[1] The name "Grand Alliance" is applied to the coalition against
Louis XIV. begun by the League of Augsburg. This coalition not only
waged the war dealt with in the present article, but (with only
slight modifications and with practically unbroken continuity) the
war of the Spanish Succession (q.v.) that followed.
[2] Louvois died in July 1691.
[3] A few days before this the great naval reverse of La Hogue put an
end to the projects of invading England hitherto entertained at
Versailles.
[4] Marsaglia is, if not the first, at any rate, one of the first,
instances of a bayonet charge by a long deployed line of infantry.
[5] Hussars figured here for the first time in western Europe. A
regiment of them had been raised in 1692 from deserters from the
Austrian service.
GRAND CANARY (Gran Canaria), an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming
part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop.
(1900) 127,471; area 523 sq. m. Grand Canary, the most fertile island of
the group, is nearly circular in shape, with a diameter of 24 m. and a
circumference of 75 m. The interior is a mass of mountain with ravines
radiating to the shore. Its highest peak, Los Pexos, is 6400 ft. Large
tracts are covered with native pine (_P. canariensis_). There are
several mineral springs on the island. Las Palmas (pop. 44,517), the
capital, is described in a separate article. Telde (8978), the second
place in the island, stands on a plain, surrounded by palm trees. At
Atalaya, a short distance from Las Palmas, the making of earthenware
vessels employs some hundreds of people, who inhabit holes made in the
tufa.
GRAND CANYON, a profound gorge in the north-west corner of Arizona, in
the south-western part of the United States of America, carved in the
plateau region by the Colorado river. Of it Captain Dutton says: "Those
who have long and carefully studied the Grand Canyon of the Colorado do
not hesitate for a moment to pronounce it by far the most sublime of all
earthly spectacles"; and this is also the verdict of many who have only
viewed it in one or two of its parts.
The Colorado river is made by the junction of two large streams, the
Green and Grand, fed by the rains and snows of the Rocky Mountains. It
has a length of about 2000 m. and a drainage area of 255,000 sq. m.,
emptying into the head of the Gulf of California. In its course the
Colorado passes through a mountain section; then a plateau section; and
finally a desert lowland section which extends to its mouth. It is in
the plateau section that the Grand Canyon is situated. Here the surface
of the country lies from 5000 to 9000 ft. above sea-level, being a
tableland region of buttes and mesas diversified by lava intrusions,
flows and cinder cones. The region consists in the main of stratified
rocks bodily uplifted in a nearly horizontal position, though profoundly
faulted here and there, and with some moderate folding. For a thousand
miles the river has cut a series of canyons, bearing different names,
which reach their culmination in the Marble Canyon, 66 m. long, and the
contiguous Grand Canyon which extends for a distance of 217 m. farther
down stream, making a total length of continuous canyon from 2000 to
6000 ft. in depth, for a distance of 283 m., the longest and deepest
canyon in the world. This huge gash in the earth is the work of the
Colorado river, with accompanying weathering, through long ages; and the
river is still engaged in deepening it as it rushes along the canyon
bottom.
The higher parts of the enclosing plateau have sufficient rainfall for
forests, whose growth is also made possible in part by the cool climate
and consequently retarded evaporation; but the less elevated portions
have an arid climate, while the climate in the canyon bottom is that of
the true desert. Thus the canyon is really in a desert region, as is
shown by the fact that only two living streams enter the river for a
distance of 500 m. from the Green river to the lower end of the Grand
Canyon; and only one, the Kanab Creek, enters the Grand Canyon itself.
This, moreover, is dry during most of the year. In spite of this lack of
tributaries, a large volume of water flows through the canyon at all
seasons of the year, some coming from the scattered tributaries, some
from springs, but most from the rains and snows of the distant mountains
about the headwaters. Owing to enclosure between steeply rising canyon
walls, evaporation is retarded, thus increasing the possibility of the
long journey of the water from the mountains to the sea across a vast
stretch of arid land.
The river in the canyon varies from a few feet to an unknown depth, and
at times of flood has a greatly increased volume. The river varies in
width from 50 ft. in some of the narrow Granite Gorges, where it bathes
both rock walls, to 500 or 600 ft. in more open places. In the 283 m. of
the Marble and Grand Canyons, the river falls 2330 ft., and at one point
has a fall of 210 ft. in 10 m. The current velocity varies from 3 to 20
or more miles per hour, being increased in places by low falls and
rapids; but there are no high falls below the junction of the Green and
Grand.
Besides the canyons of the main river, there are a multitude of lateral
canyons occupied by streams at intervals of heavy rain. As Powell says,
the region "is a composite of thousands, and tens of thousands of
gorges." There are "thousands of gorges like that below Niagara Falls,
and there are a thousand Yosemites." The largest of all, the Grand
Canyon, has an average depth of 4000 ft. and a width of 4-1/2 to 12 m.
For a long distance, where crossing the Kaibab plateau, the depth is
6000 ft. For much of the distance there is an inner narrower gorge sunk
in the bottom of a broad outer canyon. The narrow gorge is in some
places no more than 3500 ft. wide at the top. To illustrate the depth of
the Grand Canyon, Powell writes: "Pluck up Mount Washington (6293 ft.
high) by the roots to the level of the sea, and drop it head first into
the Grand Canyon, and the dam will not force its waters over the wall."
While there are notable differences in the Grand Canyon from point to
point, the main elements are much alike throughout its length and are
due to the succession of rock strata revealed in the canyon walls. At
the base, for some 800 ft., there is a complex of crystalline rocks of
early geological age, consisting of gneiss, schist, slate and other
rocks, greatly plicated and traversed by dikes and granite intrusions.
This is an ancient mountain mass, which has been greatly denuded. On it
rest a series of durable quartzite beds inclined to the horizontal,
forming about 800 ft. more of the lower canyon wall. On this come first
500 ft. of greenish sandstones and then 700 ft. of bedded sandstone and
limestone strata, some massive and some thin, which on weathering form a
series of alcoves. These beds, like those above, are in nearly
horizontal position. Above this comes 1600 ft. of limestone--often a
beautiful marble, as in the Marble Canyon, but in the Grand Canyon
stained a brilliant red by iron oxide washed from overlying beds. Above
this "red wall" are 800 ft. of grey and bright red sandstone beds
looking "like vast ribbons of landscape." At the top of the canyon is
1000 ft. of limestone with gypsum and chert, noted for the pinnacles and
towers which denudation has developed. It is these different rock beds,
with their various colours, and the differences in the effect of
weathering upon them, that give the great variety and grandeur to the
canyon scenery. There are towers and turrets, pinnacles and alcoves,
cliffs, ledges, crags and moderate talus slopes, each with its
characteristic colour and form according to the set of strata in which
it lies. The main river has cleft the plateau in a huge gash;
innumerable side gorges have cut it to right and left; and weathering
has etched out the cliffs and crags and helped to paint it in the gaudy
colour bands that stretch before the eye. There is grandeur here and
weirdness in abundance, but beauty is lacking. Powell puts the case
graphically when he writes: "A wall of homogeneous granite like that in
the Yosemite is but a naked wall, whether it be 1000 or 5000 ft. high.
Hundreds and thousands of feet mean nothing to the eye when they stand
in a meaningless front. A mountain covered by pure snow 10,000 ft. high
has but little more effect on the imagination than a mountain of snow
1000 ft. high--it is but more of the same thing; but a facade of seven
systems of rock has its sublimity multiplied sevenfold."
To the ordinary person most of the Grand Canyon is at present
inaccessible, for, as Powell states, "a year scarcely suffices to see it
all"; and "it is a region more difficult to traverse than the Alps or
the Himalayas." But a part of the canyon is now easily accessible to
tourists. A trail leads from the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railway at
Flagstaff, Arizona; and a branch line of the railway extends from
Williams, Arizona, to a hotel on the very brink of the canyon. The
plateau, which in places bears an open forest, mainly of pine, varies in
elevation, but is for the most part a series of fairly level terrace
tops with steep faces, with mesas and buttes here and there, and,
especially near the huge extinct volcano of San Francisco mountain, with
much evidence of former volcanic activity, including numerous cinder
cones. The traveller comes abruptly to the edge of the canyon, at whose
bottom, over a mile below, is seen the silvery thread of water where the
muddy torrent rushes along on its never-ceasing task of sawing its way
into the depths of the earth. Opposite rise the highly coloured and
terraced slopes of the other canyon wall, whose crest is fully 12 m.
distant.
Down by the river are the folded rocks of an ancient mountain system,
formed before vertebrate life appeared on the earth, then worn to an
almost level condition through untold ages of slow denudation. Slowly,
then, the mountains sank beneath the level of the sea, and in the
Carboniferous Period--about the time of the formation of the
coal-beds--sediments began to bury the ancient mountains. This lasted
through other untold ages until the Tertiary Period--through much of the
Palaeozoic and all of the Mesozoic time--and a total of from 12,000 to
16,000 ft. of sediments were deposited. Since then erosion has been
dominant, and the river has eaten its way down to, and into, the deeply
buried mountains, opening the strata for us to read, like the pages of a
book. In some parts of the plateau region as much as 30,000 ft. of rock
have been stripped away, and over an area of 200,000 sq. m. an average
of over 6000 ft. has been removed.
The Grand Canyon was probably discovered by G. L. de Cardenas in 1540,
but for 329 years the inaccessibility of the region prevented its
exploration. Various people visited parts of it or made reports
regarding it; and the Ives Expedition of 1858 contains a report upon the
canyon written by Prof. J. S. Newberry. But it was not until 1869 that
the first real exploration of the Grand Canyon was made. In that year
Major J. W. Powell, with five associates (three left the party in the
Grand Canyon), made the complete journey by boat from the junction of
the Green and Grand rivers to the lower end of the Grand Canyon. This
hazardous journey ranks as one of the most daring and remarkable
explorations ever undertaken in North America; and Powell's descriptions
of the expedition are among the most fascinating accounts of travel
relating to the continent. Powell made another expedition in 1871, but
did not go the whole length of the canyon. The government survey
conducted by Lieut. George M. Wheeler also explored parts of the canyon,
and C. E. Dutton carried on extensive studies of the canyon and the
contiguous plateau region. In 1890 Robert B. Stanton, with six
associates, went through the canyon in boats, making a survey to
determine the feasibility of building a railway along its base. Two
other parties, one in 1896 (Nat. Galloway and William Richmond) the
other in 1897 (George F. Flavell and companion), have made the journey
through the canyon. So far as there is record these are the only four
parties that have ever made the complete journey through the Grand
Canyon. It has sometimes been said that James White made the passage of
the canyon before Powell did; but this story rests upon no real basis.
For accounts of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado see J. W. Powell,
_Explorations of the Colorado River of the West and its Tributaries_
(Washington, 1875); J. W. Powell, _Canyons of the Colorado_
(Meadville, Pa., 1895); F. S. Dellenbaugh, _The Romance of the
Colorado River_ (New York, 1902); Capt. C. E. Dutton, _Tertiary
History of the Grand Canyon District, with Atlas_ (Washington, 1882),
being Monograph No. 2, U.S. Geological Survey. See also the excellent
topographic map of the Grand Canyon prepared by F. E. Matthes and
published by the U.S. Geological Survey. (R. S. T.)
GRAND-DUKE (Fr. _grand-duc_, Ital. _granduca_, Ger. _Grossherzog_), a
title borne by princes ranking between king and duke. The dignity was
first bestowed in 1567 by Pope Pius V. on Duke Cosimo I. of Florence,
his son Francis obtaining the emperor's confirmation in 1576; and the
predicate "Royal Highness" was added in 1699. In 1806 Napoleon created
his brother-in-law Joachim Murat, grand-duke of Berg, and in the same
year the title was assumed by the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, the
elector of Baden, and the new ruler of the secularized bishopric of
Wurzburg (formerly Ferdinand III., grand-duke of Tuscany) on joining the
Confederation of the Rhine. At the present time, according to the
decision of the Congress of Vienna, the title is borne by the sovereigns
of Luxemburg, Saxe-Weimar (grand-duke of Saxony), Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and Oldenburg (since 1829), as well as by those of
Hesse-Darmstadt and Baden. The emperor of Austria includes among his
titles those of grand-duke of Cracow and Tuscany, and the king of
Prussia those of grand-duke of the Lower Rhine and Posen. The title is
also retained by the dispossessed Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty of Tuscany.
Grand-duke is also the conventional English equivalent of the Russian
_velikiy knyaz_, more properly "grand-prince" (Ger. Grossfurst), at one
time the title of the rulers of Russia, who, as the eldest born of the
house of Rurik, exercised overlordship over the _udyelniye knyazi_ or
local princes. On the partition of the inheritance of Rurik, the eldest
of each branch assumed the title of grand-prince. Under the domination
of the Golden Horde the right to bestow the title _velikiy knyaz_ was
reserved by the Tatar Khan, who gave it to the prince of Moskow. In
Lithuania this title also symbolized a similar overlordship, and it
passed to the kings of Poland on the union of Lithuania with the Polish
republic. The style of the emperor of Russia now includes the titles of
grand-duke (_velikiy knyaz_) of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia
and Finland. Until 1886 this title grand-duke or grand-duchess, with the
style "Imperial Highness," was borne by all descendants of the imperial
house. It is now confined to the sons and daughters, brothers and
sisters, and male grandchildren of the emperor. The other members of the
imperial house bear the title of prince (_knyaz_) and princess
(_knyaginya_, if married, _knyazhna_, if unmarried) with the style of
"Highness." The emperor of Austria, as king of Hungary, also bears this
title as "grand-duke" of Transylvania, which was erected into a
"grand-princedom" (Grossfurstentum) in 1765 by Maria Theresa.
GRANDEE (Span. _Grande_), a title of honour borne by the highest class
of the Spanish nobility. It would appear to have been originally assumed
by the most important nobles to distinguish them from the mass of the
_ricos hombres_, or great barons of the realm. It was thus, as Selden
points out, not a general term denoting a class, but "an additional
dignity not only to all dukes, but to some marquesses and condes also"
(_Titles of Honor_, ed. 1672, p. 478). It formerly implied certain
privileges; notably that of sitting covered in the royal presence. Until
the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, when the power of the territorial
nobles was broken, the grandees had also certain more important rights,
e.g. freedom from taxation, immunity from arrest save at the king's
express command, and even--in certain cases--the right to renounce their
allegiance and make war on the king. Their number and privileges were
further restricted by Charles I. (the emperor Charles V.), who reserved
to the crown the right to bestow the title. The grandees of Spain were
further divided into three classes: (1) those who spoke to the king and
received his reply with their heads covered; (2) those who addressed him
uncovered, but put on their hats to hear his answer; (3) those who
awaited the permission of the king before covering themselves. All
grandees were addressed by the king as "my cousin" (_mi primo_), whereas
ordinary nobles were only qualified as "my kinsman" (_mi pariente_). The
title of "grandee," abolished under King Joseph Bonaparte, was revived
in 1834, when by the _Estatudo real_ grandees were given precedence in
the Chamber of Peers. The designation is now, however, purely titular,
and implies neither privilege nor power.
GRAND FORKS, a city in the Boundary district of British Columbia;
situated at the junction of the north and south forks of the Kettle
river, 2 m. N. of the international boundary. Pop. (1908) about 2500. It
is in a good agricultural district, but owes its importance largely to
the erection here of the extensive smelting plant of the Granby
Consolidated Company, which smelts the ores obtained from the various
parts of the Boundary country, but chiefly those from the Knob Hill and
Old Ironsides mines. The Canadian Pacific railway, as well as the Great
Northern railway, runs to Grand Forks, which thus has excellent railway
communication with the south and east.
GRAND FORKS, a city and the county-seat of Grand Forks county, North
Dakota, U.S.A., at the junction of the Red river (of the North) and Red
Lake river (whence its name), about 80 m. N. of Fargo. Pop. (1900) 7652,
of whom 2781 were foreign-born; (1905) 10,127; (1910) 27,888. It is
served by the Northern Pacific and the Great Northern railways, and has
a considerable river traffic, the Red river (when dredged) having a
channel 60 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep at low water below Grand Forks. At
University, a small suburb, is the University of North Dakota
(co-educational; opened 1884). Affiliated with it is Wesley College
(Methodist Episcopal), now at Grand Forks (with a campus adjoining that
of the University), but formerly the Red River Valley University at
Wahpeton, North Dakota. In 1907-1908 the University had 57 instructors
and 861 students; its library had 25,000 bound volumes and 5000
pamphlets. At Grand Forks, also, are St Bernard's Ursuline Academy
(Roman Catholic) and Grand Forks College (Lutheran). Among the city's
principal buildings are the public library, the Federal building and a
Y.M.C.A. building. As the centre of the great wheat valley of the Red
river, it has a busy trade in wheat, flour and agricultural machinery
and implements, as well as large jobbing interests. There are railway
car-shops here, and among the manufactures are crackers, brooms, bricks
and tiles and cement. The municipality owns its water-works and an
electric lighting plant for street lighting. In 1801 John Cameron (d.
1804) erected a temporary trading post for the North-West Fur Company on
the site of the present city; it afterwards became a trading post of the
Hudson's Bay Company. The first permanent settlement was made in 1871,
and Grand Forks was reached by the Northern Pacific and chartered as a
city in 1881.
GRAND HAVEN, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Ottawa
county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan, at the mouth of Grand river,
30 m. W. by N. of Grand Rapids and 78 m. E. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1900)
4743, of whom 1277 were foreign-born; (1904) 5239; (1910) 5856. It is
served by the Grand Trunk and the Pere Marquette railways, and by
steamboat lines to Chicago, Milwaukee and other lake ports, and is
connected with Grand Rapids and Muskegon by an electric line. The city
manufactures pianos, refrigerators, printing presses and leather; is a
centre for the shipment of fruit and celery; and has valuable fisheries
near--fresh, salt and smoked fish, especially whitefish, are shipped in
considerable quantities. Grand Haven is the port of entry for the
Customs District of Michigan, and has a small export and import trade.
The municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting
plant. A trading post was established here about 1821 by an agent of the
American Fur Company, but the permanent settlement of the city did not
begin until 1834. Grand Haven was laid out as a town in 1836, and was
chartered as a city in 1867.
GRANDIER, URBAN (1590-1634), priest of the church of Sainte Croix at
Loudun in the department of Vienne, France, was accused of witchcraft in
1632 by some hysterical novices of the Carmelite Convent, where the
trial, protracted for two years, was held. Grandier was found guilty and
burnt alive at Loudun on the 18th of August 1634.
GRAND ISLAND, a city and the county-seat of Hall county, Nebraska,
U.S.A., on the Platte river, about 154 m. W. by S. of Omaha. Pop. (1900)
7554 (1339 foreign-born); (1910) 10,326. It is served by the Union
Pacific, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the St Joseph & Grand
Island railways, being the western terminus of the last-named line and a
southern terminus of a branch of the Union Pacific. The city is situated
on a slope skirting the broad, level bottom-lands of the Platte river,
in the midst of a fertile farming region. Grand Island College (Baptist;
co-educational) was established in 1892 and the Grand Island Business
and Normal College in 1890; and the city is the seat of a state Sailors'
and Soldiers' Home, established in 1888. Grand Island has a large
wholesale trade in groceries, fruits, &c.; is an important horse-market,
and has large stock-yards. There are shops of the Union Pacific in the
city, and among its manufactures are beet-sugar--Grand Island is in one
of the principal beet-sugar-growing districts of the state--brooms, wire
fences, confectionery and canned corn. The most important industry of
the county is the raising and feeding of sheep and meat cattle. A "Grand
Island" was founded in 1857, and was named from a large island (nearly
50 m. long) in the Platte opposite its site; but the present city was
laid out by the Union Pacific in 1866. It was chartered as a city in
1873.
GRANDMONTINES, a religious order founded by St Stephen of Thiers in
Auvergne towards the end of the 11th century. St Stephen was so
impressed by the lives of the hermits whom he saw in Calabria that he
desired to introduce the same manner of life into his native country. He
was ordained, and in 1073 obtained the pope's permission to establish an
order. He betook himself to Auvergne, and in the desert of Muret, near
Limoges, he made himself a hut of branches of trees and lived there for
some time in complete solitude. A few disciples gathered round him, and
a community was formed. The rule was not reduced to writing until after
Stephen's death, 1124. The life was eremitical and very severe in regard
to silence, diet and bodily austerities; it was modelled after the rule
of the Camaldolese, but various regulations were adopted from the
Augustinian canons. The superior was called the "Corrector." About 1150
the hermits, being compelled to leave Muret, settled in the neighbouring
desert of Grandmont, whence the order derived its name. Louis VII.
founded a house at Vincennes near Paris, and the order had a great vogue
in France, as many as sixty houses being established by 1170, but it
seems never to have found favour out of France; it had, however, a
couple of cells in England up to the middle of the 15th century. The
system of lay brothers was introduced on a large scale, and the
management of the temporals was in great measure left in their hands;
the arrangement did not work well, and the quarrels between the lay
brothers and the choir monks were a constant source of weakness. Later
centuries witnessed mitigations and reforms in the life, and at last the
order came to an end just before the French Revolution. There were two
or three convents of Grandmontine nuns. The order played no great part
in history.
See Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1714), vii. cc. 54, 55; Max
Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896). i. S 31; and the art.
in Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (ed. 2), and in Herzog,
_Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3). (E. C. B.)
GRAND RAPIDS, a city and the county-seat of Kent county, Michigan,
U.S.A., at the head of navigation on the Grand river, about 30 m. from
Lake Michigan and 145 m. W.N.W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 60,278; (1900)
87,565, of whom 23,896 were foreign-born and 604 were negroes; (1910
census) 112,571. Of the foreign-born population in 1900, 11,137 were
Hollanders; 3318 English-Canadians; 3253 Germans; 1137 Irish; 1060 from
German Poland; and 1026 from England. Grand Rapids is served by the
Michigan Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk,
the Pere Marquette and the Grand Rapids & Indiana railways, and by
electric interurban railways. The valley here is about 2 m. wide, with a
range of hills on either side, and about midway between these hills the
river flows over a limestone bed, falling about 18 ft. in 1 m. Factories
and mills line both banks, but the business blocks are nearly all along
the foot of the E. range of hills; the finest residences command
picturesque views from the hills farther back, the residences on the W.
side being less pretentious and standing on bottom-lands. The principal
business thoroughfares are Canal, Monroe and Division streets. Among the
important buildings are the United States Government building (Grand
Rapids is the seat of the southern division of the Federal judicial
district of western Michigan), the County Court house, the city hall,
the public library (presented by Martin A. Ryerson of Chicago), the
Manufacturer's building, the _Evening Press_ building, the Michigan
Trust building and several handsome churches. The principal charitable
institutions are the municipal Tuberculosis Sanatorium; the city
hospital; the Union Benevolent Association, which maintains a home and
hospital for the indigent, together with a training school for nurses;
Saint John's orphan asylum (under the superintendence of the Dominican
Sisters); Saint Mary's hospital (in charge of the Sisters of Mercy);
Butterworth hospital (with a training school for nurses); the Woman's
Home and Hospital, maintained largely by the Woman's Christian
Temperance Union; the Aldrich Memorial Deaconess' Home; the D. A.
Blodgett Memorial Children's Home, and the Michigan Masonic Home. About
1 m. N. of the city, overlooking the river, is the Michigan Soldiers'
Home, with accommodation for 500. On the E. limits of the city is Reed's
Lake, a popular resort during the summer season. The city is the see of
Roman Catholic and Protestant Episcopal bishops. In 1907-1908, through
the efforts of a committee of the Board of Trade, interest was aroused
in the improvement of the city, appropriations were made for a "city
plan," and flood walls were completed for the protection of the lower
parts of the city from inundation. The large quantities of fruit,
cereals and vegetables from the surrounding country, and ample
facilities for transportation by rail and by the river, which is
navigable from below the rapids to its mouth, make the commerce and
trade of Grand Rapids very important. The manufacturing interests are
greatly promoted by the fine water-power, and as a furniture centre the
city has a world-wide reputation--the value of the furniture
manufactured within its limits in 1904 amounted to $9,409,097, about
5.5% of the value of all furniture manufactured in the United States.
Grand Rapids manufactures carpet sweepers--a large proportion of the
whole world's product,--flour and grist mill products, foundry and
machine-shop products, planing-mill products, school seats, wood-working
tools, fly paper, calcined plaster, barrels, kegs, carriages, wagons,
agricultural implements and bricks and tile. The total factory product
in 1904 was valued at $31,032,589, an increase of 39.6% in four years.
On the site of Grand Rapids there was for a long time a large Ottawa
Indian village, and for the conversion of the Indians a Baptist mission
was established in 1824. Two years later a trading post joined the
mission, in 1833 a saw mill was built, and for the next few years the
growth was rapid. The settlement was organized as a town in 1834, was
incorporated as a village in 1838, and was chartered as a city in 1850,
the city charter being revised in 1857, 1871, 1877 and 1905.
GRAND RAPIDS, a city and the county-seat of Wood county, Wisconsin,
U.S.A., on both sides of the Wisconsin river, about 137 m. N.W. of
Milwaukee. Pop. (1900) 4493, of whom 1073 were foreign-born; (1905)
6157; (1910) 6521. It is served by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste
Marie, the Green Bay & Western, the Chicago & North-Western, and the
Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways. It is a railway and distributing
centre, and has manufactories of lumber, sash, doors and blinds, hubs
and spokes, woodenware, paper, wood-pulp, furniture and flour. The
public buildings include a post office, court house, city hall, city
hospital and the T. B. Scott Free Public Library (1892). The city owns
and operates its water-works; the electric-lighting and telephone
companies are co-operative. Grand Rapids was first chartered as a city
in 1869. That part of Grand Rapids on the west bank of the Wisconsin
river was formerly the city of Centralia (pop. in 1890, 1435); it was
annexed in 1900.
GRANDSON (Ger. _Grandsee_), a town in the Swiss canton of Vaud, near the
south-western end of the Lake of Neuchatel, and by rail 20 m. S.W. of
Neuchatel and 3 m. N. of Yverdon. Its population in 1900 was 1771,
mainly French-speaking and Protestant. Its ancient castle was long the
home of a noted race of barons, while in the very old church (once
belonging to a Benedictine monastery) there are a number of Roman
columns, &c., from Avenches and Yverdon. It has now a tobacco factory.
Its lords were vassals of the house of Savoy, till in 1475 the castle
was taken by the Swiss at the beginning of their war with Charles the
Bold, duke of Burgundy, whose ally was the duchess of Savoy. It was
retaken by Charles in February 1476, and the garrison put to death. The
Swiss hastened to revenge this deed, and in a famous battle (2nd March
1476) defeated Charles with great loss, capturing much booty. The scene
of the battle was between Concise and Corcelles, north-east of the town,
and is marked by several columns, perhaps ancient menhirs. Grandson was
thenceforward till 1798 ruled in common by Berne and Fribourg, and then
was given to the canton du Leman, which in 1803 became that of Vaud.
See F. Chabloz, _La Bataille de Grandson_ (Lausanne, 1897).
GRANET, FRANCOIS MARIUS (1777-1849), French painter, was born at Aix in
Provence, on the 17th of December 1777; his father was a small builder.
The boy's strong desires led his parents to place him--after some
preliminary teaching from a passing Italian artist--in a free school of
art directed by M. Constantin, a landscape painter of some reputation.
In 1793 Granet followed the volunteers of Aix to the siege of Toulon, at
the close of which he obtained employment as a decorator in the arsenal.
Whilst a lad he had, at Aix, made the acquaintance of the young comte de
Forbin, and upon his invitation Granet, in the year 1797, went to Paris.
De Forbin was one of the pupils of David, and Granet entered the same
studio. Later he got possession of a cell in the convent of Capuchins,
which, having served for a manufactory of assignats during the
Revolution, was afterwards inhabited almost exclusively by artists. In
the changing lights and shadows of the corridors of the Capuchins,
Granet found the materials for that one picture to the painting of
which, with varying success, he devoted his life. In 1802 he left Paris
for Rome, where he remained until 1819, when he returned to Paris,
bringing with him besides various other works one of fourteen
repetitions of his celebrated Choeur des Capucins, executed in 1811. The
figures of the monks celebrating mass are taken in this subject as a
substantive part of the architectural effect, and this is the case with
all Granet's works, even with those in which the figure subject would
seem to assert its importance, and its historical or romantic interest.
"Stella painting a Madonna on his Prison Wall," 1810 (Leuchtenberg
collection); "Sodoma a l'hopital," 1815 (Louvre); "Basilique basse de St
Francois d'Assise," 1823 (Louvre); "Rachat de prisonniers," 1831
(Louvre); "Mort de Poussin," 1834 (Villa Demidoff, Florence), are among
his principal works; all are marked by the same peculiarities,
everything is sacrificed to tone. In 1819 Louis Philippe decorated
Granet, and afterwards named him Chevalier de l'Ordre St Michel, and
Conservateur des tableaux de Versailles (1826). He became member of the
institute in 1830; but in spite of these honours, and the ties which
bound him to M. de Forbin, then director of the Louvre, Granet
constantly returned to Rome. After 1848 he retired to Aix, immediately
lost his wife, and died himself on the 21st of November 1849. He
bequeathed to his native town the greater part of his fortune and all
his collections, now exhibited in the Musee, together with a very fine
portrait of the donor painted by Ingres in 1811.
GRANGE (through the A.-Fr. _graunge_, from the Med. Lat. _granea_, a
place for storing grain, _granum_), properly a granary or barn. In the
middle ages a "grange" was a detached portion of a manor with
farm-houses and barns belonging to a lord or to a religious house; in it
the crops could be conveniently stored for the purpose of collecting
rent or tithe. Thus, such barns are often known as "tithe-barns." In
many cases a chapel was included among the buildings or stood apart as a
separate edifice. The word is still used as a name for a superior kind
of farm-house, or for a country-house which has farm-buildings and
agricultural land attached to it.
Architecturally considered, the "grange" was usually a long building
with high wooden roof, sometimes divided by posts or columns into a sort
of nave and aisles, and with walls strongly buttressed. Sometimes these
granges were of very great extent; one at St Leonards, Hampshire, was
originally 225 ft. long by 75 ft. wide, and a still larger one (303 ft.
long) existed at Chertsey. Ancient granges, or tithe-barns, still exist
at Glastonbury, Bradford-on-Avon, St Mary's Abbey, York, and at Coxwold.
A fine example at Peterborough was pulled down at the end of the 19th
century. In France there are many examples in stone of the 12th, 13th
and 14th centuries; some divided into a central and two side aisles by
arcades in stone. Externally granges are noticeable on account of their
great roofs and the slight elevation of the eaves, from 8 to 10 ft. only
in height. In the 15th century they were sometimes protected by moats
and towers. At Ardennes in Normandy, where the grange was 154 ft. long;
Vauclerc near Laon, Picardy, 246 ft. long and in two storeys; at
Perrieres, St Vigor, near Bayeux, and Ouilly near Falaise, all in
Normandy; and at St Martin-au-Bois (Oise) are a series of fine examples.
Attached to the abbey of Longchamps, near Paris, is one of the
best-preserved granges in France, with walls in stone and internally
divided into three aisles in oak timber of extremely fine construction.
In the social economic movement in the United States of America, which
began in 1867 and was known as the "Farmers' Movement," "grange" was
adopted as the name for a local chapter of the Order of the Patrons of
Husbandry, and the movement is thus often known as the "Grangers'
Movement" (see FARMERS' MOVEMENT). There are a National Grange at
Washington, supervising the local divisions, and state granges in most
states.
GRANGEMOUTH, a police burgh and seaport of Stirlingshire, Scotland. Pop.
(1901) 8386. It is situated on the south shore of the estuary of the
Forth, at the mouth of the Carron and also of Grange Burn, a right-hand
tributary of the Carron, 3 m. N.E. of Falkirk by the North British and
Caledonian railways. It is the terminus of the Forth and Clyde Canal,
from the opening of which (1789) its history may be dated. The principal
buildings are the town hall (in the Greek style), public hall, public
institute and free library, and there is a public park presented by the
marquess of Zetland. Since 1810, when it became a head port, it has
gradually attained the position of the chief port of the Forth west of
Leith. The first dock (opened in 1846), the second (1859) and the third
(1882) cover an area of 28 acres, with timber ponds of 44 acres and a
total quayage of 2500 yards. New docks, 93 acres in extent, with an
entrance from the firth, were opened in 1905 at a cost of more than
L1,000,000. The works rendered it necessary to divert the influx of the
Grange from the Carron to the Forth. Timber, pig-iron and iron ore are
the leading imports, and coal, produce and iron the chief exports. The
industries include shipbuilding, rope and sail making and iron founding.
There is regular steamer communication with London, Christiania,
Hamburg, Rotterdam and Amsterdam. Experiments in steam navigation were
carried out in 1802 with the "Charlotte Dundas" on the Forth and Clyde
Canal at Grangemouth. Kersa House adjoining the town on the S.W. is a
seat of the marquess of Zetland.
GRANGER, JAMES (1723-1776), English clergyman and print-collector, was
born in Dorset in 1723. He went to Oxford, and then entered holy orders,
becoming vicar of Shiplake; but apart from his hobby of
portrait-collecting, which resulted in the principal work associated
with his name, and the publication of some sermons, his life was
uneventful. Yet a new word was added to the language--"to
grangerize"--on account of him. In 1769 he published in two quarto
volumes a _Biographical History of England_ "consisting of characters
dispersed in different classes, and adapted to a methodical catalogue of
engraved British heads"; this was "intended as an essay towards reducing
our biography to a system, and a help to the knowledge of portraits."
The work was supplemented in later editions by Granger, and still
further editions were brought out by the Rev. Mark Noble, with additions
from Granger's materials. Blank leaves were left for the filling in of
engraved portraits for extra illustration of the text, and it became a
favourite pursuit to discover such illustrations and insert them in a
_Granger_, so that "grangerizing" became a term for such an
extra-illustration of any work, especially with cuts taken from other
books. The immediate result of the appearance of Granger's own work was
the rise in value of books containing portraits, which were cut out and
inserted in collector's copies.
GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. _granito_, grained; Lat. _granum_,
grain), the group designation for a family of igneous rocks whose
essential characteristics are that they are of acid composition
(containing high percentages of silica), consist principally of quartz
and felspar, with some mica, hornblende or augite, and are of
holocrystalline or "granitoid" structure. In popular usage the term is
given to almost any crystalline rock which resembles granite in
appearance or properties. Thus syenites, diorites, gabbros, diabases,
porphyries, gneiss, and even limestones and dolomites, are bought and
sold daily as "granites." True granites are common rocks, especially
among the older strata of the earth's crust. They have great variety in
colour and general appearance, some being white or grey, while others
are pink, greenish or yellow: this depends mainly on the state of
preservation of their felspars, which are their most abundant minerals,
and partly also on the relative proportion in which they contain biotite
and other dark coloured silicates. Many granites have large rounded or
angular crystals of felspar (Shap granite, many Cornish granites), well
seen on polished faces. Others show an elementary foliation or banding
(e.g. Aberdeen granite). Rounded or oval dark patches frequently appear
in the granitic matrix of many Cornish rocks of this group.
In the field granite usually occurs in great masses, covering wide
areas. These are generally elliptical or nearly circular and may be 20
m. in diameter or more. In the same district separate areas or "bosses"
of granite may be found, all having much in common in their
mineralogical and structural features, and such groups have probably all
proceeded from the same focus or deep-seated source. Towards their
margins these granite outcrops often show modifications by which they
pass into diorite or syenite, &c.; they may also be finer grained (like
porphyries) or rich in tourmaline, or intersected by many veins of
pegmatite. From the main granite dikes or veins often run out into the
surrounding rocks, thus proving that the granite is intrusive and has
forced its way upwards by splitting apart the strata among which it
lies. Further evidence of this is afforded by the alteration which the
granite has produced through a zone which varies from a few yards to a
mile or more in breadth around it. In the vicinity of intrusive granites
slates become converted into hornfelses containing biotite, chiastolite
or andalusite, sillimanite and a variety of other minerals; limestones
recrystallize as marbles, and all rocks, according to their composition,
are more or less profoundly modified in such a way as to prove that they
have been raised to a high temperature by proximity to the molten
intrusive mass. Where exposed in cliffs and other natural sections many
granites have a rudely columnar appearance. Others weather into large
cuboidal blocks which may produce structures resembling cyclopean
masonry. The tors of the west of England are of this nature. These
differences depend on the disposition of the joint cracks which traverse
the rock and are opened up by the action of frost and weathering.
The majority of granites are so coarse in grain that their principal
component minerals may be identified in the hand specimens by the
unaided eye. The felspar is pearly, white or pink, with smooth cleaved
surfaces; the quartz is usually transparent, glassy with rough irregular
fractures; the micas appear as shining black or white flakes. Very
coarse granites are called pegmatite or giant granite, while very fine
granites are known as microgranites (though the latter term has also
been applied to certain porphyries). Many granites show pearly scales of
white mica; others contain dark green or black hornblende in small
prisms. Reddish grains of sphene or of garnet are occasionally visible.
In the tourmaline granites prisms of black schorl occur either singly or
in stellate groups. The parallel banded structures of many granites,
which may be original or due to crushing, connect these rocks with the
granite gneisses or orthogneisses.
Under the microscope the felspar is mainly orthoclase with perthite or
microcline, while a small amount of plagioclase (ranging from oligoclase
to albite) is practically never absent. These minerals are often clouded
by a deposit of fine mica and kaolin, due to weathering. The quartz is
transparent, irregular in form, destitute of cleavage, and is filled
with very small cavities which contain a fluid, a mobile bubble and
sometimes a minute crystal. The micas, brown and white, are often in
parallel growth. The hornblende of granites is usually pale green in
section, the augite and enstatite nearly colourless. Tourmaline may be
brown, yellow or blue, and often the same crystal shows zones of
different colours. Apatite, zircon and iron oxides, in small crystals,
are always present. Among the less common accessories may be mentioned
pinkish garnets; andalusite in small pleochroic crystals; colourless
grains of topaz; six-sided compound crystals of cordierite, which
weather to dark green pinite; blue-black hornblende (riebeckite), beryl,
tinstone, orthite and pyrites.
The sequence of crystallization in the granites is of a normal type, and
may be ascertained by observing the perfection with which the different
minerals have crystallized and the order in which they enclose one
another. Zircon, apatite and iron oxides are the first; their crystals
are small, very perfect and nearly free from enclosures; they are
followed by hornblende and biotite; if muscovite is present it succeeds
the brown mica. Of the felspars the plagioclase separates first and
forms well-shaped crystals of which the central parts may be more basic
than the outer zones. Last come orthoclase, quartz, microcline and
micropegmatite, which fill up the irregular spaces left between the
earlier minerals. Exceptions to this sequence are unusual; sometimes the
first of the felspars have preceded the hornblende or biotite which may
envelop them in ophitic manner. An earlier generation of felspar, and
occasionally also of quartz, may be represented by large and perfect
crystals of these minerals giving the rock a porphyritic character.
Many granites have suffered modification by the action of vapours
emitted during cooling. Hydrofluoric and boric emanations exert a
profound influence on granitic rocks; their felspar is resolved into
aggregates of kaolin, muscovite and quartz; tourmaline appears, largely
replacing the brown mica; topaz also is not uncommon. In this way the
rotten granite or china stone, used in pottery, originates; and over
considerable areas kaolin replaces the felspar and forms valuable
sources of china clay. Veins of quartz, tourmaline and chlorite may
traverse the granite, containing tinstone often in workable quantities.
These veins are the principal sources of tin in Cornwall, but the same
changes may appear in the body of the granite without being restricted
to veins, and tinstone occurs also as an original constituent of some
granite pegmatites.
Granites may also be modified by crushing. Their crystals tend to lose
their original forms and to break into mosaics of interlocking grains.
The latter structure is very well seen in the quartz, which is a brittle
mineral under stress. White mica develops in the felspars. The larger
crystals are converted into lenticular or elliptical "augen," which may
be shattered throughout or may have a peripheral seam of small detached
granules surrounding a still undisintegrated core. Streaks of
"granulitic" or pulverized material wind irregularly through the rock,
giving it a roughly foliated character.
The interesting structural variation of granite in which there are
spheroidal masses surrounded by a granitic matrix is known as "orbicular
granite." The spheroids range from a fraction of an inch to a foot in
diameter, and may have a felspar crystal at the centre. Around this
there may be several zones, alternately lighter and darker in colour,
consisting of the essential minerals of the rock in different
proportions. Radiate arrangement is sometimes visible in the crystals of
the whole or part of the spheroid. Spheroidal granites of this sort are
found in Sweden, Finland, Ireland, &c. In other cases the spheroids are
simply dark rounded lumps of biotite, in fine scales. These are probably
due to the adhesion of the biotite crystals to one another as they
separated from the rock magma at an early stage in its crystallization.
The Rapakiwi granites of Finland have many round or ovoidal felspar
crystals scattered through a granitic matrix. These larger felspars have
no crystalline outlines and consist of orthoclase or microcline
surrounded by borders of white oligoclase. Often they enclose dark
crystals of biotite and hornblende, arranged zonally. Many of these
granites contain tourmaline, fluorite and monazite. In most granite
masses, especially near their contacts with the surrounding rocks, it is
common to find enclosures of altered sedimentary or igneous materials
which are more or less dissolved and permeated by the granitic magma.
The chemical composition of a few granites from different parts of the
world is given below:--
+-----+-------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+
| | SiO2. | Al2O3.| Fe2O3.| FeO. | MgO. | CaO. | Na2O.| K2O. |
+-----+-------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+
| I. | 74.69 | 16.21 | .. | 1.16 | 0.48 | 0.28 | 1.18 | 3.64 |
| II. | 71.33 | 11.18 | 3.96 | 1.45 | 0.88 | 2.10 | 3.51 | 3.49 |
|III. | 72.93 | 13.87 | 1.94 | 0.79 | 0.51 | 0.74 | 3.68 | 3.74 |
| IV. | 76.12 | 12.18 | 1.21 | 0.72 | 1.12 | 1.54 | 2.55 | 3.21 |
| V. | 73.90 | 13.65 | 0.28 | 0.42 | 0.14 | 0.23 | 2.53 | 7.99 |
| VI. | 68.87 | 16.62 | 0.43 | 2.72 | 1.60 | 0.71 | 1.80 | 6.48 |
+-----+-------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+
I. Carn Brea, Cornwall (Phillips); II. Mazaruni, Brit. Guiana
(Harrison); III. Rodo, near Alno, Vesternorrland, Sweden (Holmquist);
IV. Abruzzen, a group of hills in the Riesengebirge (Milch); V. Pikes
Peak, Colorado (Matthews); VI. Wilson's Creek, near Omeo, Victoria
(Howitt).
Only the most important components are shown in the table, but all
granites contain also small amounts of zirconia, titanium oxide,
phosphoric acid, sulphur, oxides of barium, strontium, manganese and
water. These are in all cases less than 1%, and usually much less than
this, except the water, which may be 2 or 3% in weathered rocks. From
the chemical composition it may be computed that granites contain, on
an average, 35 to 55% of quartz, 20 to 30% of orthoclase, 20 to 30% of
plagioclase felspar (including the albite of microperthite) and 5 to
10% of ferromagnesian silicates and minor accessories such as
apatite, zircon, sphene and iron oxides. The aplites, pegmatites,
graphic granites and muscovite granites are usually richest in silica,
while with increase of biotite and hornblende, augite and enstatite
the analyses show the presence of more magnesia, iron and lime.
In the weathering of granite the quartz suffers little change; the
felspar passes into dull cloudy, soft aggregates of kaolin, muscovite
and secondary quartz, while chlorite, quartz and calcite replace the
biotite, hornblende and augite. The rock often assumes a rusty brown
colour from the liberation of the oxides of iron, and the decomposed
mass is friable and can easily be dug with a spade; where the granite
has been cut by joint planes not too close together weathering
proceeds from their surfaces and large rounded blocks may be left
embedded in rotted materials. The amount of water in the rock
increases and part of the alkalis is carried away in solution; they
form valuable sources of mineral food to plants. The chemical changes
are shown by the following analyses:
+-----+------+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+
| | H2O. | SiO2. | TiO2.| Al2O3.| FeO. |Fe2O3.| CaO. | MgO. | Na2O.| K2O. | P2O5. |
+-----+------+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+
| I. | 1.22 | 69.33 | n.d. | 14.33 | 3.60 | .. | 3.21 | 2.44 | 2.70 | 2.67 | 0.10 |
| II. | 3.27 | 66.82 | n.d. | 15.62 | 1.69 | 1.88 | 3.13 | 2.76 | 2.58 | 2.44 | n.d. |
|III. | 4.70 | 65.69 | 0.31 | 15.23 | .. | 4.39 | 2.63 | 2.64 | 2.12 | 2.00 | 0.06 |
+-----+------+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+
Analyses of I., fresh grey granite; II. brown moderately firm granite;
III. residual sand, produced by the weathering of the same mass (anal.
G. P. Merrill).
The differences are surprisingly small and are principally an increase
in the water and a diminution in the amount of alkalis and lime together
with the oxidation of the ferrous oxide. (J. S. F.)
GRAN SASSO D'ITALIA ("Great Rock of Italy"), a mountain of the Abruzzi,
Italy, the culminating point of the Apennines, 9560 ft. in height. In
formation it resembles the limestone Alps of Tirol and there are on its
elevated plateaus a number of _doline_ or funnel-shaped depressions into
which the melted snow and the rain sink. The summit is covered with snow
for the greater part of the year. Seen from the Adriatic, Monte Corno,
as it is sometimes called, from its resemblance to a horn, affords a
magnificent spectacle; the Alpine region beneath its summit is still the
home of the wild boar, and here and there are dense woods of beech and
pine. The group has numerous other lofty peaks, of which the chief are
the Pizzo d'Intermesole (8680 ft.), the Corno Piccolo (8650 ft.), the
Pizzo Cefalone (8307 ft.) and the Monte della Portella (7835 ft.). The
most convenient starting-point for the ascent is Assergi, 10 m. N.E. of
Aquila, at the S. foot of the Gran Sasso. The Italian Alpine Club has
erected a hut S.W. of the principal summit, and has published a special
guidebook (E. Abbate, _Guida al Gran Sasso d' Italia_, Rome, 1888). The
view from the summit extends to the Tyrrhenian Sea on the west and the
mountains of Dalmatia on the east in clear weather. The ascent was first
made in 1794 by Orazio Delfico from the Teramo side. In Assergi is the
interesting church of Sta. Maria Assunta, dating from 1150, with later
alterations (see Gavini, in _L' Arte_, 1901, 316, 391).
GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER, 8th Bart. (1826-1884), British scholar and
educationalist, was born in New York on the 13th of September 1826.
After a childhood spent in the West Indies, he was educated at Harrow
and Oxford. He entered Oxford as scholar of Balliol, and subsequently
held a fellowship at Oriel from 1849 to 1860. He made a special study of
the Aristotelian philosophy, and in 1857 published an edition of the
_Ethics_ (4th ed. 1885) which became a standard text-book at Oxford. In
1855 he was one of the examiners for the Indian Civil Service, and in
1856 a public examiner in classics at Oxford. In the latter year he
succeeded to the baronetcy. In 1859 he went to Madras with Sir Charles
Trevelyan, and was appointed inspector of schools; the next year he
removed to Bombay, to fill the post of Professor of History and
Political Economy in the Elphinstone College. Of this he became
Principal in 1862; and, a year later, vice-chancellor of Bombay
University, a post he held from 1863 to 1865 and again from 1865 to
1868. In 1865 he took upon himself also the duties of Director of Public
Instruction for Bombay Presidency. In 1868 he was appointed a member of
the Legislative Council. In the same year, upon the death of Sir David
Brewster, he was appointed Principal of Edinburgh University, which had
conferred an honorary LL.D. degree upon him in 1865. From that time till
his death (which occurred in Edinburgh on the 30th of November 1884) his
energies were entirely devoted to the well-being of the University. The
institution of the medical school in the University was almost solely
due to his initiative; and the Tercentenary Festival, celebrated in
1884, was the result of his wisely directed enthusiasm. In that year he
published _The Story of the University of Edinburgh during its First
Three Hundred Years_. He was created Hon. D.C.L. of Oxford in 1880, and
an honorary fellow of Oriel College in 1882.
GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838), Scottish writer, generally known as Mrs Grant
of Laggan, was born in Glasgow, on the 21st of February 1755. Her
childhood was spent in America, her father, Duncan MacVicar, being an
army officer on service there. In 1768 the family returned to Scotland,
and in 1779 Anne married James Grant, an army chaplain, who was also
minister of the parish of Laggan, near Fort Augustus, Inverness, where
her father was barrack-master. On her husband's death in 1801 she was
left with a large family and a small income. In 1802 she published by
subscription a volume of _Original Poems, with some Translations from
the Gaelic_, which was favourably received. In 1806 her _Letters from
the Mountains_, with their spirited description of Highland scenery and
legends, awakened much interest. Her other works are _Memoirs of an
American Lady, with Sketches of Manners and Scenery in America as they
existed previous to the Revolution_ (1808), containing reminiscences of
her childhood; _Essays on the Superstitions of the Highlanders of
Scotland_ (1811); and _Eighteen Hundred and Thirteen, a Poem_ (1814). In
1810 she went to live in Edinburgh. For the last twelve years of her
life she received a pension from government. She died on the 7th of
November 1838.
See _Memoir and Correspondence of Mrs Grant of Laggan, edited by her
son J. P. Grant_ (3 vols., 1844).
GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823), British politician, was born at Aldourie,
Inverness-shire, on the 16th of April 1746, the day on which his father,
Alexander Grant, was killed whilst fighting for the Jacobites at
Culloden. When a young man Charles went to India, where he became
secretary, and later a member of the board of trade. He returned to
Scotland in 1790, and in 1802 was elected to parliament as member for
the county of Inverness. In the House of Commons his chief interests
were in Indian affairs, and he was especially vigorous in his hostility
to the policy of the Marquess Wellesley. In 1805 he was chosen chairman
of the directors of the East India Company and he retired from
parliament in 1818. A friend of William Wilberforce, Grant was a
prominent member of the evangelical party in the Church of England; he
was a generous supporter of the church's missionary undertakings. He was
largely responsible for the establishment of the East India college,
which was afterwards erected at Haileybury. He died in London on the
31st of October 1823. His eldest son, Charles, was created a peer in
1835 as Baron Glenelg.
See Henry Morris, _Life of Charles Grant_ (1904).
GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878), English portrait-painter, fourth son of
Francis Grant of Kilgraston, Perthshire, was born at Edinburgh in 1803.
He was educated for the bar, but at the age of twenty-four he began at
Edinburgh systematically to study the practice of art. On completing a
course of instruction he removed to London, and as early as 1843
exhibited at the Royal Academy. At the beginning of his career he
utilized his sporting experiences by painting groups of huntsmen, horses
and hounds, such as the "Meet of H.M. Staghounds" and the "Melton Hunt";
but his position in society gradually made him a fashionable
portrait-painter. In drapery he had the taste of a connoisseur, and
rendered the minutest details of costume with felicitous accuracy. In
female portraiture he achieved considerable success, although rather in
depicting the high-born graces and external characteristics than the
true personality. Among his portraits of this class may be mentioned
Lady Glenlyon, the marchioness of Waterford, Lady Rodney and Mrs
Beauclerk. In his portraits of generals and sportsmen he proved himself
more equal to his subjects than in those of statesmen and men of
letters. He painted many of the principal celebrities of the time,
including Scott, Macaulay, Lockhart, Disraeli, Hardinge, Gough, Derby,
Palmerston and Russell, his brother Sir J. Hope Grant and his friend Sir
Edwin Landseer. From the first his career was rapidly prosperous. In
1842 he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1851 an
Academician; and in 1866 he was chosen to succeed Sir C. Eastlake in the
post of president, for which his chief recommendations were his social
distinction, tact, urbanity and friendly and liberal consideration of
his brother artists. Shortly after his election as president he was
knighted, and in 1870 the degree of D.C.L. was conferred upon him by the
university of Oxford. He died on the 5th of October 1878.
GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835-1902), principal of Queen's University,
Kingston, Ontario, was born in Nova Scotia in 1835. He was educated at
Glasgow university, where he had a brilliant academic career; and having
entered the ministry of the Presbyterian Church, he returned to Canada
and obtained a pastoral charge in Halifax, Nova Scotia, which he held
from 1863 to 1877. He quickly gained a high reputation as a preacher and
as an eloquent speaker on political subjects. When Canada was
confederated in 1867 Nova Scotia was the province most strongly opposed
to federal union. Grant threw the whole weight of his great influence in
favour of confederation, and his oratory played an important part in
securing the success of the movement. When the consolidation of the
Dominion by means of railway construction was under discussion in 1872,
Grant travelled from the Atlantic to the Pacific with the engineers who
surveyed the route of the Canadian Pacific railway, and his book _Ocean
to Ocean_ (1873) was one of the first things that opened the eyes of
Canadians to the value of the immense heritage they enjoyed. He never
lost an opportunity, whether in the pulpit or on the platform, of
pressing on his hearers that the greatest future for Canada lay in unity
with the rest of the British Empire; and his broad statesman-like
judgment made him an authority which politicians of all parties were
glad to consult. In 1877 Grant was appointed principal of Queen's
University, Kingston, Ontario, which through his exertions and influence
expanded from a small denominational college into a large and
influential educational centre; and he attracted to it an exceptionally
able body of professors whose influence in speculation and research was
widely felt during the quarter of a century that he remained at its
head. In 1888 he visited Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, the
effect of this experience being to strengthen still further the
Imperialism which was the guiding principle of his political opinions.
On the outbreak of the South African War in 1899 Grant was at first
disposed to be hostile to the policy of Lord Salisbury and Mr
Chamberlain; but his eyes were soon opened to the real nature of
President Kruger's government, and he enthusiastically welcomed and
supported the national feeling which sent men from the outlying portions
of the Empire to assist in upholding British supremacy in South Africa.
Grant did not live to see the conclusion of peace, his death occurring
at Kingston on the 10th of May 1902. At the time of his death _The
Times_ observed that "it is acknowledged on all hands that in him the
Dominion has lost one of the ablest men that it has yet produced." He
was the author of a number of works, of which the most notable besides
_Ocean to Ocean_ are, _Advantages of Imperial Federation_ (1889), _Our
National Objects and Aims_ (1890), _Religions of the World in Relation
to Christianity_ (1894) and volumes of sermons and lectures. Grant
married in 1872 Jessie, daughter of William Lawson of Halifax.
GRANT, JAMES (1822-1887), British novelist, was born in Edinburgh on the
1st of August 1822. His father, John Grant, was a captain in the 92nd
Gordon Highlanders and had served through the Peninsular War. For
several years James Grant was in Newfoundland with his father, but in
1839 he returned to England, and entered the 62nd Foot as an ensign. In
1843 he resigned his commission and devoted himself to writing, first
magazine articles, but soon a profusion of novels, full of vivacity and
incident, and dealing mainly with military scenes and characters. His
best stories, perhaps, were _The Romance of War_ (his first, 1845),
_Bothwell_ (1851), _Frank Hilton; or, The Queen's Own_ (1855), _The
Phantom Regiment_ and _Harry Ogilvie_ (1856), _Lucy Arden_ (1858), _The
White Cockade_ (1867), _Only an Ensign_ (1871), _Shall I Win Her?_
(1874), _Playing with Fire_ (1887). Grant also wrote _British Battles on
Land and Sea_ (1873-1875) and valuable books on Scottish history.
Permanent value attaches to his great work, in three volumes, on _Old
and New Edinburgh_ (1880). He was the founder and energetic promoter of
the National Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights. In 1875
he became a Roman Catholic. He died on the 5th of May 1887.
GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827-1892), Scottish explorer of eastern
equatorial Africa, was born at Nairn, where his father was the parish
minister, on the 11th of April 1827. He was educated at the grammar
school and Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1846 joined the Indian
army. He saw active service in the Sikh War (1848-49), served throughout
the mutiny of 1857, and was wounded in the operations for the relief of
Lucknow. He returned to England in 1858, and in 1860 joined J. H. Speke
(q.v.) in the memorable expedition which solved the problem of the Nile
sources. The expedition left Zanzibar in October 1860 and reached
Gondokoro, where the travellers were again in touch with civilization,
in February 1863. Speke was the leader, but Grant carried out several
investigations independently and made valuable botanical collections. He
acted throughout in absolute loyalty to his comrade. In 1864 he
published, as supplementary to Speke's account of their journey, _A Walk
across Africa_, in which he dealt particularly with "the ordinary life
and pursuits, the habits and feelings of the natives" and the economic
value of the countries traversed. In 1864 he was awarded the patron's
medal of the Royal Geographical Society, and in 1866 given the
Companionship of the Bath in recognition of his services in the
expedition. He served in the intelligence department of the Abyssinian
expedition of 1868; for this he was made C.S.I. and received the
Abyssinian medal. At the close of the war he retired from the army with
the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He had married in 1865, and he now
settled down at Nairn, where he died on the 11th of February 1892. He
made contributions to the journals of various learned societies, the
most notable being the "Botany of the Speke and Grant Expedition" in
vol. xxix. of the _Transactions of the Linnaean Society_.
GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808-1875), English general, fifth and youngest
son of Francis Grant of Kilgraston, Perthshire, and brother of Sir
Francis Grant, P.R.A., was born on the 22nd of July 1808. He entered the
army in 1826 as cornet in the 9th Lancers, and became lieutenant in 1828
and captain in 1835. In 1842 he was brigade-major to Lord Saltoun in the
Chinese War, and specially distinguished himself at the capture of
Chin-Kiang, after which he received the rank of major and the C.B. In
the first Sikh War of 1845-46 he took part in the battle of Sobraon; and
in the Punjab campaign of 1848-49 he commanded the 9th Lancers, and won
high reputation in the battles of Chillianwalla and Guzerat (Gujarat).
He was promoted brevet lieutenant-colonel and shortly afterwards to the
same substantive rank. In 1854 he became brevet-colonel, and in 1856
brigadier of cavalry. He took a leading part in the suppression of the
Indian mutiny of 1857, holding for some time the command of the cavalry
division, and afterwards of a movable column of horse and foot. After
rendering valuable service in the operations before Delhi and in the
final assault on the city, he directed the victorious march of the
cavalry and horse artillery despatched in the direction of Cawnpore to
open up communication with the commander-in-chief Sir Colin Campbell,
whom he met near the Alambagh, and who raised him to the rank of
brigadier-general, and placed the whole force under his command during
what remained of the perilous march to Lucknow for the relief of the
residency. After the retirement towards Cawnpore he greatly aided in
effecting there the total rout of the rebel troops, by making a detour
which threatened their rear; and following in pursuit with a flying
column, he defeated them with the loss of nearly all their guns at
Serai Ghat. He also took part in the operations connected with the
recapture of Lucknow, shortly after which he was promoted to the rank of
major-general, and appointed to the command of the force employed for
the final pacification of India, a position in which his unwearied
energy, and his vigilance and caution united to high personal daring,
rendered very valuable service. Before the work of pacification was
quite completed he was created K.C.B. In 1859 he was appointed, with the
local rank of lieutenant-general, to the command of the British land
forces in the united French and British expedition against China. The
object of the campaign was accomplished within three months of the
landing of the forces at Pei-tang (1st of August 1860). The Taku Forts
had been carried by assault, the Chinese defeated three times in the
open and Peking occupied. For his conduct in this, which has been called
the "most successful and the best carried out of England's little wars,"
he received the thanks of parliament and was gazetted G.C.B. In 1861 he
was made lieutenant-general and appointed commander-in-chief of the army
of Madras; on his return to England in 1865 he was made
quartermaster-general at headquarters; and in 1870 he was transferred to
the command of the camp at Aldershot, where he took a leading part in
the reform of the educational and training systems of the forces, which
followed the Franco-German War. The introduction of annual army
manoeuvres was largely due to Sir Hope Grant. In 1872 he was gazetted
general. He died in London on the 7th of March 1875.
_Incidents in the Sepoy War of 1857-58, compiled from the Private
Journal of General Sir Hope Grant, K.C.B., together with some
explanatory chapters by Capt. H. Knollys, Royal Artillery_, was
published in 1873, and _Incidents in the China War of 1860_ appeared
posthumously under the same editorship in 1875.
GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895), British field marshal, was the second
son of Major John Grant, 97th Foot, of Auchterblair, Inverness-shire,
where he was born on the 11th of September 1804. He entered the Bengal
native infantry as ensign in 1820, and became captain in 1832. He served
in Oudh from 1834 to 1838, and raised the Hariana Light Infantry.
Employed in the adjutant-general's department of the Bengal army from
1838 until 1854, he became adjutant-general in 1846. He served under Sir
Hugh Gough at the battle of Maharajpur in 1843, winning a brevet
majority, was adjutant-general of the army at the battles of Moodkee in
1845 (twice severely wounded), and of Ferozshah and Sobraon in 1846,
receiving the C.B. and the brevet rank of lieutenant-colonel. He took
part in the battles of Chillianwalla and Gujarat in 1849, gaining
further promotion, and was appointed aide-de-camp to the queen. He
served also in Kohat in 1851 under Sir Charles Napier. Promoted
major-general in 1854, he was commander-in-chief of the Madras army from
1856 to 1861. He was made K.C.B. in 1857, and on General Anson's death
was summoned to Calcutta to take supreme command of the army in India.
From Calcutta he directed the operations against the mutineers, sending
forces under Havelock and Outram for the relief of Cawnpore and Lucknow,
until the arrival of Sir Colin Campbell from England as
commander-in-chief, when he returned to Madras. On leaving India in 1861
he was decorated with the G.C.B. He was promoted lieutenant-general in
1862, was governor of Malta from 1867 to 1872, was made G.C.M.G. in
1868, promoted general in 1870, field marshal in 1883 and colonel of the
Royal Horse Guards and gold-stick-in-waiting to the queen in 1885. He
married as his second wife, in 1844, Frances Maria, daughter of Sir Hugh
(afterwards Lord) Gough. He was governor of the Royal Hospital, Chelsea,
from 1874 until his death there on the 28th of March 1895.
GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892), British astronomer, was born at Grantown,
Scotland, on the 17th of June 1814. At the age of thirteen the promise
of a brilliant career was clouded by a prolonged illness of such a
serious character as to incapacitate him from all school-work for six
years. At twenty, however, his health greatly improved, and he set
himself resolutely, without assistance, to repair his earlier
disadvantages by the diligent study of Greek, Latin, Italian and
mathematics. Astronomy also occupied his attention, and it was
stimulated by the return of Halley's comet in 1835, as well as by his
success in observing the annular eclipse of the sun of the 15th of May
1836. After a short course at King's College, Aberdeen, he obtained in
1841 employment in his brother's counting-house in London. During this
period the idea occurred to him of writing a history of physical
astronomy. Before definitely beginning the work he had to search,
amongst other records, those of the French Academy, and for that purpose
took up his residence in Paris in 1845, supporting himself by giving
lessons in English. He returned to London in 1847. _The History of
Physical Astronomy from the Earliest Ages to the Middle of the
Nineteenth Century_ was first published in parts in _The Library of
Useful Knowledge_, but after the issue of the ninth part this mode of
publication was discontinued, and the work appeared as a whole in 1852.
The main object of the work is, in the author's words, "to exhibit a
view of the labours of successive inquirers in establishing a knowledge
of the mechanical principles which regulate the movements of the
celestial bodies, and in explaining the various phenomena relative to
their physical constitution which observation with the telescope has
disclosed." The lucidity and completeness with which a great variety of
abstruse subjects were treated, the extent of research and the maturity
of judgment it displayed, were the more remarkable, when it is
remembered that this was the first published work of one who enjoyed no
special opportunities, either for acquiring materials, or for discussing
with others engaged in similar pursuits the subjects it treats of. The
book at once took a leading place in astronomical literature, and earned
for its author in 1856 the award of the Royal Astronomical Society's
gold medal. In 1859 he succeeded John Pringle Nichol as professor of
astronomy in the University of Glasgow. From time to time he contributed
astronomical papers to the _Monthly Notices, Astronomische Nachrichten,
Comptes rendus_ and other scientific serials; but his principal work at
Glasgow consisted in determining the places of a large number of stars
with the Ertel transit-circle of the Observatory. The results of these
labours, extending over twenty-one years, are contained in the _Glasgow
Catalogue of 6415 Stars_, published in 1883. This was followed in 1892
by the _Second Glasgow Catalogue of 2156 Stars_, published a few weeks
after his death, which took place on the 24th of October 1892.
See _Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society_, liii., 210 (E. Dunkin);
_Nature_, Nov. 10, 1892; _The Times_, Nov. 2, 1892; _Roy. Society's
Catalogue of Scient. Papers_. (A. A. R.*)
GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885), American soldier, and eighteenth
president of the United States, was born at Point Pleasant, Ohio, on the
27th of April 1822. He was a descendant of Matthew Grant, a Scotchman,
who settled in Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1630. His earlier years
were spent in helping his father, Jesse R. Grant, upon his farm in Ohio.
In 1839 he was appointed to a place in the military academy at West
Point, and it was then that his name assumed the form by which it is
generally known. He was christened Hiram, after an ancestor, with
Ulysses for a middle name. As he was usually called by his middle name,
the congressman who recommended him for West Point supposed it to be his
first name, and added thereto the name of his mother's family, Simpson.
Grant was the best horseman of his class, and took a respectable place
in mathematics, but at his graduation in 1843 he only ranked
twenty-first in a class of thirty-nine. In September 1845 he went with
his regiment to join the forces of General Taylor in Mexico; there he
took part in the battles of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma and Monterey,
and, after his transfer to General Scott's army, which he joined in
March 1847, served at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Churubusco, Molino del Rey
and at the storming of Chapultepec. He was breveted first lieutenant for
gallantry at Molino del Rey and captain for gallantry at Chapultepec. In
August 1848, after the close of the war, he married Julia T. Dent
(1826-1902), and was for a while stationed in California and Oregon, but
in 1854 he resigned his commission. His reputation in the service had
suffered from allegations of intemperate drinking, which, whether well
founded or not, certainly impaired his usefulness as a soldier. For the
next six years he lived in St Louis, Missouri, earning a scanty
subsistence by farming and dealings in real estate. In 1860 he removed
to Galena, Illinois, and became a clerk in a leather store kept by his
father. At that time his earning capacity seems not to have exceeded
$800 a year, and he was regarded by his friends as a broken and
disappointed man. He was living at Galena at the outbreak of hostilities
between the North and South.
Grant's Civil War career.
[For the history of the Civil War, and of Grant's battles and campaigns,
the reader is referred to the article AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. To the "call
to arms" of 1861 Grant promptly responded. After some delay he was
commissioned colonel of the 21st Illinois regiment and soon afterwards
brigadier-general. He was shortly assigned to a territorial command on
the Mississippi, and first won distinction by his energy in seizing, on
his own responsibility, the important point of Paducah, Kentucky,
situated at the confluence of the two great waterways of the Tennessee
and the Ohio (6th Sept. 1861). On the 7th of November he fought his
first battle as a commander, that of Belmont (Missouri), which, if it
failed to achieve any material result, certainly showed him to be a
capable and skilful leader. Early in 1862 he was entrusted by General H.
W. Halleck with the command of a large force to clear the lower reaches
of the Cumberland and the Tennessee, and, whatever criticism may be
passed on the general strategy of the campaign, Grant himself, by his
able and energetic work, thoroughly deserved the credit of his brilliant
success of Fort Donelson, where 15,000 Confederates were forced to
capitulate. Grant and his division commanders were promoted to the rank
of major-general U.S.V. soon afterwards, but Grant's own fortunes
suffered a temporary eclipse owing to a disagreement with Halleck. When,
after being virtually under arrest, he rejoined his army, it was
concentrated about Savannah on the Tennessee, preparing for a campaign
towards Corinth, Miss. On the 6th of April 1862 a furious assault on
Grant's camps brought on the battle of Shiloh (q.v.). After two days'
desperate fighting the Confederates withdrew before the combined attack
of the Army of the Tennessee under Grant and the Army of the Ohio under
Buell. But the Army of the Tennessee had been on the verge of
annihilation on the evening of the first day, and Grant's leadership
throughout was by no means equal to the emergency, though he displayed
his usual personal bravery and resolution. In the grand advance of
Halleck's armies which followed Shiloh, Grant was relieved of all
important duties by his assignment as second in command of the whole
force, and was thought by the army at large to be in disgrace. But
Halleck soon went to Washington as general-in-chief, and Grant took
command of his old army and of Rosecrans' Army of the Mississippi. Two
victories (Iuka and Corinth) were won in the autumn of 1862, but the
credit of both fell to Rosecrans, who commanded in the field, and the
nadir of Grant's military fortunes was reached when the first advance on
Vicksburg (q.v.), planned on an unsound basis, and complicated by a
series of political intrigues (which had also caused the adoption of the
original scheme), collapsed after the minor reverses of Holly Springs
and Chickasaw Bayou (December 1862).
It is fair to assume that Grant would have followed other unsuccessful
generals into retirement, had he not shown that, whatever his mistakes
or failures, and whether he was or was not sober and temperate in his
habits, he possessed the iron determination and energy which in the eyes
of Lincoln and Stanton,[1] and of the whole Northern people, was the
first requisite of their generals. He remained then with his army near
Vicksburg, trying one plan after another without result, until at last
after months of almost hopeless work his perseverance was crowned with
success--a success directly consequent upon a strange and bizarre
campaign of ten weeks, in which his daring and vigour were more
conspicuous than ever before. On the 4th of July 1863 the great fortress
surrendered with 29,491 men, this being one of the most important
victories won by the Union arms in the whole war. Grant was at once made
a major-general in the regular army. A few months later the great
reverse of Chickamauga created an alarm in the North commensurate with
the elation that had been felt at the double victory of Vicksburg and
Gettysburg, and Grant was at once ordered to Chattanooga, to decide the
fate of the Army of the Cumberland in a second battle. Four armies were
placed under his command, and three of these concentrated at
Chattanooga. On the 25th of November 1863 a great three-days' battle
ended with the crushing defeat of the Confederates, who from this day
had no foothold in the centre and west.
After this, in preparation for a grand combined effort of all the Union
forces, Grant was placed in supreme command, and the rank of
lieutenant-general revived for him (March 1864). Grant's headquarters
henceforth accompanied the Army of the Potomac, and the
lieutenant-general directed the campaign in Virginia. This, with Grant's
driving energy infused into the best army that the Union possessed,
resolved itself into a series, almost uninterrupted, of terrible
battles. Tactically the Confederates were almost always victorious,
strategically, Grant, disposing of greatly superior forces, pressed back
Lee and the Army of Northern Virginia to the lines of Richmond and
Petersburg, while above all, in pursuance of his explicit policy of
"attrition," the Federal leader used his men with a merciless energy
that has few, if any, parallels in modern history. At Cold Harbor six
thousand men fell in one useless assault lasting an hour, and after two
months the Union armies lay before Richmond and Petersburg indeed, but
had lost no fewer than 72,000 men. But Grant was unshaken in his
determination. "I purpose to fight it out on this line, if it takes all
summer," was his message from the battlefield of Spottsylvania to the
chief of staff at Washington. Through many weary months he never relaxed
his hold on Lee's army, and, in spite of repeated partial reverses, that
would have been defeats for his predecessors, he gradually wore down his
gallant adversary. The terrible cost of these operations did not check
him: only on one occasion of grave peril were any troops sent from his
lines to serve elsewhere, and he drew to himself the bulk of the men
whom the Union government was recruiting by thousands for the final
effort. Meanwhile all the other campaigns had been closely supervised by
Grant, preoccupied though he was with the operations against his own
adversary. At a critical moment he actually left the Virginian armies to
their own commanders, and started to take personal command in a
threatened quarter, and throughout he was in close touch with Sherman
and Thomas, who conducted the campaigns on the south-east and the
centre. That he succeeded in the efficient exercise of the chief command
of armies of a total strength of over one million men, operating many
hundreds of miles apart from each other, while at the same time he
watched and manoeuvred against a great captain and a veteran army in one
field of the war, must be the greatest proof of Grant's powers as a
general. In the end complete success rewarded the sacrifices and efforts
of the Federals on every theatre of war; in Virginia, where Grant was in
personal control, the merciless policy of attrition wore down Lee's army
until a mere remnant was left for the final surrender.
Grant had thus brought the great struggle to an end, and was universally
regarded as the saviour of the Union. A careful study of the history of
the war thoroughly bears out the popular view. There were soldiers more
accomplished, as was McClellan, more brilliant, as was Rosecrans, and
more exact, as was Buell, but it would be difficult to prove that these
generals, or indeed any others in the service, could have accomplished
the task which Grant brought to complete success. Nor must it be
supposed that Grant learned little from three years' campaigning in
high command. There is less in common than is often supposed between the
buoyant energy that led Grant to Shiloh and the grim plodding
determination that led him to Vicksburg and to Appomattox. Shiloh
revealed to Grant the intensity of the struggle, and after that battle,
appreciating to the full the material and moral factors with which he
had to deal, he gradually trained his military character on those lines
which alone could conduce to ultimate success. Singleness of purpose,
and relentless vigour in the execution of the purpose, were the
qualities necessary to the conduct of the vast enterprise of subduing
the Confederacy. Grant possessed or acquired both to such a degree that
he proved fully equal to the emergency. If in technical finesse he was
surpassed by many of his predecessors and his subordinates, he had the
most important qualities of a great captain, courage that rose higher
with each obstacle, and the clear judgment to distinguish the essential
from the minor issues in war.--(C. F. A.)]
Presidency, 1868.
After the assassination of President Lincoln a disposition was shown by
his successor, Andrew Johnson, to deal severely with the Confederate
leaders, and it was understood that indictments for treason were to be
brought against General Lee and others. Grant, however, insisted that
the United States government was bound by the terms accorded to Lee and
his army at Appomattox. He went so far as to threaten to resign his
commission if the president disregarded his protest. This energetic
action on Grant's part saved the United States from a foul stain upon
its escutcheon. In July 1866 the grade of general was created, for the
first time since the organization of the government, and Grant was
promoted to that position. In the following year he became involved in
the deadly quarrel between President Johnson and Congress. To tie the
president's hands Congress had passed the Tenure of Office Act,
forbidding the president to remove any cabinet officer without the
consent of the Senate; but in August 1867 President Johnson suspended
Secretary Stanton and appointed Grant secretary of war _ad interim_
until the pleasure of the Senate should be ascertained. Grant accepted
the appointment under protest, and held it until the following January,
when the Senate refused to confirm the president's action, and Secretary
Stanton resumed his office. President Johnson was much disgusted at the
readiness with which Grant turned over the office to Stanton, and a
bitter controversy ensued between Johnson and Grant. Hitherto Grant had
taken little part in politics. The only vote which he had ever cast for
a presidential candidate was in 1856 for James Buchanan; and leading
Democrats, so late as the beginning of 1868, hoped to make him their
candidate in the election of that year; but the effect of the
controversy with President Johnson was to bring Grant forward as the
candidate of the Republican party. At the convention in Chicago on the
20th of May 1868 he was unanimously nominated on the first ballot. The
Democratic party nominated the one available Democrat who had the
smallest chance of beating him--Horatio Seymour, lately governor of New
York, an excellent statesman, but at that time hopeless as a candidate
because of his attitude during the war. The result of the contest was at
no time in doubt; Grant received 214 electoral votes and Seymour 80.
The most important domestic event of Grant's first term as president was
the adoption of the fifteenth amendment to the Constitution on the 30th
of March 1870, providing that suffrage throughout the United States
should not be restricted on account of race, colour or previous
condition of servitude. The most important event in foreign policy was
the treaty with Great Britain of the 8th of May 1871, commonly known as
the Treaty of Washington, whereby several controversies between the
United States and Great Britain, including the bitter questions as to
damage inflicted upon the United States by the "Alabama" and other
Confederate cruisers built and equipped in England, were referred to
arbitration. In 1869 the government of Santo Domingo (or the Dominican
Republic) expressed a wish for annexation by the United States, and such
a step was favoured by Grant, but a treaty negotiated with this end in
view failed to obtain the requisite two-thirds vote in the Senate. In
May 1872 something was done towards alleviating the odious
Reconstruction laws for dragooning the South, which had been passed by
Congress in spite of the vetoes of President Johnson. The Amnesty Bill
restored civil rights to all persons in the South, save from 300 to 500
who had held high positions under the Confederacy. As early as 1870
President Grant recommended measures of civil service reform, and
succeeded in obtaining an act authorizing him to appoint a Civil Service
commission. A commission was created, but owing to the hostility of the
politicians in Congress it accomplished little. During the fifty years
since Crawford's Tenure of Office Act was passed in 1820, the country
had been growing more and more familiar with the spectacle of corruption
in high places. The evil rose to alarming proportions during Grant's
presidency, partly because of the immense extension of the civil
service, partly because of the growing tendency to alliance between
spoilsmen and the persons benefited by protective tariffs, and partly
because the public attention was still so much absorbed in Southern
affairs that little energy was left for curbing rascality in the North.
The scandals, indeed, were rife in Washington, and affected persons in
close relations with the president. Grant was ill-fitted for coping with
the difficulties of such a situation. Along with high intellectual
powers in certain directions, he had a simplicity of nature charming in
itself, but often calculated to render him the easy prey of sharpers. He
found it almost impossible to believe that anything could be wrong in
persons to whom he had given his friendship, and on several occasions
such friends proved themselves unworthy of him. The feeling was widely
prevalent in the spring of 1872 that the interests of pure government in
the United States demanded that President Grant should not be elected to
a second term. This feeling led a number of high-minded gentlemen to
form themselves into an organization under the name of Liberal
Republicans. They held a convention at Cincinnati in May with the
intention of nominating for the presidency Charles Francis Adams, who
had ably represented the United States at the court of St James's during
the Civil War. The convention, was, however, captured by politicians who
converted the whole affair into a farce by nominating Horace Greeley,
editor of the _New York Tribune_, who represented almost anything rather
than the object for which the convention had been called together. The
Democrats had despaired of electing a candidate of their own, and hoped
to achieve success by adopting the Cincinnati nominee, should he prove
to be an eligible person. The event showed that while their defeat in
1868 had taught them despondency, it had not taught them wisdom; it was
still in their power to make a gallant fight by nominating a person for
whom Republican reformers could vote. But with almost incredible
fatuity, they adopted Greeley as their candidate. As a natural result
Grant was re-elected by an overwhelming majority.
Second presidency.
The most important event of his second term was his veto of the
Inflation Bill in 1874 followed by the passage of the Resumption Act in
the following year. The country was still labouring under the curse of
an inconvertible paper currency originating with the Legal Tender Act of
1862. There was a considerable party in favour of debasing the currency
indefinitely by inflation, and a bill with that object was passed by
Congress in April 1874. It was promptly vetoed by President Grant, and
two months later he wrote a very sensible letter to Senator J. P. Jones
of Nevada advocating a speedy return to specie payments. The passage of
the Resumption Act in January 1875 was largely due to his consistent
advocacy, and for these measures he deserves as high credit as for his
victories in the field. In spite of these great services, popular
dissatisfaction with the Republican party rapidly increased during the
years 1874-1876. The causes were twofold: firstly, there was great
dissatisfaction with the troubles in the Southern states, owing to the
harsh Reconstruction laws and the robberies committed by the carpet-bag
governments which those laws kept in power; secondly, the scandals at
Washington, comprising wholesale frauds on the public revenue, awakened
lively disgust. In some cases the culprits were so near to President
Grant that many persons found it difficult to avoid the suspicion that
he was himself implicated, and never perhaps was his hold upon popular
favour so slight as in the summer and autumn of 1876.
Later life.
After the close of his presidency in the spring of 1877 Grant started on
a journey round the world, accompanied by his wife and one son. He was
received with distinguished honours in England and on the continent of
Europe, whence he made his way to India, China and Japan. After his
return to America in September 1880 he went back to his old home in
Galena, Illinois. A faction among the managers of the Republican party
attempted to secure his nomination for a third term as president, and in
the convention at Chicago in June 1880 he received a vote exceeding 300
during 36 consecutive ballots. Nevertheless, his opponents made such
effective use of the popular prejudice against third terms that the
scheme was defeated, and Garfield was named in his stead. In August 1881
General Grant bought a house in the city of New York. His income was
insufficient for the proper support of his family, and accordingly he
had become partner in a banking house in which one of his sons was
interested along with other persons. The name of the firm was Grant and
Ward. The ex-president invested in it all his available property, but
paid no attention to the management of the business. His facility in
giving his confidence to unworthy people was now to be visited with dire
calamity. In 1884 the firm became bankrupt, and it was discovered that
two of the partners had been perpetrating systematic and gigantic
frauds. This severe blow left General Grant penniless, just at the time
when he was beginning to suffer acutely from the disease which finally
caused his death. Down to this time he had never made any pretensions to
literary skill or talent, but on being approached by the _Century
Magazine_ with a request for some articles he undertook the work in
order to keep the wolf from the door. It proved a congenial task, and
led to the writing of his _Personal Memoirs_, a frank, modest and
charming book, which ranks among the best standard military biographies.
The sales earned for the general and his family something like half a
million dollars. The circumstances in which it was written made it an
act of heroism comparable with any that Grant ever showed as a soldier.
During most of the time he was suffering tortures from cancer in the
throat, and it was only four days before his death that he finished the
manuscript. In the spring of 1885 Congress passed a bill creating him a
general on the retired list; and in the summer he was removed to a
cottage at Mount M'Gregor, near Saratoga, where he passed the last five
weeks of his life, and where he died on the 23rd of July 1885. His body
was placed in a temporary tomb in Riverside Drive, in New York City,
overlooking the Hudson river.[2]
Grant showed many admirable and lovable traits. There was a charming
side to his trustful simplicity, which was at times almost like that of
a sailor set ashore. He abounded in kindliness and generosity, and if
there was anything especially difficult for him to endure, it was the
sight of human suffering, as was shown on the night at Shiloh, where he
lay out of doors in the icy rain rather than stay in a comfortable room
where the surgeons were at work. His good sense was strong, as well as
his sense of justice, and these qualities stood him in good service as
president, especially in his triumphant fight against the greenback
monster. Altogether, in spite of some shortcomings, Grant was a massive,
noble and lovable personality, well fit to be remembered as one of the
heroes of a great nation. (J. Fi.)
General Grant's son, FREDERICK DENT GRANT (b. 1850), graduated at the
U.S. Military Academy in 1871, was aide-de-camp to General Philip
Sheridan in 1873-1881, and resigned from the army in 1881, after having
attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He was U.S. minister to Austria
in 1889-1893, and police commissioner of New York city in 1894-1898. He
served as a brigadier-general of volunteers in the Spanish-American War
of 1898, and then in the Philippines, becoming brigadier-general in the
regular army in February 1901 and major-general in February 1906.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Adam Badeau's _Military History of U. S. Grant_ (3
vols., New York, 1867-1881), and _Grant in Peace_ (Hartford, 1887),
are appreciative but lacking in discrimination. William Conant
Church's _Ulysses S. Grant and the Period of National Preservation and
Reconstruction_ (New York, 1897) is a good succinct account. Hamlin
Garland's _Ulysses S. Grant, His Life and Character_ (New York, 1898)
gives especial attention to the personal traits of Grant and abounds
in anecdote. See also Grant's _Personal Memoirs_ (2 vols., New York,
1885-1886); J. G. Wilson's _Life and Public Services of U. S. Grant_
(New York, 1886); J. R. Young's _Around the World with General Grant_
(New York, 1880); Horace Porter's _Campaigning with Grant_ (New York,
1897); James Ford Rhodes's _History of the United States_ (vols.
iii.-vii., New York, 1896-1906); James K. Hosmer's _Appeal to Arms and
Outcome of the Civil War_ (New York, 1907); John Eaton's _Grant,
Lincoln, and the Freedmen_ (New York, 1907), and various works
mentioned in the articles AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, WILDERNESS CAMPAIGN, &c.