generally believed that the Sikhs are bound to abstain from

the flesh of kine. This, too, is a mistake, arising from the Sikh

adoption of Hindu usages. The two _Granths_ of the Sikhs and all their

canonical works are absolutely silent on the subject. The Sikhs are not

bound to abstain from any flesh, except that which is obviously unfit

for human food, or what is killed in the Mahommedan fashion by jagging

an animal's throat with a knife. This flesh-eating practice is one of

the main sources of their physical strength. Smoking is strictly

prohibited by the Sikh religion. Guru Teg Bahadur preached to his host

as follows:

"Save the people from the vile drug, and employ thyself in the service

of Sikhs and holy men. When the people abandon the degrading smoke and

cultivate their lands, their wealth and prosperity shall increase, and

they shall want for nothing ... but when they smoke the vile

vegetable, they shall grow poor and lose their wealth."

Guru Govind Singh also said:

"Wine is bad, bhang destroyeth one generation, but tobacco destroyeth

all generations."

In addition to these prohibitions Sikhism inculcates most of the

positive virtues of Christianity, and specially loyalty to rulers, a

quality which has made the Sikhs valuable servants of the British crown.

The _Granth_ was translated by Dr Trumpp, a German missionary, on

behalf of the Punjab government in 1877, but his rendering is in many

respects incorrect, owing to insufficient knowledge of the Punjabi

dialects. _The Sikh Religion_, &c., in 6 vols. (London, 1909) is an

authoritative version prepared by M. Macauliffe, in concert with the

modern leaders of the Sikh sect. (M. M.)

GRANTHAM, THOMAS ROBINSON, 1st BARON (c. 1695-1770), English diplomatist

and politician, was a younger son of Sir William Robinson, Bart.

(1655-1736) of Newby, Yorkshire, who was member of parliament for York

from 1697 to 1722. Having been a scholar and minor fellow of Trinity

College, Cambridge, Thomas Robinson gained his earliest diplomatic

experience in Paris and then went to Vienna, where he was English

ambassador from 1730 to 1748. During 1741 he sought to make peace

between the empress Maria Theresa and Frederick the Great, but in vain,

and in 1748 he represented his country at the congress of

Aix-la-Chapelle. Returning to England he sat in parliament for

Christchurch from 1749 to 1761. In 1754 Robinson was appointed a

secretary of state and leader of the House of Commons by the prime

minister, the duke of Newcastle, and it was on this occasion that Pitt

made the famous remark to Fox, "the duke might as well have sent us his

jackboot to lead us." In November 1755 he resigned, and in April 1761 he

was created Baron Grantham. He was master of the wardrobe from 1749 to

1754 and again from 1755 to 1760, and was joint postmaster-general in

1765 and 1766. He died in London on the 30th of September 1770.

Grantham's elder son, THOMAS ROBINSON (1738-1786), who became the 2nd

baron, was born at Vienna on the 30th of November 1738. Educated at

Westminster School and at Christ's College, Cambridge, he entered

parliament as member for Christchurch in 1761, and succeeded to the

peerage in 1770. In 1771 he was sent as ambassador to Madrid and

retained this post until war broke out between England and Spain in

1779. From 1780 to 1782 Grantham was first commissioner of the board of

trade and foreign plantations, and from July 1782 to April 1783

secretary for the foreign department under Lord Shelburne. He died on

the 20th of July 1786, leaving two sons, Thomas Philip, who became the

3rd baron, and Frederick John afterwards 1st earl of Ripon.

THOMAS PHILIP ROBINSON, 3rd Baron Grantham (1781-1859). in 1803 took the

name of Weddell instead of that of Robinson. In May 1833 he became Earl

de Grey of Wrest on the death of his maternal aunt, Amabell

Hume-Campbell, Countess de Grey (1751-1833), and he now took the name of

de Grey. He was first lord of the admiralty under Sir Robert Peel in

1834-1835 and from 1841 to 1844 lord-lieutenant of Ireland. On his

death without male issue his nephew, George Frederick Samuel Robinson,

afterwards marquess of Ripon (q.v.), succeeded as Earl de Grey.

GRANTHAM, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Lincolnshire,

England; situated in a pleasant undulating country on the river Witham.

Pop. (1901) 17,593. It is an important junction of the Great Northern

railway, 105 m. N. by W. from London, with branch lines to Nottingham,

Lincoln and Boston; while there is communication with Nottingham and the

Trent by the Grantham canal. The parish church of St Wulfram is a

splendid building, exhibiting all the Gothic styles, but mainly Early

English and Decorated. The massive and ornate western tower and spire,

about 280 ft. in height, are of early Decorated workmanship. There is a

double Decorated crypt beneath the lady chapel. The north and south

porches are fine examples of a later period of the same style. The

delicately carved font is noteworthy. Two libraries, respectively of the

16th and 17th centuries, are preserved in the church. At the King Edward

VI. grammar school Sir Isaac Newton received part of his education. A

bronze statue commemorates him. The late Perpendicular building is

picturesque, and the school was greatly enlarged in 1904. The Angel

Hotel is a hostelry of the 15th century, with a gateway of earlier date.

A conduit dating from 1597 stands in the wide market-place. Modern

public buildings are a gild hall, exchange hall, and several churches

and chapels. The Queen Victoria Memorial home for nurses was erected in

1902-1903. The chief industries are malting and the manufacture of

agricultural implements. Grantham returns one member to parliament. The

borough falls within the S. Kesteven or Stamford division of the county.

Grantham was created a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Lincoln in

1905. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12

councillors. Area, 1726 acres.

Although there is no authentic evidence of Roman occupation, Grantham

(Graham, Granham in Domesday Book) from its situation on the Ermine

Street, is supposed to have been a Roman station. It was possibly a

borough in the Saxon period, and by the time of the Domesday Survey it

was a royal borough with 111 burgesses. Charters of liberties existing

now only in the confirmation charter of 1377 were granted by various

kings. From the first the town was governed by a bailiff appointed by

the lord of the manor, but by the end of the 14th century the office of

alderman had come into existence. Finally government under a mayor and

alderman was granted by Edward IV. in 1463, and Grantham became a

corporate town. Among later charters, that of James II., given in 1685,

changed the title to that of government by a mayor and 6 aldermen, but

this was afterwards reversed and the old order resumed. Grantham was

first represented in parliament in 1467, and returned two members; but

by the Redistribution Act of 1885 the number was reduced to one. Richard

III. in 1483 granted a Wednesday market and two fairs yearly, namely on

the feast of St Nicholas the Bishop, and the two following days, and on

Passion Sunday and the day following. At the present day the market is

held on Saturday, and fairs are held on the Monday, Tuesday and

Wednesday following the fifth Sunday in Lent; a cherry fair on the 11th

of July and two stock fairs on the 26th of October and the 17th of

December.

GRANTLEY, FLETCHER NORTON, 1st Baron (1716-1789), English politician,

was the eldest son of Thomas Norton of Grantley, Yorkshire, where he was

born on the 23rd of June 1716. He became a barrister in 1739, and, after

a period of inactivity, obtained a large and profitable practice,

becoming a K.C. in 1754, and afterwards attorney-general for the county

palatine of Lancaster. In 1756 he was elected member of parliament for

Appleby; he represented Wigan from 1761 to 1768, and was appointed

solicitor-general for England and knighted in 1762. He took part in the

proceedings against John Wilkes, and, having become attorney-general in

1763, prosecuted the 5th Lord Byron for the murder of William Chaworth,

losing his office when the marquess of Rockingham came into power in

July 1765. In 1769, being now member of parliament for Guildford,

Norton became a privy councillor and chief justice in eyre of the

forests south of the Trent, and in 1770 was chosen Speaker of the House

of Commons. In 1777, when presenting the bill for the increase of the

civil list to the king, he told George III. that parliament has "not

only granted to your majesty a large present supply, but also a very

great additional revenue; great beyond example; great beyond your

majesty's highest expense." This speech aroused general attention and

caused some irritation; but the Speaker was supported by Fox and by the

city of London, and received the thanks of the House of Commons. George,

however, did not forget these plain words, and after the general

election of 1780, the prime minister, Lord North, and his followers

declined to support the re-election of the retiring Speaker, alleging

that his health was not equal to the duties of the office, and he was

defeated when the voting took place. In 1782 he was made a peer as Baron

Grantley of Markenfield. He died in London on the 1st of January 1789.

He was succeeded as Baron Grantley by his eldest son William

(1742-1822). Wraxall describes Norton as "a bold, able and eloquent, but

not a popular pleader," and as Speaker he was aggressive and indiscreet.

Derided by satirists as "Sir Bullface Doublefee," and described by

Horace Walpole as one who "rose from obscure infamy to that infamous

fame which will long stick to him," his character was also assailed by

Junius, and the general impression is that he was a hot-tempered,

avaricious and unprincipled man.

See H. Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._, edited by G. F.

R. Barker (1894); Sir N. W. Wraxall, _Historical and Posthumous

Memoirs_, edited by H. B. Wheatley (1884); and J. A. Manning, _Lives

of the Speakers_ (1850).

GRANTOWN, the capital of Speyside, Elginshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901)

1568. It lies on the left bank of the Spey, 23-1/4 m. S. of Forres by

the Highland railway, with a station on the Great North of Scotland's

Speyside line connecting Craigellachie with Boat of Garten. It was

founded in 1776 by Sir James Grant of Grant, and became the chief seat

of that ancient family, who had lived on their adjoining estate of

Freuchie (Gaelic, _fraochach_, "heathery") since the beginning of the

15th century, and hence were usually described as the lairds of

Freuchie. The public buildings include the town hall, court house and

orphan hospital; and the industries are mainly connected with the cattle

trade and the distilling of whisky. The town, built of grey granite,

presents a handsome appearance, and being delightfully situated in the

midst of the most beautiful pine and birch woods in Scotland, with pure

air and a bracing climate, is an attractive resort. Castle Grant,

immediately to the north, is the principal mansion of the earl of

Seafield, the head of the Clan Grant. In a cave, still called "Lord

Huntly's Cave," in a rocky glen in the vicinity, George, marquess of

Huntly, lay hid during Montrose's campaign in 1644-45.

GRANULITE (Lat. _granulum_, a little grain), a name used by

petrographers to designate two distinct classes of rocks. According to

the terminology of the French school it signifies a granite in which

both kinds of mica (muscovite and biotite) occur, and corresponds to the

German _Granit_, or to the English "muscovite biotite granite." This

application has not been accepted generally. To the German petrologists

"granulite" means a more or less banded fine-grained metamorphic rock,

consisting mainly of quartz and felspar in very small irregular

crystals, and containing usually also a fair number of minute rounded

pale-red garnets. Among English and American geologists the term is

generally employed in this sense. The granulites are very closely allied

to the gneisses, as they consist of nearly the same minerals, but they

are finer grained, have usually less perfect foliation, are more

frequently garnetiferous, and have some special features of microscopic

structure. In the rocks of this group the minerals, as seen in a

microscopic slide, occur as small rounded grains forming a mosaic

closely fitted together. The individual crystals have never perfect

form, and indeed rarely any traces of it. In some granulites they

interlock, with irregular borders; in others they have been drawn out

and flattened into tapering lenticles by crushing. In most cases they

are somewhat rounded with smaller grains between the larger. This is

especially true of the quartz and felspar which are the predominant

minerals; mica always appears as flat scales (irregular or rounded but

not hexagonal). Both muscovite and biotite may be present and vary

considerably in abundance; very commonly they have their flat sides

parallel and give the rock a rudimentary schistosity, and they may be

aggregated into bands--in which case the granulites are

indistinguishable from certain varieties of gneiss. The garnets are very

generally larger than the above-mentioned ingredients, and easily

visible with the eye as pink spots on the broken surfaces of the rock.

They usually are filled with enclosed grains of the other minerals.

The felspar of the granulites is mostly orthoclase or cryptoperthite;

microcline, oligoclase and albite are also common. Basic felspars occur

only rarely. Among accessory minerals, in addition to apatite, zircon,

and iron oxides, the following may be mentioned: hornblende (not

common), riebeckite (rare), epidote and zoisite, calcite, sphene,

andalusite, sillimanite, kyanite, hercynite (a green spinel), rutile,

orthite and tourmaline. Though occasionally we may find larger grains of

felspar, quartz or epidote, it is more characteristic of these rocks

that all the minerals are in small, nearly uniform, imperfectly shaped

individuals.

On account of the minuteness with which it has been described and the

important controversies on points of theoretical geology which have

arisen regarding it, the granulite district of Saxony (around Rosswein,

Penig, &c.) may be considered the typical region for rocks of this

group. It should be remembered that though granulites are probably the

commonest rocks of this country, they are mingled with granites,

gneisses, gabbros, amphibolites, mica schists and many other

petrographical types. All of these rocks show more or less metamorphism

either of a thermal character or due to pressure and crushing. The

granites pass into gneiss and granulite; the gabbros into flaser gabbro

and amphibolite; the slates often contain andalusite or chiastolite, and

show transitions to mica schists. At one time these rocks were regarded

as Archean gneisses of a special type. Johannes Georg Lehmann propounded

the hypothesis that their present state was due principally to crushing

acting on them in a solid condition, grinding them down and breaking up

their minerals, while the pressure to which they were subjected welded

them together into coherent rock. It is now believed, however, that they

are comparatively recent and include sedimentary rocks, partly of

Palaeozoic age, and intrusive masses which may be nearly massive or may

have gneissose, flaser or granulitic structures. These have been

developed largely by the injection of semi-consolidated highly viscous

intrusions, and the varieties of texture are original or were produced

very shortly after the crystallization of the rocks. Meanwhile, however,

Lehmann's advocacy of post-consolidation crushing as a factor in the

development of granulites has been so successful that the terms

granulitization and granulitic structures are widely employed to

indicate the results of dynamometamorphism acting on rocks at a period

long after their solidification.

The Saxon granulites are apparently for the most part igneous and

correspond in composition to granites and porphyries. There are,

however, many granulites which undoubtedly were originally sediments

(arkoses, grits and sandstones). A large part of the highlands of

Scotland consists of paragranulites of this kind, which have received

the group name of "Moine gneisses."

Along with the typical acid granulites above described, in Saxony,

India, Scotland and other countries there occur dark-coloured basic

granulites ("trap granulites"). These are fine-grained rocks, not

usually banded, nearly black in colour with small red spots of garnet.

Their essential minerals are pyroxene, plagioclase and garnet:

chemically they resemble the gabbros. Green augite and hypersthene form

a considerable part of these rocks, they may contain also biotite,

hornblende and quartz. Around the garnets there is often a radial

grouping of small grains of pyroxene and hornblende in a clear matrix of

felspar: these "centric" structures are frequent in granulites. The

rocks of this group accompany gabbro and serpentine, but the exact

conditions under which they are formed and the significance of their

structures is not very clearly understood. (J. S. F.)

GRANVELLA, ANTOINE PERRENOT, CARDINAL DE (1517-1586), one of the ablest

and most influential of the princes of the church during the great

political and ecclesiastical movements which immediately followed the

appearance of Protestantism in Europe, was born on the 20th of August

1517 at Besancon, where his father, Nicolas Perrenot de Granvella

(1484-1550), who afterwards became chancellor of the empire under

Charles V., was practising as a lawyer. Later Nicolas held an

influential position in the Netherlands, and from 1530 until his death

he was one of the emperor's most trusted advisers in Germany. On the

completion of his studies in law at Padua and in divinity at Louvain,

Antoine held a canonry at Besancon, but he was promoted to the bishopric

of Arras when barely twenty-three (1540). In his episcopal capacity he

attended several diets of the empire, as well as the opening meetings of

the council of Trent; and the influence of his father, now chancellor,

led to his being entrusted with many difficult and delicate pieces of

public business, in the execution of which he developed a rare talent

for diplomacy, and at the same time acquired an intimate acquaintance

with most of the currents of European politics. One of his specially

noteworthy performances was the settlement of the terms of peace after

the defeat of the league of Schmalkalden at Muhlberg in 1547, a

settlement in which, to say the least, some particularly sharp practice

was exhibited. In 1550 he succeeded his father in the office of

secretary of state; in this capacity he attended Charles in the war with

Maurice, elector of Saxony, accompanied him in the flight from

Innsbruck, and afterwards drew up the treaty of Passau (August 1552). In

the following year he conducted the negotiations for the marriage of

Mary of England and Philip II. of Spain, to whom, in 1555, on the

abdication of the emperor, he transferred his services, and by whom he

was employed in the Netherlands. In April 1559 Granvella was one of the

Spanish commissioners who arranged the peace of Cateau Cambresis, and on

Philip's withdrawal from the Netherlands in August of the same year he

was appointed prime minister to the regent, Margaret of Parma. The

policy of repression which in this capacity he pursued during the next

five years secured for him many tangible rewards, in 1560 he was

elevated to the archiepiscopal see of Malines, and in 1561 he received

the cardinal's hat; but the growing hostility of a people whose

religious convictions he had set himself to trample under foot

ultimately made it impossible for him to continue in the Low Countries,

and by the advice of his royal master he, in March 1564, retired to

Franche Comte. Nominally this withdrawal was only of a temporary

character, but it proved to be final. The following six years were spent

in comparative quiet, broken, however, by a visit to Rome in 1565; but

in 1570 Granvella, at the call of Philip, resumed public life by

accepting another mission to Rome. Here he helped to arrange the

alliance between the Papacy, Venice and Spain against the Turks, an

alliance which was responsible for the victory of Lepanto. In the same

year he became viceroy of Naples, a post of some difficulty and danger,

which for five years he occupied with ability and success. He was

summoned to Madrid in 1575 by Philip II. to be president of the council

for Italian affairs. Among the more delicate negotiations of his later

years were those of 1580, which had for their object the ultimate union

of the crowns of Spain and Portugal, and those of 1584, which resulted

in a check to France by the marriage of the Spanish infanta Catherine to

Charles Emmanuel, duke of Savoy. In the same year he was made archbishop

of Besancon, but meanwhile he had been stricken with a lingering

disease; he was never enthroned, but died at Madrid on the 21st of

September 1586. His body was removed to Besancon, where his father had

been buried. Granvella was a man of great learning, which was equalled

by his industry, and these qualities made him almost indispensable both

to Charles V. and to Philip II.

Numerous letters and memoirs of Granvella are preserved in the

archives of Besancon. These were to some extent made use of by Prosper

Leveque in his _Memoires pour servir_ (1753), as well as by the Abbe

Boisot in the _Tresor de Granvella_. A commission for publishing the

whole of the letters and memoirs was appointed by Guizot in 1834, and

the result has been the issue of nine volumes of the _Papiers d'Etat

du cardinal de Granvelle_, edited by C. Weiss (Paris, 1841-1852). They

form a part of the _Collection de documents inedits sur l'histoire de

France_, and were supplemented by the _Correspondance du cardinal

Granvelle, 1565-1586_, edited by M. E. Poullet and G. J. C. Piot (12

vols., Brussels, 1878-1896). See also the anonymous _Histoire du

cardinal de Granville_, attributed to Courchetet D'Esnans (Paris,

1761); J. L. Motley, _Rise of the Dutch Republic_; M. Philippson, _Ein

Ministerium unter Philipp II._ (Berlin, 1895); and the _Cambridge

Modern History_ (vol. iii. 1904).

GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE GEORGE LEVESON-GOWER, 2ND EARL (1815-1891), English

statesman, eldest son of the 1st Earl Granville (1773-1846), by his

marriage with Lady Harriet, daughter of the duke of Devonshire, was born

in London on the 11th of May 1815. His father, Granville Leveson-Gower,

was a younger son of Granville, 2nd Lord Gower and 1st marquess of

Stafford (1720-1803), by his third wife; an elder son by the second wife

(a daughter of the 1st duke of Bridgwater) became the 2nd marquess of

Stafford, and his marriage with the daughter and heiress of the 17th

earl of Sutherland (countess of Sutherland in her own right) led to the

merging of the Gower and Stafford titles in that of the dukes of

Sutherland (created 1833), who represent the elder branch of the family.

As Lord Granville Leveson-Gower, the 1st Earl Granville (created

viscount in 1815 and earl in 1833) entered the diplomatic service and

was ambassador at St Petersburg (1804-1807) and at Paris (1824-1841). He

was a Liberal in politics and an intimate friend of Canning. The title

of Earl Granville had been previously held in the Carteret family.

After being at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, young Lord Leveson went

to Paris for a short time under his father, and in 1836 was returned to

parliament in the Whig interest for Morpeth. For a short time he was

under-secretary for foreign affairs in Lord Melbourne's ministry. In

1840 he married Lady Acton (Marie Louise Pelline de Dalberg, widow of

Sir Richard Acton; see ACTON and DALBERG). From 1841 till his father's

death in 1846, when he succeeded to the title, he sat for Lichfield. In

the House of Lords he signalized himself as a Free Trader, and Lord John

Russell made him master of the buckhounds (1846). He proved a useful

member of the party, and his influence and amiable character were

valuable in all matters needing diplomacy and good breeding. He became

vice-president of the Board of Trade in 1848, and took a prominent part

in promoting the great exhibition of 1851. In the latter year, having

already been admitted to the cabinet, he succeeded Palmerston at the

foreign office until Lord John Russell's defeat in 1852; and when Lord

Aberdeen formed his government at the end of the year, he became first

president of the council, and then chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster

(1854). Under Lord Palmerston (1855) he was president of the council.

His interest in education (a subject associated with this office) led to

his election (1856) as chancellor of the London University, a post he

held for thirty-five years; and he was a prominent champion of the

movement for the admission of women, and also of the teaching of modern

languages. From 1855 Lord Granville led the Liberals in the Upper House,

both in office, and, after Palmerston's resignation in 1858, in

opposition. He went in 1856 as head of the British mission to the tsar's

coronation in Moscow. In June 1859 the queen, embarrassed by the rival

ambitions of Palmerston and Russell, sent for him to form a ministry,

but he was unable to do so, and Palmerston again became prime minister,

with Lord John as foreign secretary and Granville as president of the

council. In 1860 his wife died, and to this heavy loss was shortly added

that of his great friends Lord and Lady Canning and of his mother

(1862); but he devoted himself to his political work, and retained his

office when, on Palmerston's death in 1865, Lord Russell (now a peer)

became prime minister and took over the leadership in the House of

Lords. He was made Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, and in the same

year married again, his second wife being Miss Castalia Campbell. From

1866 to 1868 he was in opposition, but in December 1868 he became

colonial secretary in Gladstone's first ministry. His tact was

invaluable to the government in carrying the Irish Church and Land Bills

through the House of Lords. On the 27th of June 1870, on Lord

Clarendon's death, he was transferred to the foreign office. Lord

Granville's name is mainly associated with his career as foreign

secretary (1870-1874 and 1880-1885); but the Liberal foreign policy of

that period was not distinguished by enterprise or "backbone." Lord

Granville personally was patient and polite, but his courteous and

pacific methods were somewhat inadequate in dealing with the new

situation then arising in Europe and outside it; and foreign governments

had little scruple in creating embarrassments for Great Britain, and

relying on the disinclination of the Liberal leaders to take strong

measures. The Franco-German War of 1870 broke out within a few days of

Lord Granville's quoting in the House of Lords (11th of July) the

curiously unprophetic opinion of the permanent under-secretary (Mr

Hammond) that "he had never known so great a lull in foreign affairs."

Russia took advantage of the situation to denounce the Black Sea clauses

of the treaty of Paris, and Lord Granville's protest was ineffectual. In

1871 an intermediate zone between Asiatic Russia and Afghanistan was

agreed on between him and Shuvalov; but in 1873 Russia took possession

of Khiva, within the neutral zone, and Lord Granville had to accept the

aggression. When the Conservatives came into power in 1874, his part for

the next six years was to criticize Disraeli's "spirited" foreign

policy, and to defend his own more pliant methods. He returned to the

foreign office in 1880, only to find an anti-British spirit developing

in German policy which the temporizing methods of the Liberal leaders

were generally powerless to deal with. Lord Granville failed to realize

in time the importance of the Angra Pequena question in 1883-1884, and

he was forced, somewhat ignominiously, to yield to Bismarck over it.

Whether in Egypt, Afghanistan or equatorial and south-west Africa,

British foreign policy was dominated by suavity rather than by the

strength which commands respect. Finally, when Gladstone took up Home

Rule for Ireland, Lord Granville, whose mind was similarly receptive to

new ideas, adhered to his chief (1886), and gracefully gave way to Lord

Rosebery when the latter was preferred to the foreign office; the

Liberals had now realized that they had lost ground in the country by

Lord Granville's occupancy of the post. He went to the Colonial Office

for six months, and in July 1886 retired from public life. He died in

London on the 31st of March 1891, being succeeded in the title by his

son, born in 1872. Lord Granville was a man of much charm and many

friendships, and an admirable after-dinner speaker. He spoke French like

a Parisian, and was essentially a diplomatist; but he has no place in

history as a constructive statesman.

The life of Lord Granville (1905), by Lord Fitzmaurice, is full of

interesting material for the history of the period, but being written

by a Liberal, himself an under-secretary for foreign affairs, it

explains rather than criticizes Lord Granville's work in that

department. (H. Ch.)

GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET, EARL (1690-1763), English statesman, commonly

known by his earlier title as Lord Carteret, born on the 22nd of April

1690, was the son of George, 1st Lord Carteret, by his marriage with

Grace Granville, daughter of Sir John Granville, 1st earl of Bath, and

great grandson of the Elizabethan admiral, Sir Richard Grenville, famous

for his death in the "Revenge." The family of Carteret was settled in

the Channel Islands, and was of Norman descent. John Carteret was

educated at Westminster, and at Christ Church, Oxford. Swift says that

"with a singularity scarce to be justified he carried away more Greek,

Latin and philosophy than properly became a person of his rank."

Throughout life Carteret not only showed a keen love of the classics,

but a taste for, and a knowledge of, modern languages and literatures.

He was almost the only Englishman of his time who knew German. Harte,

the author of the _Life of Gustavus Adolphus_, acknowledged the aid

which Carteret had given him. On the 17th of October 1710 he married at

Longleat Lady Frances Worsley, grand-daughter of the first Viscount

Weymouth. He took his seat in the Lords on the 25th of May 1711. Though

his family, on both sides, had been devoted to the house of Stuart,

Carteret was a steady adherent of the Hanoverian dynasty. He was a

friend of the Whig leaders Stanhope and Sunderland, took a share in

defeating the Jacobite conspiracy of Bolingbroke on the death of Queen

Anne, and supported the passing of the Septennial Act. Carteret's

interests were however in foreign, and not in domestic policy. His

serious work in public life began with his appointment, early in 1719,

as ambassador to Sweden. During this and the following year he was

employed in saving Sweden from the attacks of Peter the Great, and in

arranging the pacification of the north. His efforts were finally

successful. During this period of diplomatic work he acquired an

exceptional knowledge of the affairs of Europe, and in particular of

Germany, and displayed great tact and temper in dealing with the Swedish

senate, with Queen Ulrica, with the king of Denmark and Frederick

William I. of Prussia. But he was not qualified to hold his own in the

intrigues of court and parliament in London. Named secretary of state

for the southern department on his return home, he soon became

helplessly in conflict with the intrigues of Townshend and Sir Robert

Walpole. To Walpole, who looked upon every able colleague, or

subordinate, as an enemy to be removed, Carteret was exceptionally

odious. His capacity to speak German with the king would alone have made

Sir Robert detest him. When, therefore, the violent agitation in Ireland

against Wood's halfpence (see SWIFT, JONATHAN) made it necessary to

replace the duke of Grafton as lord lieutenant, Carteret was sent to

Dublin. He landed in Dublin on the 23rd of October 1724, and remained

there till 1730. In the first months of his tenure of office he had to

deal with the furious opposition to Wood's halfpence, and to counteract

the effect of Swift's _Draper's Letters_. The lord lieutenant had a

strong personal liking for Swift, who was also a friend of Lady

Carteret's family. It is highly doubtful whether Carteret could have

reconciled his duty to the crown with his private friendships, if

government had persisted in endeavouring to force the detested coinage

on the Irish people. Wood's patent was however withdrawn, and Ireland

settled down. Carteret was a profuse and popular lord lieutenant who

pleased both the "English interest" and the native Irish. He was at all

times addicted to lavish hospitality, and according to the testimony of

contemporaries was too fond of burgundy. When he returned to London in

1730, Walpole was firmly established as master of the House of Commons,

and as the trusted minister of King George II. He had the full

confidence of Queen Caroline, whom he prejudiced against Carteret. Till

the fall of Walpole in 1742, Carteret could take no share in public

affairs except as a leader of opposition of the Lords. His brilliant

parts were somewhat obscured by his rather erratic conduct, and a

certain contempt, partly aristocratic and partly intellectual, for

commonplace men and ways. He endeavoured to please Queen Caroline, who

loved literature, and he has the credit, on good grounds, of having paid

the expenses of the first handsome edition of _Don Quixote_ to please

her. But he reluctantly, and most unwisely, allowed himself to be

entangled in the scandalous family quarrel between Frederick, prince of

Wales, and his parents. Queen Caroline was provoked into classing him

and Bolingbroke, as "the two most worthless men of parts in the

country." Carteret took the popular side in the outcry against Walpole

for not making war on Spain. When the War of the Austrian Succession

approached, his sympathies were entirely with Maria Theresa--mainly on

the ground that the fall of the house of Austria would dangerously

increase the power of France, even if she gained no accession of

territory. These views made him welcome to George II., who gladly

accepted him as secretary of state in 1742. In 1743 he accompanied the

king of Germany, and was present at the battle of Dettingen on the 27th

of June. He held the secretaryship till November 1744. He succeeded in

promoting an agreement between Maria Theresa and Frederick. He

understood the relations of the European states, and the interests of

Great Britain among them. But the defects which had rendered him unable

to baffle the intrigues of Walpole made him equally unable to contend

with the Pelhams. His support of the king's policy was denounced as

subservience to Hanover. Pitt called him "an execrable, a sole minister

who had renounced the British nation." A few years later Pitt adopted an

identical policy, and professed that whatever he knew he had learnt from

Carteret. On the 18th of October 1744 Carteret became Earl Granville on

the death of his mother. His first wife died in June 1743 at

Aschaffenburg, and in April 1744 he married Lady Sophia Fermor, daughter

of Lord Pomfret--a fashionable beauty and "reigning toast" of London

society, who was younger than his daughters. "The nuptials of our great

Quixote and the fair Sophia," and Granville's ostentatious performance

of the part of lover, were ridiculed by Horace Walpole. The countess

Granville died on the 7th of October 1745, leaving one daughter Sophia,

who married Lord Shelburne, 1st marquis of Lansdowne. This marriage may

have done something to increase Granville's reputation for eccentricity.

In February 1746 he allowed himself to be entrapped by the intrigues of

the Pelhams into accepting the secretaryship, but resigned in

forty-eight hours. In June 1751 he became president of the council, and

was still liked and trusted by the king, but his share in government did

not go beyond giving advice, and endeavouring to forward ministerial

arrangements. In 1756 he was asked by Newcastle to become prime minister

as the alternative to Pitt, but Granville, who perfectly understood why

the offer was made, declined and supported Pitt. When in October 1761

Pitt, who had information of the signing of the "Family Compact" wished

to declare war on Spain, and declared his intention to resign unless his

advice was accepted, Granville replied that "the opinion of the majority

(of the Cabinet) must decide." He spoke in complimentary terms of Pitt,

but resisted his claim to be considered as a "sole minister" or, in the

modern phrase, "a prime minister." Whether he used the words attributed

to him in the Annual Register for 1761 is more than doubtful, but the

minutes of council show that they express his meaning. Granville

remained in office as president till his death. His last act was to

listen while on his death-bed to the reading of the preliminaries of the

treaty of Paris. He was so weak that the under-secretary, Robert Wood,

author of an essay on _The Original Genius of Homer_, would have

postponed the business, but Granville said that it "could not prolong

his life to neglect his duty," and quoted the speech of Sarpedon from

_Iliad_ xii. 322-328, repeating the last word ([Greek: iomen]) "with a

calm and determined resignation." He died in his house in Arlington

Street, London, on the 22nd of January 1763. The title of Granville

descended to his son Robert, who died without issue in 1776, when the

earldom of this creation became extinct.

A somewhat partisan life of Granville was published in 1887, by

Archibald Ballantyne, under the title of _Lord Carteret, a Political

Biography_.

GRANVILLE, a town of Cumberland county, New South Wales, 13 m. by rail

W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 5094. It is an important railway junction and

manufacturing town, producing agricultural implements, tweed, pipes,

tiles and bricks; there are also tanneries, flour-mills, and kerosene

and meat export works. It became a municipality in 1885.

GRANVILLE, a fortified sea-port and bathing-resort of north-western

France, in the department of Manche, at the mouth of the Bosq, 85 m. S.

by W. of Cherbourg by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,530. Granville consists of

two quarters, the upper town built on a promontory jutting into the sea

and surrounded by ramparts, and the lower town and harbour lying below

it. The barracks and the church of Notre-Dame, a low building of

granite, partly Romanesque, partly late Gothic in style, are in the

upper town. The port consists of a tidal harbour, two floating basins

and a dry dock. Its fleets take an active part in deep sea fishing,

including the cod-fishing off Newfoundland, and oyster-fishing is

carried on. It has regular communication with Guernsey and Jersey, and

with the islands of St Pierre and Miquelon. The principal exports are

eggs, vegetables and fish; coal, timber and chemical manures are

imported. The industries include ship-building, fish-salting, the

manufacture of cod-liver oil, the preserving of vegetables, dyeing,

metal-founding, rope-making and the manufacture of chemical manures.

Among the public institutions are a tribunal and a chamber of commerce.

In the commune are included the Iles Chausey about 7-1/2 m. N.W. of

Granville (see Channel Islands). Granville, before an insignificant

village, was fortified by the English in 1437, taken by the French in

1441, bombarded and burned by the English in 1695, and unsuccessfully

besieged by the Vendean troops in 1793. It was again bombarded by the

English in 1803.

GRANVILLE, a village in Licking county, Ohio, U.S.A., in the township of

Granville, about 6 m. W. of Newark and 27 m. E. by N. of Columbus. Pop.

of the village (1910) 1394; of the township (1910) 2442. Granville is

served by the Toledo & Ohio Central and the Ohio Electric railways, the

latter reaching Newark (where it connects with the Pittsburg,

Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis and the Baltimore & Ohio railways),

Columbus, Dayton, Zanesville and Springfield. Granville is the seat of

Denison University, founded in 1831 by the Ohio Baptist Education

Society and opened as a manual labour school, called the Granville

Literary and Theological Institution. It was renamed Granville College

in 1845, and took its present name in 1854 in honour of William S.

Denison of Adamsville, Ohio, who had given $10,000 to the college. The

university comprised in 1907-1908 five departments: Granville College

(229 students), the collegiate department for men; Shepardson College

(246 students, including 82 in the preparatory department), the

collegiate department for women, founded as the Young Ladies' Institute

of Granville in 1859, given to the Baptist denomination in 1887 by Dr

Daniel Shepardson, its principal and owner, and closely affiliated for

scholastic purposes, since 1900, with the university, though legally it

is still a distinct institution; Doane Academy (137 students), the

preparatory department for boys, established in 1831, named Granville

Academy in 1887, and renamed in 1895 in honour of William H. Doane of

Cincinnati, who gave to it its building; a conservatory of music (137

students); and a school of art (38 students).

In 1805 the Licking Land Company, organized in the preceding year in

Granville, Massachusetts, bought 29,040 acres of land in Ohio, including

the site of Granville; the town was laid out, and in the last months of

that year settlers from Granville, Mass., began to arrive. By January

1806 the colony numbered 234 persons; the township was incorporated in

1806 and the village was incorporated in 1831. There are several

remarkable Indian mounds near Granville, notably one shaped like an

alligator.

See Henry Bushnell, _History of Granville, Ohio_ (Columbus, O., 1889).

GRAPE, the fruit of the vine (q.v.). The word is adopted from the O. Fr.

_grape_, mod. _grappe_, bunch or cluster of flowers or fruit, _grappes

de raisin_, bunch of grapes. The French word meant properly a hook; cf.

M.H.G. _krapfe_, Eng. "grapnel," and "cramp." The development of meaning

seems to be vine-hook, cluster of grapes cut with a hook, and thence in

English a single grape of a cluster. The projectile called "grape" or

"grape-shot," formerly used with smooth-bore ordnance, took its name

from its general resemblance to a bunch of grapes. It consisted of a

number of spherical bullets (heavier than those of the contemporary

musket) arranged in layers separated by thin iron plates, a bolt passing

through the centre of the plates binding the whole together. On being

discharged the projectile delivered the bullets in a shower somewhat

after the fashion of case-shot.

GRAPHICAL METHODS, devices for representing by geometrical figures the

numerical data which result from the quantitative investigation of

phenomena. The simplest application is met with in the representation of

tabular data such as occur in statistics. Such tables are usually of

single entry, i.e. to a certain value of one variable there corresponds

one, and only one, value of the other variable. To construct the graph,

as it is called, of such a table, Cartesian co-ordinates are usually

employed. Two lines or axes at right angles to each other are chosen,

intersecting at a point called the origin; the horizontal axis is the

axis of abscissae, the vertical one the axis of ordinates. Along one,

say the axis of abscissae, distances are taken from the origin

corresponding to the values of one of the variables; at these points

perpendiculars are erected, and along these ordinates distances are

taken corresponding to the related values of the other variable. The

curve drawn through these points is the graph. A general inspection of

the graph shows in bold relief the essential characters of the table.

For example, if the world's production of corn over a number of years be

plotted, a poor yield is represented by a depression, a rich one by a

peak, a uniform one over several years by a horizontal line and so on.

Moreover, such graphs permit a convenient comparison of two or more

different phenomena, and the curves render apparent at first sight

similarities or differences which can be made out from the tables only

after close examination. In making graphs for comparison, the scales

chosen must give a similar range of variation, otherwise the

correspondence may not be discerned. For example, the scales adopted for

the average consumption of tea and sugar must be ounces for the former

and pounds for the latter. Cartesian graphs are almost always yielded by

automatic recording instruments, such as the barograph, meteorograph,

seismometer, &c. The method of polar co-ordinates is more rarely used,

being only specially applicable when one of the variables is a direction

or recorded as an angle. A simple case is the representation of

photometric data, i.e. the value of the intensity of the light emitted

in different directions from a luminous source (see LIGHTING).

The geometrical solution of arithmetical and algebraical problems is

usually termed graphical analysis; the application to problems in

mechanics is treated in MECHANICS, S 5, _Graphic Statics_, and

DIAGRAM. A special phase is presented in VECTOR ANALYSIS.

GRAPHITE, a mineral species consisting of the element carbon

crystallized in the rhombohedral system. Chemically, it is thus

indentical with the cubic mineral diamond, but between the two there are

very wide differences in physical characters. Graphite is black and

opaque, whilst diamond is colourless and transparent; it is one of the

softest (H = 1) of minerals, and diamond the hardest of all; it is a

good conductor of electricity, whilst diamond is a bad conductor. The

specific gravity is 2.2, that of diamond is 3.5. Further, unlike

diamond, it never occurs as distinctly developed crystals, but only as

imperfect six-sided plates and scales. There is a perfect cleavage

parallel to the surface of the scales, and the cleavage flakes are

flexible but not elastic. The material is greasy to the touch, and soils

everything with which it comes into contact. The lustre is bright and

metallic. In its external characters graphite is thus strikingly similar

to molybdenite (q.v.).

The name graphite, given by A. G. Werner in 1789, is from the Greek

[Greek: graphein], "to write," because the mineral is used for making

pencils. Earlier names, still in common use, are plumbago and

black-lead, but since the mineral contains no lead these names are

singularly inappropriate. Plumbago (Lat. _plumbum_, lead) was originally

used for an artificial product obtained from lead ore, and afterwards

for the ore (galena) itself; it was confused both with graphite and with

molybdenite. The true chemical nature of graphite was determined by K.

W. Scheele in 1779.

Graphite occurs mainly in the older crystalline rocks--gneiss,

granulite, schist and crystalline limestone--and also sometimes in

granite: it is found as isolated scales embedded in these rocks, or as

large irregular masses or filling veins. It has also been observed as a

product of contact-metamorphism in carbonaceous clay-slates near their

contact with granite, and where igneous rocks have been intruded into

beds of coal; in these cases the mineral has clearly been derived from

organic matter. The graphite found in granite and in veins in gneiss, as

well as that contained in meteoric irons, cannot have had such an

origin. As an artificial product, graphite is well known as dark

lustrous scales in grey pig-iron, and in the "kish" of iron furnaces: it

is also produced artificially on a large scale, together with

carborundum, in the electric furnace (see below). The graphite veins in

the older crystalline rocks are probably akin to metalliferous veins and

the material derived from deep-seated sources; the decomposition of

metallic carbides by water and the reduction of hydrocarbon vapours have

been suggested as possible modes of origin. Such veins often attain a

thickness of several feet, and sometimes possess a columnar structure

perpendicular to the enclosing walls; they are met with in the

crystalline limestones and other Laurentian rocks of New York and

Canada, in the gneisses of the Austrian Alps and the granulites of

Ceylon. Other localities which have yielded the mineral in large amount

are the Alibert mine in Irkutsk, Siberia and the Borrowdale mine in

Cumberland. The Santa Maria mines of Sonora, Mexico, probably the

richest deposits in the world, supply the American lead pencil

manufacturers. The graphite of New York, Pennsylvania and Alabama is

"flake" and unsuitable for this purpose.

Graphite is used for the manufacture of pencils, dry lubricants, grate

polish, paints, crucibles and for foundry facings. The material as mined

usually does not contain more than 20 to 50% of graphite: the ore has

therefore to be crushed and the graphite floated off in water from the

heavier impurities. Even the purest forms contain a small percentage of

volatile matter and ash. The Cumberland graphite, which is especially

suitable for pencils, contains about 12% of impurities. (L. J. S.)

_Artificial Manufacture._--The alteration of carbon at high temperatures

into a material resembling graphite has long been known. In 1893 Girard

and Street patented a furnace and a process by which this transformation

could be effected. Carbon powder compressed into a rod was slowly passed

through a tube in which it was subjected to the action of one or more

electric arcs. E. G. Acheson, in 1896, patented an application of his

carborundum process to graphite manufacture, and in 1899 the

International Acheson Graphite Co. was formed, employing electric

current from the Niagara Falls. Two procedures are adopted: (1)

graphitization of moulded carbons; (2) graphitization of anthracite _en

masse_. The former includes electrodes, lamp carbons, &c. Coke, or some

other form of amorphous carbon, is mixed with a little tar, and the

required article moulded in a press or by a die. The articles are

stacked transversely in a furnace, each being packed in granular coke

and covered with carborundum. At first the current is 3000 amperes at

220 volts, increasing to 9000 amperes at 20 volts after 20 hours. In

graphitizing _en masse_ large lumps of anthracite are treated in the

electric furnace. A soft, unctuous form results on treating carbon with

ash or silica in special furnaces, and this gives the so-called

"deflocculated" variety when treated with gallotannic acid. These two

modifications are valuable lubricants. The massive graphite is very

easily machined and is widely used for electrodes, dynamo brushes, lead

pencils and the like.

See "Graphite and its Uses," _Bull. Imperial Institute_, (1906) P.

353. (1907) p. 70; F. Cirkel, _Graphite_ (Ottawa, 1907). (W. G. M.)

GRAPTOLITES, an assemblage of extinct zoophytes whose skeletal remains

are found in the Palaeozoic rocks, occasionally in great abundance. They

are usually preserved as branching or unbranching carbonized bodies,

tree-like, leaf-like or rod-like in shape, their edges regularly toothed

or denticulated. Most frequently they occur lying on the bedding planes

of black shales; less commonly they are met with in many other kinds of

sediment, and when in limestone they may retain much of their original

relief and admit of a detailed microscopic study.

Each Graptolite represents the common horny or chitinous investment or

supporting structure of a colony of zooids, each tooth-like projection

marking the position of the sheath or _theca_ of an individual zooid.

Some of the branching forms have a distinct outward resemblance to the

polyparies of _Sertularia_ and _Plumularia_ among the recent Hydroida

(_Calyptoblastea_); in none of the unbranching forms, however, is the

similarity by any means close.

The Graptolite polyparies vary considerably in size: the majority range

from 1 in. to about 6 in. in length; few examples have been met with

having a length or more than 30 in.

Very different views have been held as to the systematic place and rank

of the Graptolites. Linnaeus included them in his group of false fossils

(_Graptolithus_ = written stone). At one time they were referred by some

to the Polyzoa (Bryozoa), and later, by almost general consent, to the

Hydroida (Calyptoblastea) among the Hydrozoa (Hydromedusae). Of late

years an opinion is gaining ground that they may be regarded as

constituting collectively an independent phylum of their own

(_Graptolithina_).

There are two main groups, or sub-phyla: the _Graptoloidea_ or

Graptolites proper, and the _Dendroidea_ or tree-like Graptolites; the

former is typified by the unbranched genus _Monograptus_ and the latter

by the many-branched genus _Dendrograptus_.

A _Monograptus_ makes its first appearance as a minute dagger-like

body (the _sicula_), which represents the flattened covering of the

primary or embryonic zooid of the colony. This sicula, which had

originally the shape of a hollow cone, is formed of two portions or

regions--an upper and smaller (_apical_ or embryonic) portion, marked

by delicate longitudinal lines, and having a fine tabular thread (the

_nema_) proceeding from its apex; and a lower (thecal or _apertural_)

portion, marked by transverse lines of growth and widening in the

direction of the mouth, the lip or apertural margin of which forms the

broad end of the sicula. This margin is normally furnished with a

perpendicular spine (_virgella_) and occasionally with two shorter

lateral spines or lobes.

A bud is given off from the sicula at a variable distance along its

length. From this bud is developed the first zooid and first serial

theca of the colony. This theca grows in the direction of the apex of

the sicula, to which it adheres by its dorsal wall. Thus while the

mouth of the sicula is directed downwards, that of the first serial

theca is pointed upwards, making a theoretical angle of about 180 deg.

with the direction of that of the sicula.

From this first theca originates a second, opening in the same

direction, and from the second a third, and soon, in a continuous

linear series until the polypary is complete. Each zooid buds from the

one immediately preceding it in the series, and intercommunication is

effected by all the budding orifices (including that in the wall of

the sicula) remaining permanently open. The sicula itself ceases to

grow soon after the earliest theca have been developed; it remains

permanently attached to the dorsal wall of the polypary, of which it

forms the proximal end, its apex rarely reaching beyond the third or

fourth theca.

A fine cylindrical rod or fibre (the so-called solid axis or _virgula_)

becomes developed in a median groove in the dorsal wall of the polypary,

and is sometimes continued distally as a naked rod. It was formerly

supposed that a virgula was present in all the Graptoloidea; hence the

term _Rhabdophora_ sometimes employed for the Graptoloidea in general,

and _rhabdosome_ for the individual polypary; but while the virgula is

present in many (Axonophora) it is absent as such in others (Axonolipa).

The GRAPTOLOIDEA are arranged in eight families, each named after a

characteristic genus: (1) Dichograptidae; (2) Leptograptidae; (3)

Dicranograptidae; (4) Diplograptidae; (5) Glossograptidae (sub-family,

Lasiograptidae); (6) Retiolitidae; (7) Dimorphograptidae; (8)

Monograptidae.

In all these families the polypary originates as in _Monograptus_ from a

nema-bearing sicula, which invariably opens downwards and gives off only

a single bud, such branching as may take place occurring at subsequent

stages in the growth of the polypary. In some species young examples

have been met with in which the nema ends above in a small membranous

disk, which has been interpreted as an organ of attachment to the

underside of floating bodies, probably sea weeds, from which the young

polypary hung suspended.

Broadly speaking, these families make their first appearance in time in

the order given above, and show a progressive morphological evolution

along certain special lines. There is a tendency for the branches to

become reduced in number, and for the serial thecae to become directed

more and more upwards towards the line of the nema. In the oldest

family--Dichograptidae--in which the branching polypary is bilaterally

symmetrical and the thecae uniserial (_monoprionidian_)--there is a

gradation from earlier groups with many branches to later groups with

only two; and from species in which all the branches and their thecae

are directed downwards, through species in which the branches become

bent back more and more outwards and upwards, until in some the terminal

thecae open almost vertically. In the genus _Phyllograptus_ the branches

have become reduced to four and these coalesce by their dorsal walls

along the line of the nema, and the sicula becomes embedded in the base

of the polypary. In the family of the Diplograptidae the branches are

reduced to two; these also coalesce similarly by their dorsal walls, and

the polypary thus becomes biserial (_diprionidian_), and the line of the

nema is taken by a long axial tube-like structure, the _nemacaulus_ or

virgular tube. Finally, in the latest family, the Monograptidae, the

branches are theoretically reduced to one, the polypary is uniserial

throughout, and all the thecae are directed outwards and upwards.

[Illustration:

1, _Diptograptus_, young sicula.

2, _Monograptus dubius_, sicula and first serial theca (partly

restored).

3, Young form (all above after Wiman).

4a, Older form.

4b, Showing virgula (after Holm).

5, _Rastrites distans._

6, Base of Diptograptus (after Wiman).

7, D. calcaratus.

8, Dimorphograptus.

9, Base of _Didymograptus minulus_ (after Holm).

10, Young _Dictyograptus_, with primary disk.

11, Ibid. _Diptograptus_ (after Ruedemann).

12 a-b, Base and transverse section, _Retiolites Geinitzianus_ (after

Holm).

13, _Bryograptus Kjerulfi_.

14, _Dichograptus octobrachiatus_, with central disk.

15, _Didymograptus Murchisoni_.

16, _D. gibberulus_.

17 a-b, _Phyllograptus_ and transverse section.

18, _Nemagraptus gracilis_.

19, _Dicranograptus ramosus_.

20, _Climacograptus Scharenbergi_.

21, _Glossograptus Hincksii_.

22, _Lasiograptus costatus_ (after Elles and Wood).

23, _Dictyonema (-graptus) flabelliforme (-is)_.

24, _Dictyonema (-dendron) peltatum_ with base of attachment.

25, _D. cervicorne_, branches (after Holm).

26, _D. rarum_ (section after Wiman).

27, _Dendrograptus Hallianus_.

28, Synrhabdosome of _Diptograptus_ (after Ruedemann).

S, Sicula.

u, Upper or apical portion.

l, Lower or apertural.

m, Mouth.

N, Nema.

nn, Nemacaulus or virgular tube.

V, Virgula.

vv, Virgella.

zz, Septal strands.

T, Theca.

C, Common canal (in Retiolites).

G, Gonangium.

g, Gonotheca.

b, Budding theca.]

The thecae in the earliest family--Dichograptidae--are so similar in

form to the sicula itself that the polypary has been compared to a

colony of siculae; there is the greatest variation in shape in those

of the latest family--Monograptidae--in some species of which the

terminal portion of each theca becomes isolated (_Rastrites_) and in

some coiled into a rounded lobe. The thecae in several of the families

are occasionally provided with spines or lateral processes: the spines

are especially conspicuous at the base in some biserial forms: in the

Lasiograptidae the lateral processes originate a marginal meshwork

surrounding the polypary.

_Histologically_, the perisarc or _test_ in the Graptoloidea appears

to be composed of three layers, a middle layer of variable structure,

and an overlying and an underlying layer of remarkable tenuity. The

central layer is usually thick and marked by lines of growth; but in

_Glossograptus_ and _Lasiograptus_ it is thinned down to a fine

membrane stretched upon a skeleton framework of lists and fibres, and

in _Retiolites_ this membrane is reduced to a delicate network. The

groups typified by these three genera are sometimes referred to,

collectively, as the _Retioloidea_, and the structure as _retioloid_.

It is the general practice of palaeontologists to regard each graptolite

polypary (_rhabdosome_) developed from a single sicula as an individual

of the highest order. Certain American forms, however, which are

preserved as stellate groups, have been interpreted as complex

umbrella-shaped colonial stocks, individuals of a still higher order

(_synrhabdosomes_), composed of a number of biserial polyparies (each

having a sicula at its outer extremity) attached by their nemacauli to a

common centre of origin, which is provided with two disks, a swimming

bladder and a ring of capsules.

In the DENDROIDEA, as a rule, the polypary is non-symmetrical in shape

and tree-like or shrub-like in habit, with numerous branches irregularly

disposed, and with a distinct stem-like or short basal portion ending

below in root-like fibres or in a membranous disk or sheet of

attachment. An exception, however, is constituted by the comprehensive

genus _Dictyonema_, which embraces species composed of a large number of

divergent and sub-parallel branches, united by transverse dissepiments

into a symmetrical cone-like or funnel-shaped polypary, and includes

some forms (_Dictyograptus_) which originate from a nema-bearing sicula

and have been claimed as belonging to the Graptoloidea.

Of the early development of the polypary in the Dendroidea little is

known, but the more mature stages have been fully worked out. In

_Dictyonema_ the branches show thecae of two kinds: (1) the ordinary

tubular thecae answering to those of the Graptoloidea and occupied by

the nourishing zooids; and (2) the so-called _bithecae_, birdnest-like

cups (regarded by their discoverers as gonothecae) opening alternately

right and left of the ordinary thecae. Internally, there existed a third

set of thecae, held to have been inhabited by the budding individuals.

In the genus _Dendrograptus_ the gonothecae open within the walls of the

ordinary thecae, and the branches present an outward resemblance to

those of the uniserial Graptoloidea. But in striking contrast to what

obtains among the Graptoloidea in general, the budding orifices in the

Dendroidea become closed, and all the various cells shut off from each

other.

The classification of the Dendroidea is as yet unsatisfactory: the

families most conspicuous are those typified by the genera

_Dendrograptus_, _Dictyonema_, _Inocaulis_ and _Thamnograptus_.

As regards the _modes of reproduction among the Graptolites_ little is

known. In the Dendroidea, as already pointed out, the bithecae were

possibly gonothecae, but they have been interpreted by some as

nematophores. In the Graptoloidea certain lateral and vesicular

appendages of the polypary in the Lasiograptidae have been looked upon

as connected with the reproductive system; and in the umbrella-shaped

_synrhabdosomes_ already referred to, the common centre is surrounded

by a ring of what have been regarded as ovarian capsules. The theory

of the gonangial nature of the vesicular bodies in the Graptoloidea

is, however, disputed by some authorities, and it has been suggested

that the zooid of the sicula itself is not the product of the normal

or sexual mode of propagation in the group, but owes its origin to a

peculiar type of budding or non-sexual reproduction, in which, as

temporary resting or protecting structures, the vesicular bodies may

have had a share.

As respects the _mode of life of the Graptolites_ there can be little

doubt that the Dendroidea were, with some exceptions, sessile or

benthonic animals, their polyparies, like those of the recent

Calyptoblastea, growing upwards, their bases remaining attached to the

sea floor or to foreign bodies, usually fixed. The Graptoloidea have

also been regarded by some as benthonic organisms. A more prevalent

view, however, is that the majority were pseudo-planktonic or drifting

colonies, hanging from the underside of floating seaweeds; their

polyparies being each suspended by the nema in the earliest stages of

growth, and, in later stages, some by the nemacaulus, while others

became adherent above by means of a central disk or by parts of their

dorsal walls. Some of these ancient seaweeds may have remained

permanently rooted in the littoral regions, while others may have become

broken off and drifted, like the recent Sargassum, at the mercy of the

winds and currents, carrying the attached Graptolites into all

latitudes. The more complex umbrella-shaped colonies of colonies

(synrhabdosomes) described as provided with a common swimming bladder

(pneumatophore?) may have attained a holo-planktonic or free-swimming

mode of existence.

The _range of the Graptolites in time_ extends from the Cambrian to the

Carboniferous. The Dendroidea alone, however, have this extended range,

the Graptoloidea becoming extinct at the close of Silurian time. Both

groups make their first appearance together near the end of the

Cambrian; but while in the succeeding Ordovician and Silurian the

Dendroidea are comparatively rare, the Graptoloidea become the most

characteristic and, locally, the most abundant fossils of these systems.

The species of the Graptoloidea have individually a remarkably short

range in geological time; but the geographical distribution of the group

as a whole, and that of many of its species, is almost world-wide. This

combination of circumstances has given the Graptoloidea a paramount

stratigraphical importance as palaeontological indices of the detailed

sequence and correlation of the Lower Palaeozoic rocks in general. Many

_Graptolite zones_, showing a constant uniformity of succession,

paralleled in this respect only by the longer known Ammonite zones of

the Jurassic, have been distinguished in Britain and northern Europe,

each marked by a characteristic species. Many British species and

associations of genera and species, occurring on corresponding horizons

to those on which they are found in Britain, have been met with in the

graptolite-bearing Lower Palaeozoic formations of other parts of Europe,

in America, Australia, New Zealand and elsewhere.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Linnaeus, _Systema naturae_ (12th ed. 1768); Hall,

_Graptolites of the Quebec Group_ (1865); Barrande, _Graptolites de

Boheme_ (1850); Carruthers, _Revision of the British Graptolites_

(1868); H. A. Nicholson, _Monograph of British Graptolites_, pt. 1

(1872); id. and J. E. Marr, _Phylogeny of the Graptolites_ (1895);

Hopkinson, _On British Graptolites_ (1869); Allman, _Monograph of

Gymnoblastic Hydroids_ (1872); Lapworth, _An Improved Classification

of the Rhabdophora_ (1873); _The Geological Distribution of the

Rhabdophora_ (1879, 1880); Walther, _Lebensweise fossiler Meerestiere_

(1897); Tullberg, _Skanes Grapioliter_ (1882, 1883); Tornquist,

_Graptolites Scanian Rastrites Beds_ (1899); Wiman, _Die Graptolithen_

(1895); Holm, _Gotlands Graptoliter_ (1890); Perner, _Graptolites de

Boheme_ (1894-1899); R. Ruedemann, _Development and Mode of Growth of

Diplograptus_ (1895-1896); _Graptolites of New York_, vol. i. (1904),

vol. ii. (1908); Frech, _Lethaea palaeozoica, Graptolithiden_ (1897);

Elles and Wood, _Monograph of British Graptolites_ (1901-1909).

(C. L.*)

GRASLITZ (Czech, _Kraslice_), a town of Bohemia, on the Zwodau, 145 m.

N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,803, exclusively German. Graslitz

is one of the most important industrial towns of Bohemia, its

specialities being the manufacture of musical instruments, carried on

both as a factory and a domestic industry, and lace-making. Next in

importance are cotton-spinning and weaving, machine embroidery, brewing,

and the mother-of-pearl industry.

GRASMERE, a village and lake of Westmorland, in the heart of the English

Lake District. The village (pop. of urban district in 1901, 781) lies

near the head of the lake, on the small river Rothay and the

Keswick-Ambleside road, 12-1/2 m. from Keswick and 4 from Ambleside. The

scenery is very beautiful; the valley about the lakes of Grasmere and

Rydal Water is in great part wooded, while on its eastern flank there

rises boldly the range of hills which includes Rydal Fell, Fairfield and

Seat Sandal, and, farther north, Helvellyn. On the west side are

Loughrigg Fell and Silver How. The village has become a favourite centre

for tourists, but preserves its picturesque and sequestered appearance.

In a house still standing William Wordsworth lived from 1799 to 1808,

and it was subsequently occupied by Thomas de Quincey and by Hartley

Coleridge. Wordsworth's tomb, and also that of Coleridge, are in the

churchyard of the ancient church of St Oswald, which contains a memorial

to Wordsworth with an inscription by John Keble. A festival called the

Rushbearing takes place on the Saturday within the octave of St Oswald's

day (August 5th), when a holiday is observed and the church decorated

with rushes, heather and flowers. The festival is of early origin, and

has been derived by some from the Roman _Floralia_, but appears also to

have been made the occasion for carpeting the floors of churches,

unpaved in early times, with rushes. Moreover, in a procession which

forms part of the festivities at Grasmere, certain Biblical stories are

symbolized, and in this a connexion with the ancient miracle plays may

be found (see H. D. Rawnsley, _A Rambler's Note-Book at the English

Lakes_, Glasgow, 1902). Grasmere is also noted for an athletic meeting

in August.

The lake of Grasmere is just under 1 m. in length, and has an extreme

breadth of 766 yds. A ridge divides the basin from north to south, and

rises so high as to form an island about the middle. The greatest depth

of the lake (75 ft.) lies to the east of this ridge.

GRASS AND GRASSLAND, in agriculture. The natural vegetable covering of

the soil in most countries is "grass" (for derivation see GRASSES) of

various kinds. Even where dense forest or other growth exists, if a

little daylight penetrates to the ground grass of some sort or another

will grow. On ordinary farms, or wherever farming of any kind is carried

out, the proportion of the land not actually cultivated will either be

in grass or will revert naturally to grass in time if left alone, after

having been cultivated.

Pasture land has always been an important part of the farm, but since

the "era of cheap corn" set in its importance has been increased, and

much more attention has been given to the study of the different species

of grass, their characteristics, the improvement of a pasture generally,

and the "laying down" of arable land into grass where tillage farming

has not paid. Most farmers desire a proportion of grass-land on their

farms--from a third to a half of the area--and even on wholly arable

farms there are usually certain courses in the rotation of crops devoted

to grass (or clover). Thus the Norfolk 4-course rotation is corn, roots,

corn, clover; the Berwick 5-course is corn, roots, corn, grass, grass;

the Ulster 8-course, corn, flax, roots, corn, flax, grass, grass, grass;

and so on, to the point where the grass remains down for 5 years, or is

left indefinitely.

Permanent grass may be grazed by live-stock and classed as pasture pure

and simple, or it may be cut for hay. In the latter case it is usually

classed as "meadow" land, and often forms an alluvial tract alongside a

stream, but as grass is often grazed and hayed in alternate years, the

distinction is not a hard and fast one.

There are two classes of pasturage, temporary and permanent. The latter

again consists of two kinds, the permanent grass natural to land that

has never been cultivated, and the pasture that has been laid down

artificially on land previously arable and allowed to remain and improve

itself in the course of time. The existence of ridge and furrow on many

old pastures in Great Britain shows that they were cultivated at one

time, though perhaps more than a century ago. Often a newly laid down

pasture will decline markedly in thickness and quality about the fifth

and sixth year, and then begin to thicken and improve year by year

afterwards. This is usually attributed to the fact that the unsuitable

varieties die out, and the "naturally" suitable varieties only come in

gradually. This trouble can be largely prevented, however, by a

judicious selection of seed, and by subsequently manuring with

phosphatic manures, with farmyard or other bulky "topdressings," or by

feeding sheep with cake and corn over the field.

All the grasses proper belong to the natural order _Gramineae_ (see

GRASSES), to which order also belong all the "corn" plants cultivated

throughout the world, also many others, such as bamboo, sugar-cane,

millet, rice, &c. &c., which yield food for mankind. Of the grasses

which constitute pastures and hay-fields over a hundred species are

classified by botanists in Great Britain, with many varieties in

addition, but the majority of these, though often forming a part of

natural pastures, are worthless or inferior for farming purposes. The

grasses of good quality which should form a "sole" in an old pasture and

provide the bulk of the forage on a newly laid down piece of grass are

only about a dozen in number (see below), and of these there are only

some six species of the very first importance and indispensable in a

"prescription" of grass seeds intended for laying away land in temporary

or permanent pasture. Dr W. Fream caused a botanical examination to be

made of several of the most celebrated pastures of England, and,

contrary to expectation, found that their chief constituents were

ordinary perennial ryegrass and white clover. Many other grasses and

legumes were present, but these two formed an overwhelming proportion of

the plants.

In ordinary usage the term grass, pasturage, hay, &c., includes many

varieties of clover and other members of the natural order _Leguminosae_

as well as other "herbs of the field," which, though not strictly

"grasses," are always found in a grass field, and are included in

mixtures of seeds for pasture and meadows. The following is a list of

the most desirable or valuable agricultural grasses and clovers, which

are either actually sown or, in the case of old pastures, encouraged to

grow by draining, liming, manuring, and so on:--

_Grasses._

Alopecurus pratensis Meadow foxtail.

Anthoxanthum odoratum Sweet vernal grass.

Avena elatior Tall oat-grass.

Avena flavescens Golden oat-grass.

Cynosurus cristatus Crested dogstail.

Dactylis glomerata Cocksfoot.

Festuca duriuscula Hard fescue.

Festuca elatior Tall fescue.

Festuca ovina Sheep's fescue.

Festuca pratensis Meadow fescue.

Lolium italicum Italian ryegrass.

Phleum pratense Timothy or catstail.

Poa nemoralis Wood meadow-grass.

Poa pratensis Smooth meadow-grass.

Poa trivialis Rough meadow-grass.

_Clovers, &c._

Medicago lupulina Trefoil or "Nonsuch."

Medicago sativa Lucerne (Alfalfa).

Trifolium hybridum Alsike clover.

" pratense Broad red clover.

" pratense \ Perennial clover.

" perennne /

" incarnatum Crimson clover or "Trifolium."

" procumbens Yellow Hop-trefoil.

" repens White or Dutch clover.

Achillea Millefolium Yarrow or Milfoil.

Anthyllis vulneraria Kidney-vetch.

Lotus major Greater Birdsfoot Trefoil.

Lotus corniculatus Lesser " "

Carum petroselinum Field parsley.

Plantago lanceolata Plantain.

Cichorium intybus Chicory.

Poterium officinale Burnet.

The predominance of any particular species is largely determined by

climatic circumstances, the nature of the soil and the treatment it

receives. In limestone regions sheep's fescue has been found to

predominate; on wet clay soil the dog's bent (_Agrostis canina_) is

common; continuous manuring with nitrogenous manures kills out the

leguminous plants and stimulates such grasses as cocksfoot; manuring

with phosphates stimulates the clovers and other legumes; and so on.

Manuring with basic slag at the rate of from 5 to 10 cwt. per acre has

been found to give excellent results on poor clays and peaty soils.

Basic slag is a by-product of the Bessemer steel process, and is rich in

a soluble form of phosphate of lime (tetra-phosphate) which specially

stimulates the growth of clovers and other legumes, and has renovated

many inferior pastures.

In the Rothamsted experiments continuous manuring with "mineral manures"

(no nitrogen) on an old meadow has reduced the grasses from 71 to 64% of

the whole, while at the same time it has increased the _Leguminosae_

from 7% to 24%. On the other hand, continuous use of nitrogenous manure

in addition to "minerals" has raised the grasses to 94% of the total and

reduced the legumes to less than 1%.

As to the best kinds of grasses, &c., to sow in making a pasture out of

arable land, experiments at Cambridge, England, have demonstrated that

of the many varieties offered by seedsmen only a very few are of any

permanent value. A complex mixture of tested seeds was sown, and after

five years an examination of the pasture showed that only a few

varieties survived and made the "sole" for either grazing or forage.

These varieties in the order of their importance were:--

Cocksfoot 26

Perennial rye grass 16

Meadow fescue 13

Hard fescue 9

Crested dogstail 8

Timothy 6

White clover 4

Meadow foxtail 2

The figures represent approximate percentages.

Before laying down grass it is well to examine the species already

growing round the hedges and adjacent fields. An inspection of this sort

will show that the Cambridge experiments are very conclusive, and that

the above species are the only ones to be depended on. Occasionally some

other variety will be prominent, but if so there will be a special local

reason for this.

On the other hand, many farmers when sowing down to grass like to have a

good bulk of forage for the first year or two, and therefore include

several of the clovers, lucerne, Italian ryegrass, evergreen ryegrass,

&c., knowing that these will die out in the course of years and leave

the ground to the more permanent species.

There are also several mixtures of "seeds" (the technical name given on

the farm to grass-seeds) which have been adopted with success in laying

down permanent pasture in some localities.

+---------------------+------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------+

| | | | | |Cambridge|General |

| |Young.|De Laune.|Leicester.|Elliot.| average.|purpose |

| | | | | | |mixture.|

+---------------------+------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------+

| Cocksfoot | .. | 8 | 4 | 8 | 8 | 4 |

| Perennial ryegrass | .. | .. | 2 | 6 | 10 | 10 |

| Meadow fescue | .. | 6 | 2 | .. | 5 | .. |

| Hard fescue | .. | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | .. |

| Crested dogstail | 3 | 2 | .. | 1 | 3 | .. |

| Timothy | .. | 3 | 1 | .. | 2 | 2 |

| Meadow foxtail | .. | 10 | .. | .. | 1 | 1 |

| Tall fescue | .. | 3 | 1 | 3-1/2 | .. | 2 |

| Tall oat grass | .. | .. | 1 | 3 | .. | .. |

| Italian ryegrass | .. | .. | 2 | .. | .. | 5 |

| Smooth meadow grass | .. | .. | .. | 1 | .. | .. |

| Rough meadow grass | .. | 1 | .. | 1 | .. | .. |

| Golden oat grass | .. | .. | 1/4 | 1 | .. | .. |

| Sheep's fescue | .. | 1 | .. | .. | .. | .. |

| Broad red clover | .. | 1 | .. | .. | .. | 2 |

| Perennial red clover| .. | 1 | .. | 1-1/2 | .. | 2 |

| Alsike | .. | 1 | 1-1/2 | 1 | .. | 2 |

| Lucerne (Alfalfa) | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 8 |

| White clover | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 |

| Kidney vetch | 6 | .. | .. | 2-1/2 | .. | .. |

| Sheep's parsley | .. | .. | .. | 1 | .. | .. |

| Yarrow | 1 | 1 | 1/4 | 1 | .. | .. |

| Burnet | 8 | .. | .. | 8 | .. | .. |

| Chicory | 4 | .. | .. | 2-1/2 | .. | .. |

| Plantain | 4 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |

| +------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------+

| Total lb. per acre | 30 | 40 | 17 | 40 | 30 | 40 |

+---------------------+------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------+

Arthur Young more than 100 years ago made out one to suit chalky

hillsides; Mr Faunce de Laune (Sussex) in our days was the first to

study grasses and advocated leaving out ryegrass of all kinds; Lord

Leicester adopted a cheap mixture suitable for poor land with success;

Mr Elliot (Kelso) has introduced many deep-rooted "herbs" in his mixture

with good results. Typical examples of such mixtures are given on

preceding page.

Temporary pastures are commonly resorted to for rotation purposes, and

in these the bulky fast-growing and short-lived grasses and clovers are

given the preference. Three examples of temporary mixtures are given

below.

+-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+

| | One | Two | Three |

| | year. | years.|or four|

| | | | years.|

+-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+

| Italian ryegrass | 14 | 10 | 6 |

| Cocksfoot | 2 | 4 | 6 |

| Timothy | .. | 2 | 3 |

| Broad red clover | 8 | 5 | 3 |

| Alsike | 3 | 2 | 2 |

| Trefoil | 3 | 2 | 2 |

| Perennial ryegrass | .. | 5 | 10 |

| Meadow fescue | .. | 2 | 2 |

| Perennial red clover | .. | 2 | 2 |

| White clover | .. | 1 | 2 |

| Meadow foxtail | .. | 1 | 2 |

| +-------+-------+-------+

| Total lb. per acre | 30 | 36 | 40 |

+-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+

Where only a one-year hay is required, broad red clover is often grown,

either alone or mixed with a little Italian ryegrass, while other forage

crops, like trefoil and trifolium, are often grown alone.

In Great Britain a heavy clay soil is usually preferred for pasture,

both because it takes most kindly to grass and because the expense of

cultivating it makes it unprofitable as arable land when the price of

corn is low. On light soil the plant frequently suffers from drought in

summer, the want of moisture preventing it from obtaining proper

root-hold. On such soil the use of a heavy roller is advantageous, and

indeed on any soil excepting heavy clay frequent rolling is beneficial

to the grass, as it promotes the capillary action of the soil-particles

and the consequent ascension of ground-water.

In addition, the grass on the surface helps to keep the moisture from

being wasted by the sun's heat.

The graminaceous crops of western Europe generally are similar to those

enumerated. Elsewhere in Europe are found certain grasses, such as

Hungarian brome, which are suitable for introduction into the British

Isles. The grasses of the American prairies also include many plants not

met with in Great Britain. Some half-dozen species are common to both

countries: Kentucky "blue-grass" is the British _Poa pratensis_; couch

grass (_Triticum repens_) grows plentifully without its underground

runners; bent (_Agrostis vulgaris_) forms the famous "red-top," and so

on. But the American buffalo-grass, the Canadian buffalo-grass, the

"bunch" grasses, "squirrel-tail" and many others which have no

equivalents in the British Islands, form a large part of the prairie

pasturage. There is not a single species of true clover found on the

prairies, though cultivated varieties can be introduced. (P. McC.)

GRASSE, FRANCOIS JOSEPH PAUL, MARQUIS DE GRASSETILLY, COMTE DE

(1722-1788), French sailor, was born at Bar, in the present department

of the Alpes Maritimes. In 1734 he took service on the galleys of the

order of Malta, and in 1740 entered the service of France, being

promoted to chief of squadron in 1779. He took part in the naval

operations of the American War of Independence, and distinguished

himself in the battles of Dominica and Saint Lucia (1780), and of Tobago

(1781). He was less fortunate at St Kitts, where he was defeated by

Admiral Hood. Shortly afterwards, in April 1782, he was defeated and

taken prisoner by Admiral Rodney. Some months later he returned to

France, published a _Memoire justificatif_, and was acquitted by a

court-martial (1784). He died at Paris in January 1788.

His son Alexandre de Grasse, published a _Notice bibliographique sur

l'amiral comte de Grasse d'apres les documents inedits_ in 1840. See

G. Lacour-Gayet, _La Marine militaire de la France sous le regne de

Louis XV_ (Paris, 1902).

GRASSE, a town in the French department of the Alpes Maritimes (till

1860 in that of the Var), 12-1/2 m. by rail N. of Cannes. Pop. (1906)

town, 13,958; commune, 20,305. It is built in a picturesque situation,

in the form of an amphitheatre and at a height oL 1066 ft. above the

sea, on the southern slope of a hill, facing the Mediterranean. In the

older (eastern) part of the town the streets are narrow, steep and

winding, but the new portion (western) is laid out in accordance with

modern French ideas. It possesses a remarkably mild and salubrious

climate, and is well supplied with water. That used for the purpose of

the factories comes from the fine spring of Foux. But the drinking water

used in the higher portions of the town flows, by means of a conduit,

from the Foulon stream, one of the sources of the Loup. Grasse was from

1244 (when the see was transferred hither from Antibes) to 1790 an

episcopal see, but was then included in the diocese of Frejus till 1860,

when politically as well as ecclesiastically, the region was annexed to

the newly-formed department of the Alpes Maritimes. It still possesses a

12th-century cathedral, now a simple parish church; while an ancient

tower, of uncertain date, rises close by near the town hall, which was

formerly the bishop's palace (13th century). There is a good town

library, containing the muniments of the abbey of Lerins, on the island

of St Honorat opposite Cannes. In the chapel of the old hospital are

three pictures by Rubens. The painter J. H. Fragonard (1732-1806) was a

native of Grasse, and some of his best works were formerly to be seen

here (now in America). Grasse is particularly celebrated for its

perfumery. Oranges and roses are cultivated abundantly in the

neighbourhood. It is stated that the preparation of attar of roses

(which costs nearly L100 per 2 lb.) requires alone nearly 7,000,000

roses a year. The finest quality of olive oil is also manufactured at

Grasse. (W. A. B. C.)

GRASSES,[1] a group of plants possessing certain characters in common

and constituting a family (Gramineae) of the class Monocotyledons. It is

one of the largest and most widespread and, from an economic point of

view, the most important family of flowering plants. No plant is

correctly termed a grass which is not a member of this family, but the

word is in common language also used, generally in combination, for many

plants of widely different affinities which possess some resemblance

(often slight) in foliage to true grasses; e.g. knot-grass (_Polygonum

aviculare_), cotton-grass (_Eriophorum_), rib-grass (_Plantago_),

scorpion-grass (_Myosotis_), blue-eyed grass (_Sisyrinchium_), sea-grass

(_Zostera_). The grass-tree of Australia (_Xanthorrhoea_) is a

remarkable plant, allied to the rushes in the form of its flower, but

with a tall, unbranched, soft-woody, palm-like trunk bearing a crown of

long, narrow, grass-like leaves and stalked heads of small,

densely-crowded flowers. In agriculture the word has an extended

signification to include the various fodder-plants, chiefly leguminous,

often called "artificial grasses." Indeed, formerly _grass_ (also spelt

_gwrs_, _gres_, _gyrs_ in the old herbals) meant any green herbaceous

plant of small size.

Yet the first attempts at a classification of plants recognized and

separated a group of _Gramina_, and this, though bounded by nothing more

definite than habit and general appearance, contained the Gramineae of

modern botanists. The older group, however, even with such systematists

as Ray (1703), Scheuchzer (1719), and Micheli (1729), embraced in

addition the Cyperaceae (Sedge family), Juncaceae (Rush family), and

some other monocotyledons with inconspicuous flowers. Singularly enough,

the sexual system of Linnaeus (1735) served to mark off more distinctly

the true grasses from these allies, since very nearly all of the former

then known fell under his Triandria Digynia, whilst the latter found

themselves under his other classes and orders.

I. STRUCTURE.--The general type of true grasses is familiar in the

cultivated cereals of temperate climates--wheat, barley, rye, oats, and

in the smaller plants which make up pastures and meadows and form a

principal factor of the turf of natural downs. Less familiar are the

grains of warmer climates--rice, maize, millet and sorgho, or the

sugar-cane. Still farther removed are the bamboos of the tropics, the

columnar stems of which reach to the height of forest trees. All are,

however, formed on a common plan.

_Root._--Most cereals and many other grasses are annual, and possess a

tuft of very numerous slender root-fibres, much branched and of great

length. The majority of the members of the family are of longer

duration, and have the roots also fibrous, but fewer, thicker and less

branched. In such cases they are very generally given off from just

above each node (often in a circle) of the lower part of the stem or

rhizome, perforating the leaf-sheaths. In some bamboos they are very

numerous from the lower nodes of the erect culms, and pass downwards to

the soil, whilst those from the upper nodes shrivel up and form circles

of spiny fibres.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Rhizome of Bamboo. A, B, C, D, successive series

of axes, the last bearing aerial culms. Much reduced.]

_Stem._--The underground stem or rootstock (rhizome) of perennial

grasses is usually well developed, and often forms very long creeping or

subterranean rhizomes, with elongated internodes and sheathing scales;

the widely-creeping, slender rhizomes in Marram-grass (_Psamma_),

_Agropyrum junceum_, _Elymus arenarius_, and other sand-loving plants

render them useful as sand-binders. It is also frequently short, with

the nodes crowded. The turf-formation, which is characteristic of open

situations in cool temperate climates, results from an extensive

production of short stolons, the branches and the fibrous roots

developed from their nodes forming the dense "sod." The very large

rhizome of the bamboos (fig. 1) is also a striking example of "definite"

growth; it is much branched, the short, thick, curved branches being

given off below the apex of the older ones and at right angles to them,

the whole forming a series of connected arched axes, truncate at their

ends, which were formerly continued into leafy culms. The rhizome is

always solid, and has the usual internal structure of the

monocotyledonous stem. In the cases of branching just cited the branches

break directly through the sheath of the leaf in connexion with which

they arise. In other cases the branches grow upwards through the sheaths

which they ultimately split from above, and emerging as aerial shoots

give a tufted habit to the plant. Good examples are the oat, cock's-foot

(_Dactylis_) and other British grasses. This mode of growth is the cause

of the "tillering" of cereals, or the production of a large number of

erect growing branches from the lower nodes of the young stem. Isolated

tufts or tussocks are also characteristic of steppe--and

savanna--vegetation and open places generally in the warmer parts of the

earth.

The aerial leaf-bearing branches (culms) are a characteristic feature of

grasses. They are generally numerous, erect, cylindrical (rarely

flattened) and conspicuously jointed with evident nodes. The nodes are

solid, a strong plate of tissue passing across the stem, but the

internodes are commonly hollow, although examples of completely solid

stems are not uncommon (e.g. maize, many Andropogons, sugar-cane). The

swollen nodes are a characteristic feature. In wheat, barley and most of

the British native grasses they are a development, not of the culm, but

of the base of the leaf-sheath. The function of the nodes is to raise

again culms which have become bent down; they are composed of highly

turgescent tissue, the cells of which elongate on the side next the

earth when the culm is placed in a horizontal or oblique position, and

thus raise the culm again to an erect position. The internodes continue

to grow in length, especially the upper ones, for some time; the

increase takes place in a zone at the extreme base, just above the node.

The exterior of the culms is more or less concealed by the leaf-sheaths;

it is usually smooth and often highly polished, the epidermal cells

containing an amount of silica sufficient to leave after burning a

distinct skeleton of their structure. Tabasheer is a white substance

mainly composed of silica, found in the joints of several bamboos. A few

of the lower internodes may become enlarged and sub-globular, forming

nutriment-stores, and grasses so characterized are termed "bulbous"

(_Arrhenatherum_, _Poa bulbosa_, &c.). In internal structure

grass-culms, save in being hollow, conform to that usual in

monocotyledons; the vascular bundles run parallel in the internodes, but

a horizontal interlacement occurs at the nodes. In grasses of temperate

climates branching is rare at the upper nodes of the culm, but it is

characteristic of the bamboos and many tropical grasses. The branches

are strictly distichous. In many bamboos they are long and spreading or

drooping and copiously ramified, in others they are reduced to hooked

spines. One genus (_Dinochloa_, a native of the Malay archipelago) is

scandent, and climbs over trees 100 ft. or more in height, _Olyra

latifolia_, a widely-spread tropical species, is also a climber on a

humbler scale.

Grass-culms grow with great rapidity, as is most strikingly seen in

bamboos, where a height of over 100 ft. is attained in from two to three

months, and many species grow two, three or even more feet in

twenty-four hours. Silicic hardening does not begin till the full height

is nearly attained. The largest bamboo recorded is 170 ft., and the

diameter is usually reckoned at about 4 in. to each 50 ft.

_Leaves._--These present special characters usually sufficient for

ordinal determination. They are solitary at each node and arranged in

two rows, the lower often crowded, forming a basal tuft. They consist of

two distinct portions, the sheath and the blade. The sheath is often of

great length, and generally completely surrounds the culm, forming a

firm protection for the internode, the younger basal portion of which,

including the zone of growth, remains tender for some time. As a rule it

is split down its whole length, thus differing from that of Cyperaceae

which is almost invariably (_Eriospora_ is an exception) a complete

tube; in some grasses, however (species of _Poa_, _Bromus_ and others),

the edges are united. The sheaths are much dilated in _Alopecurus

vaginatus_ and in a species of _Potamochloa_, in the latter, an East

Indian aquatic grass, serving as floats. At the summit of the sheath,

above the origin of the blade, is the _ligule_, a usually membranous

process of small size (occasionally reaching 1 in. in length) erect and

pressed around the culm. It is rarely quite absent, but may be

represented by a tuft of hairs (very conspicuous in _Pariana_). It

serves to prevent rain-water, which has run down the blade, from

entering the sheath. _Melica uniflora_ has in addition to the ligule, a

green erect tongue-like process, from the line of junction of the edges

of the sheath.

The blade is frequently wanting or small and imperfect in the basal

leaves, but in the rest is long and set on to the sheath at an angle.

The usual form is familiar--sessile, more or less ribbon-shaped,

tapering to a point, and entire at the edge. The chief modifications are

the articulation of the deciduous blade on to the sheath, which occurs

in all the Bambuseae (except _Planotia_) and in _Spartina stricta_; and

the interposition of a petiole between the sheath and the blade, as in

bamboos, _Leptaspis_, _Pharus_, _Pariana_, _Lophatherum_ and others. In

the latter case the leaf usually becomes oval, ovate or even cordate or

sagittate, but these forms are found in sessile leaves also (_Olyra_,

_Panicum_). The venation is strictly parallel, the midrib usually

strong, and the other ribs more slender. In _Anomochloa_ there are

several nearly equal ribs and in some broad-leaved grasses (_Bambuseae_,

_Pharus_, _Leptaspis_) the venation becomes tesselated by transverse

connecting veins. The tissue is often raised above the veins, forming

longitudinal ridges, generally on the upper face; the stomata are in

lines in the intervening furrows. The thick prominent veins in

_Agropyrum_ occupy the whole upper surface of the leaf. Epidermal

appendages are rare, the most frequent being marginal, saw-like,

cartilaginous teeth, usually minute, but occasionally (_Danthonia

scabra_, _Panicum serratum_) so large as to give the margin a serrate

appearance. The leaves are occasionally woolly, as in _Alopecurus

lanatus_ and one or two _Panicums_. The blade is often twisted,

frequently so much so that the upper and under faces become reversed. In

dry-country grasses the blades are often folded on the midrib, or rolled

up. The rolling is effected by bands of large wedge-shaped

cells--motor-cells--between the nerves, the loss of turgescence by

which, as the air dries, causes the blade to curl towards the face on

which they occur. The rolling up acts as a protection from too great

loss of water, the exposed surface being specially protected to this end

by a strong cuticle, the majority or all of the stomata occurring on the

protected surface. The stiffness of the blade, which becomes very marked

in dry-country grasses, is due to the development of girders of

thick-walled mechanical tissue which follow the course of all or the

principal veins (fig. 2).

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Magnified transverse section of one-half of a

leaf-blade of _Festuca rubra_. The dark portions represent supporting

and conducting tissue; the upper face bears furrows, at the bottom of

each of which are seen the motor cells m.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--One-flowered spikelet of _Agrostis_.]

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Two-flowered spikelet of _Aira_.

b, Barren glumes; f, flowering glumes. (Both Enlarged.)]

_Inflorescence._--This possesses an exceptional importance in grasses,

since, their floral envelopes being much reduced and the sexual organs

of very great uniformity, the characters employed for classification are

mainly derived from the arrangement of the flowers and their investing

bracts. Various interpretations have been given to these glumaceous

organs and different terms employed for them by various writers. It may,

however, be considered as settled that the whole of the bodies known as

glumes and paleae, and distichously arranged externally to the flower,

form no part of the floral envelopes, but are of the nature of bracts.

These are arranged so as to form _spikelets_ (locustae), and each

spikelet may contain one, as in _Agrostis_ (fig. 3) two, as in _Aira_

(fig. 4) three, or a great number of flowers, as in _Briza_ (fig. 5)

_Triticum_ (fig. 6); in some species of _Eragrostis_ there are nearly

60. The flowers are, as a rule, placed laterally on the axis

(_rachilla_) of the spikelet, but in one-flowered spikelets they appear

to be terminal, and are probably really so in _Anthoxanthum_ (fig. 7)

and in two anomalous genera, _Anomochloa_ and _Streptochaeta_.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Spikelet of _Briza_.]

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Spikelet of _Triticum_.

(Both enlarged.)]

In immediate relation with the flower itself, and often entirely

concealing it, is the _palea_ or _pale_ ("upper pale" of most systematic

agrostologists). This organ (fig. 13, 1) is peculiar to grasses among

Glumiflorae (the series to which belong the two families Gramineae and

Cyperaceae), and is almost always present, certain _Oryzeae_ and

_Phalarideae_ being the only exceptions. It is of thin membranous

consistence, usually obtuse, often bifid, and possesses no central rib

or nerve, but has two lateral ones, one on either side; the margins are

frequently folded in at the ribs, which thus become placed at the sharp

angles. This structure was formerly regarded as pointing to the fusion

of two organs, and the pale was considered by Robert Brown to represent

two portions soldered together of a trimerous perianth-whorl, the third

portion being the "lower pale." The pale is now generally considered to

represent the single bracteole, characteristic of Monocotyledons, the

binerved structure being the result of the pressure of the axis of the

spikelet during the development of the pale, as in _Iris_ and others.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Spikelet of _Anthoxanthum_ (enlarged) without

the two lower barren glumes, showing the two upper awned barren glumes

(g) and the flower.]

The flower with its pale is sessile, and is placed in the axis of

another bract in such a way that the pale is exactly opposed to it,

though at a slightly higher level. It is this second bract or flowering

glume which has been generally called by systematists the "lower pale,"

and with the "upper pale" was formerly considered to form an outer

floral envelope ("calyx," Jussieu; "perianthium," Brown). The two bracts

are, however, on different axes, one secondary to the other, and cannot

therefore be parts of one whorl of organs. They are usually quite unlike

one another, but in some genera (e.g. most _Festuceae_) are very similar

in shape and appearance.

The flowering glume has generally a more or less boat-shaped form, is of

firm consistence, and possesses a well-marked central midrib and

frequently several lateral ones. The midrib in a large proportion of

genera extends into an appendage termed the _awn_ (fig. 4), and the

lateral veins more rarely extend beyond the glume as sharp points (e.g.

_Pappophorum_). The form of the flowering glume is very various, this

organ being plastic and extensively modified in different genera. It

frequently extends downwards a little on the rachilla, forming with the

latter a swollen callus, which is separated from the free portion by a

furrow. In _Leptaspis_ it is formed into a closed cavity by the union of

its edges, and encloses the flower, the styles projecting through the

pervious summit. Valuable characters for distinguishing genera are

obtained from the awn. This presents itself variously developed from a

mere subulate point to an organ several inches in length, and when

complete (as in _Andropogoneae_, _Aveneae_ and _Stipeae_) consists of

two well-marked portions, a lower twisted part and a terminal straight

portion, usually set in at an angle with the former, sometimes trifid

and occasionally beautifully feathery (fig. 8). The lower part is most

often suppressed, and in the large group of the _Paniceae_ awns of any

sort are very rarely seen. The awn may be either terminal or may come

off from the back of the flowering glume, and Duval Jouve's observations

have shown that it represents the blade of the leaf of which the portion

of the flowering glume below its origin is the sheath; the twisted part

(so often suppressed) corresponds with the petiole, and the portion of

the glume extending beyond the origin of the awn (very long in some

species, e.g. of _Danthonia_) with the ligule of the developed

foliage-leaf. When terminal the awn has three fibro-vascular bundles,

when dorsal only one; it is covered with stomate-bearing epidermis.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Spikelet of _Stipa pennata_. The pair of barren

glumes (b) are separated from the flowering glume, which bears a long

awn, twisted below the knee and feathery above. About 3/4 nat. size.]

The flower with its palea is thus sessile in the axil of a floriferous

glume, and in a few grasses (_Leersia_ (fig. 9), _Coleanthus_, _Nardus_)

the spikelet consists of nothing more, but usually (even in uniflorous

spikelets) other glumes are present. Of these the two placed

distichously opposite each other at the base of the spikelet never bear

any flower in their axils, and are called the _empty_ or _barren glumes_

(figs. 3, 8). They are the "glumes" of most writers, and together form

what was called the "gluma" by R. Brown. They rarely differ much from

one another, but one may be smaller or quite absent (_Panicum_,

_Setaria_ (fig. 10), _Paspalum_, _Lolium_), or both be altogether

suppressed, as above noticed. They are commonly firm and strong, often

enclose the spikelet, and are rarely provided with long points or

imperfect awns. Generally speaking they do not share in the special

modifications of the flowering glumes, and rarely themselves undergo

modification, chiefly in hardening of portions (_Sclerachne_,

_Manisuris_, _Anthephora_, _Peltophorum_), so as to afford greater

protection to the flowers or fruit. But it is usual to find, besides the

basal glumes, a few other empty ones, and these are in two- or

more-flowered spikelets (see _Triticum_, fig. 6) at the top of the

rhachilla (numerous in _Lophatherum_), or in uniflorous ones (fig. 10)

below and interposed between the floral glume and the basal pair.

[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Spikelet of _Leersia_. f, Flowering glume; p,

pale.]

[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Spikelet of _Setaria_, with an abortive branch

(h) beneath it. b, Barren glumes; f, flowering glume; p, pale.]

The axis of the spikelet is frequently jointed and breaks up into

articulations above each flower. Tufts or borders of hairs are

frequently present (_Calamagrostis_, _Phragmites_, _Andropogon_), and

are often so long as to surround and conceal the flowers (fig. 11). The

axis is often continued beyond the last flower or glume as a bristle or

stalk.

_Involucres_ or organs outside the spikelets also occur, and are formed

in various ways. Thus in _Setaria_ (fig. 10), _Pennisetum_, &c., the one

or more circles of simple or feathery hairs represent abortive branches

of the inflorescence; in _Cenchrus_ (fig. 12) these become consolidated,

and the inner ones flattened so as to form a very hard globular spiny

case to the spikelets. The cup-shaped involucre of _Cornucopia_ is a

dilatation of the axis into a hollow receptacle with a raised border. In

_Cynosurus_ (Dog's tail) the pectinate involucre which conceals the

spikelet is a barren or abortive spikelet. Bracts of a more general

character subtending branches of the inflorescence are singularly rare

in Gramineae, in marked contrast with Cyperaceae, where they are so

conspicuous. They however occur in a whole section of _Andropogon_, in

_Anomochloa_, and at the base of the spike in _Sesleria_. The remarkable

ovoid involucre of _Coix_, which becomes of stony hardness, white and

polished (then known as "Job's tears," q.v.), is also a modified bract

or leaf-sheath. It is closed except at the apex, and contains the female

spikelet, the stalks of the male inflorescence and the long styles

emerging through the small apical orifice.

[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Spikelet of Reed (_Phragmites communis_) opened

out.

a, b, Barren glumes.

c, c, Fertile glumes, each enclosing one flower with its pale d.