[1] _Geschichte der Volkerwanderung_ (Gotha, 1863-1864).
GOTLAND, an island in the Baltic Sea belonging to Sweden, lying between
57 deg. and 58 deg. N., and having a length from S.S.W. to N.N.E. of 75
m., a breadth not exceeding 30 m., and an area of 1142 sq. m. The
nearest point on the mainland is 50 m. from the westernmost point of the
island. With the island Faro, off the northern extremity, the Karlsoe,
off the west coast, and Gotska Sando, 25 m. N. by E., Gotland forms the
administrative district (_lan_) of Gotland. The island is a level
plateau of Silurian limestone, rising gently eastward, of an average
height of 80 to 100 ft., with steep coasts fringed with tapering,
free-standing columns of limestone (_raukar_). A few low isolated hills
rise inland. The climate is temperate, and the soil, although in parts
dry and sterile, is mostly fertile. Former marshy moors have been
largely drained and cultivated. There are extensive sand-dunes in the
north. As usual in a limestone formation, some of the streams have their
courses partly below the surface, and caverns are not infrequent. Less
than half the total area is under forest, the extent of which was
formerly much greater. Barley, rye, wheat and oats are grown, especially
the first, which is exported to the breweries on the mainland. The
sugar-beet is also produced and exported, and there are beet-sugar works
on the island. Sheep and cattle are kept; there is a government sheep
farm at Roma, and the cattle may be noted as belonging principally to an
old native breed, yellow and horned. Some lime-burning, cement-making
and sea-fishing are carried on. The capital of the island is Visby, on
the west coast. There are over 80 m. of railways. Lines run from Visby
N.E. to Tingstade and S. to Hofdhem, with branches from Roma to
Klintehamn, a small watering-place on the west coast, and to Slitehamn
on the east. Excepting along the coast the island has no scenic
attraction, but it is of the highest archaeological interest. Nearly
every village has its ruined church, and others occur where no villages
remain. The shrunken walled town of Visby was one of the richest
commercial centres of the Baltic from the 11th to the 14th century, and
its prosperity was shared by the whole island. It retains ten churches
besides the cathedral. The massive towers of the village churches are
often detached, and doubtless served purposes of defence. The churches
of Roma, Hemse, with remarkable mural paintings, Othen and Larbo may be
specially noted. Some contain fine stained glass, as at Dalhem near
Visby. The natives of Gotland speak a dialect distinguished from that of
any part of the Swedish mainland. Pop. of _lan_ (1900) 52,781.
Gotland was subject to Sweden before 890, and in 1030 was christianized
by St Olaf, king of Norway, when returning from his exile at Kiev. He
dedicated the first church in the island to St Peter at Visby. At that
time Visby had long been one of the most important trading towns in the
Baltic, and the chief distributing centre of the oriental commerce which
came to Europe along the rivers of Russia. In the early years of the
Hanseatic League, or about the middle of the 13th century, it became
the chief depot for the produce of the eastern Baltic countries,
including, in a commercial sense, its daughter colony (11th century or
earlier) of Novgorod the Great. Although Visby was an independent member
of the Hanseatic League, the influence of Lubeck was paramount in the
city, and half its governing body were men of German descent. Indeed,
Bjorkander endeavours to prove that the city was a German (Hanseatic)
foundation, dating principally from the middle of the 12th century.
However that may be, the importance of Visby in the sea trade of the
North is conclusively attested by the famous code of maritime law which
bears its name. This _Waterrecht dat de Kooplude en de Schippers gemakt
hebben to Visby_ ("sea-law which the merchants and seamen have made at
Visby") was a compilation based upon the Lubeck code, the Oleron code
and the Amsterdam code, and was first printed in Low German in 1505, but
in all probability had its origin about 1240, or not much later (see SEA
LAWS). By the middle of the the city was so great that, according to an
old ballad, "the Gotlanders weighed out gold with stone weights and
played with the choicest jewels. The swine ate out of silver troughs,
and the women spun with distaffs of gold." This fabled wealth was too
strong a temptation for the energetic Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark. In
1361 he invaded the island, routed the defenders of Visby under the city
walls (a monolithic cross marks the burial-place of the islanders who
fell) and plundered the city. From this blow it never recovered, its
decay being, however, materially helped by the fact that for the greater
part of the next 150 years it was the stronghold of successive
freebooters or sea-rovers--first, of the Hanseatic privateers called
Vitalienbrodre or Viktualienbruder, who made it their stronghold during
the last eight years of the 14th century; then of the Teutonic Knights,
whose Grand Master drove out the "Victuals Brothers," and kept the
island until it was redeemed by Queen Margaret. There too Erik XIII.
(the Pomeranian), after being driven out of Denmark by his own subjects,
established himself in 1437, and for a dozen years waged piracy upon
Danes and Swedes alike. After him came Olaf and Ivar Thott, two Danish
lords, who down to the year 1487 terrorized the seas from their pirates'
stronghold of Visby. Lastly, the Danish admiral Soren Norrby, the last
supporter of Christian I. of Denmark, when his master's cause was lost,
waged a guerrilla war upon the Danish merchant ships and others from the
same convenient base. But this led to an expedition by the men of
Lubeck, who partly destroyed Visby in 1525. By the peace of Stettin
(1570) Gotland was confirmed to the Danish crown, to which it had been
given by Queen Margaret. But at the peace of Bromsebro in 1645 it was at
length restored to Sweden, to which it has since belonged, except for
the three years 1676-1679, when it was forcibly occupied by the Danes,
and a few weeks in 1808, when the Russians landed a force.
The extreme wealth of the Gotlanders naturally fostered a spirit of
independence, and their relations with Sweden were curious. The island
at one period paid an annual tribute of 60 marks of silver to Sweden,
but it was clearly recognized that it was paid by the desire of the
Gotlanders, and not enforced by Sweden. The pope recognized their
independence, and it was by their own free will that they came under the
spiritual charge of the bishop of Linkoping. Their local government was
republican in form, and a popular assembly is indicated in the written
_Gotland Law_, which dates not later than the middle of the 13th
century. Sweden had no rights of objection to the measures adopted by
this body, and there was no Swedish judge or other official in the
island. Visby had a system of government and rights independent of, and
in some measure opposed to, that of the rest of the island. It seems
clear that there were at one time two separate corporations, for the
native Gotlanders and the foreign traders respectively, and that these
were subsequently fused. The rights and status of native Gotlanders were
not enjoyed by foreigners as a whole--even intermarriage was
illegal--but Germans, on account of their commercial pre-eminence in the
island, were excepted.
See C. H. Bergman, _Gotland's geografi och historia_ (Stockholm, 1898)
and _Gotlandska skildringar och minnen_ (Visby, 1902); A. T. Snobohm,
_Gotlands land och folk_ (Visby, 1897 et seq.); W. Moler, _Bidrag till
en Gotlandsk bibliografi_ (Stockholm, 1890); Hans Hildebrand, _Visby
och dess Minnesmarken_ (Stockholm, 1892 et seq.); A. Bjorkander, _Till
Visby Stads Aeldsta Historia_ (1898), where most of the literature
dealing with the subject is mentioned; but some of the author's
arguments require criticism. For local government and rights see K.
Hegel, _Stadter und Gilden im Mittelalter_ (book iii. ch. iii.,
Leipzig, 1891).
GOTO ISLANDS [GOTO RETTO, GOTTO], a group of islands belonging to Japan,
lying west of Kiushiu, in 33 deg. N., 129 deg. E. The southern of the
two principal islands, Fukae-shima, measures 17 m. by 13-1/2; the
northern, Nakaori-shima, measures 23 m. by 7-1/2. These islands lie
almost in the direct route of steamers plying between Nagasaki and
Shanghai, and are distant some 50 m. from Nagasaki. Some dome-shaped
hills command the old castle-town of Fukae. The islands are highly
cultivated; deer and other game abound, and trout are plentiful in the
mountain streams. A majority of the inhabitants are Christians.
GOTTER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1746-1797), German poet and dramatist, was
born on the 3rd of September 1746, at Gotha. After the completion of his
university career at Gottingen, he was appointed second director of the
Archive of his native town, and subsequently went to Wetzlar, the seat
of the imperial law courts, as secretary to the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
legation. In 1768 he returned to Gotha as tutor to two young noblemen,
and here, together with H. C. Boie, he founded the famous _Gottinger
Musenalmanach_. In 1770 he was once more in Wetzlar, where he belonged
to Goethe's circle of acquaintances. Four years later he took up his
permanent abode in Gotha, where he died on the 18th of March 1797.
Gotter was the chief representative of French taste in the German
literary life of his time. His own poetry is elegant and polished, and
in great measure free from the trivialities of the Anacreontic lyric of
the earlier generation of imitators of French literature; but he was
lacking in the imaginative depth that characterizes the German poetic
temperament. His plays, of which _Merope_ (1774), an adaptation in
admirable blank verse of the tragedies of Maffei and Voltaire, and
_Medea_ (1775), a _melodrame_, are best known, were mostly based on
French originals and had considerable influence in counteracting the
formlessness and irregularity of the _Sturm und Drang_ drama.
Gutter's collected _Gedichte_ appeared in 2 vols. in 1787 and 1788; a
third volume (1802) contains his _Literarischer Nachlass_. See B.
Litzmann, _Schroder und Gotter_ (1887), and R. Schlosser, _F. W.
Gotter, sein Leben und seine Werke_ (1894).
GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG, one of the chief German poets of the middle
ages. The dates of his birth and death are alike unknown, but he was the
contemporary of Hartmann von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Walther von
der Vogelweide, and his epic _Tristan_ was written about the year 1210.
In all probability he did not belong to the nobility, as he is entitled
_Meister_, never _Herr_, by his contemporaries; his poem--the only work
that can with any certainty be attributed to him--bears witness to a
learned education. The story of _Tristan_ had been evolved from its
shadowy Celtic origins by the French _trouveres_ of the early 12th
century, and had already found its way into Germany before the close of
that century, in the crude, unpolished version of Eilhart von Oberge. It
was Gottfried, however, who gave it its final form. His version is based
not on that of Chretien de Troyes, but on that of a _trouvere_ Thomas,
who seems to have been more popular with contemporaries. A comparison of
the German epic with the French original is, however, impossible, as
Chretien's _Tristan_ is entirely lost, and of Thomas's only a few
fragments have come down to us. The story centres in the fatal voyage
which Tristan, a vassal to the court of his uncle King Marke of Kurnewal
(Cornwall), makes to Ireland to bring back Isolde as the king's bride.
On the return voyage Tristan and Isolde drink by mistake a love potion,
which binds them irrevocably to each other. The epic resolves itself
into a series of love intrigues in which the two lovers ingeniously
outwit the trusting king. They are ultimately discovered, and Tristan
flees to Normandy where he marries another Isolde--"Isolde with the
white hands"--without being able to forget the blond Isolde of Ireland.
At this point Gottfried's narrative breaks off and to learn the close of
the story we have to turn to two minor poets of the time, Ulrich von
Turheim and Heinrich von Freiberg--the latter much the superior--who
have supplied the conclusion. After further love adventures Tristan is
fatally wounded by a poisoned spear in Normandy; the "blond Isolde," as
the only person who has power to cure him, is summoned from Cornwall.
The ship that brings her is to bear a white sail if she is on board, a
black one if not. Tristan's wife, however, deceives him, announcing that
the sail is black, and when Isolde arrives, she finds her lover dead.
Marke at last learns the truth concerning the love potion, and has the
two lovers buried side by side in Kurnewal.
It is difficult to form an estimate of Gottfried's independence of his
French source; but it seems clear that he followed closely the narrative
of events he found in Thomas. He has, however, introduced into the story
an astounding fineness of psychological motive, which, to judge from a
general comparison of the Arthurian epic in both lands, is German rather
than French; he has spiritualized and deepened the narrative; he has,
above all, depicted with a variety and insight, unusual in medieval
literature, the effects of an overpowering passion. Yet, glowing and
seductive as Gottfried's love-scenes are, they are never for a moment
disfigured by frivolous hints or innuendo; the tragedy is unrolled with
an earnestness that admits of no touch of humour, and also, it may be
added, with a freedom from moralizing which was easier to attain in the
13th than in later centuries. The mastery of style is no less
conspicuous. Gottfried had learned his best lessons from Hartmann von
Aue, but he was a more original and daring artificer of rhymes and
rhythms than that master; he delighted in the sheer music of words, and
indulged in antitheses and allegorical conceits to an extent that proved
fatal to his imitators. As far as beauty of expression is concerned,
Gottfried's _Tristan_ is the masterpiece of the German court epic.
Gottfried's _Tristan_ has been frequently edited: by H. F. Massman
(Leipzig, 1843); by R. Bechstein (2 vols., 3rd ed.,
Leipzig,1890-1891); by W. Golther (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1889); by K.
Marold (1906). Translations into modern German have been made by H.
Kurz (Stuttgart, 1844); by K. Simrock (Leipzig, 1855); and, best of
all, by W. Hertz (Stuttgart, 1877). There is also an abbreviated
English translation by Jessie L. Weston (London, 1899). The
continuation of Ulrich von Turheim will be found in Massman's edition;
that by Heinrich von Freiberg has been separately edited by R.
Bechstein (Leipzig, 1877). See also R. Heinzel, "Gottfrieds von
Strassburg Tristan und seine Quelle" in the _Zeit. fur deut. Alt._
xiv. (1869), pp. 272 ff.; W. Golther, _Die Sage von Tristan und
Isolde_ (Munich, 1887); F. Piquet, _L'Originalite de Gottfried de
Strasbourg dans son poeme de Tristan et Isolde_ (Lille, 1905). K.
Immermann (q.v.) has written an epic of _Tristan und Isolde_ (1840),
R. Wagner (q.v.) a musical drama (1865). Cp. R. Bechstein, _Tristan
und Isolde in der deutschen Dichtung der Neuzeit_ (Leipzig, 1877).
GOTTINGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover,
pleasantly situated at the west foot of the Hainberg (1200 ft.), in the
broad and fertile valley of the Leine, 67 m. S. from Hanover, on the
railway to Cassel. Pop. (1875) 17,057, (1905) 34,030. It is traversed by
the Leine canal, which separates the Altstadt from the Neustadt and from
Masch, and is surrounded by ramparts, which are planted with lime-trees
and form an agreeable promenade. The streets in the older part of the
town are for the most part crooked and narrow, but the newer portions
are spaciously and regularly built. Apart from the Protestant churches
of St John, with twin towers, and of St James, with a high tower (290
ft.), the medieval town hall, built in the 14th century and restored in
1880, and the numerous university buildings, Gottingen possesses few
structures of any public importance. There are several thriving
industries, including, besides the various branches of the publishing
trade, the manufacture of cloth and woollens and of mathematical and
other scientific instruments.
The university, the famous Georgia Augusta, founded by George II. in
1734 and opened in 1737, rapidly attained a leading position, and in
1823 its students numbered 1547. Political disturbances, in which both
professors and students were implicated, lowered the attendance to 860
in 1834. The expulsion in 1837 of the famous seven professors--_Die
Gottinger Sieben_--viz. the Germanist, Wilhelm Eduard Albrecht
(1800-1876); the historian, Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann (1785-1860);
the orientalist, Georg Heinrich August Ewald (1803-1875); the historian,
Georg Gottfried Gervinus (1805-1875); the physicist, Wilhelm Eduard
Weber (1804-1891); and the philologists, the brothers Jacob Ludwig Karl
Grimm (1785-1863), and Wilhelm Karl Grimm (1786-1859),--for protesting
against the revocation by King Ernest Augustus of Hanover of the liberal
constitution of 1833, further reduced the prosperity of the university.
The events of 1848, on the other hand, told somewhat in its favour; and,
since the annexation of Hanover in 1866, it has been carefully fostered
by the Prussian government. In 1903 its teaching staff numbered 121 and
its students 1529. The main university building lies on the
Wilhelmsplatz, and, adjoining, is the famous library of 500,000 vols,
and 5300 MSS., the richest collection of modern literature in Germany.
There is a good chemical laboratory as well as adequate zoological,
ethnographical and mineralogical collections, the most remarkable being
Blumenbach's famous collection of skulls in the anatomical institute.
There are also a celebrated observatory, long under the direction of
Wilhelm Klinkerfues (1827-1884), a botanical garden, an agricultural
institute and various hospitals, all connected with the university. Of
the scientific societies the most noted is the Royal Society of Sciences
(_Konigliche Sozietat der Wissenschaften_) founded by Albrecht von
Haller, which is divided into three classes, the physical, the
mathematical and the historical-philological. It numbers about 80
members and publishes the well-known _Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen_.
There are monuments in the town to the mathematicians K. F. Gauss and W.
E. Weber, and also to the poet G. A. Burger.
The earliest mention of a village of Goding or Gutingi occurs in
documents of about 950 A.D. The place received municipal rights from the
German king Otto IV. about 1210, and from 1286 to 1463 it was the seat
of the princely house of Brunswick-Gottingen. During the 14th century it
held a high place among the towns of the Hanseatic League. In 1531 it
joined the Reformation movement, and in the following century it
suffered considerably in the Thirty Years' War, being taken by Tilly in
1626, after a siege of 25 days, and recaptured by the Saxons in 1632.
After a century of decay, it was anew brought into importance by the
establishment of its university; and a marked increase in its industrial
and commercial prosperity has again taken place in recent years. Towards
the end of the 18th century Gottingen was the centre of a society of
young poets of the _Sturm und Drang_ period of German literature, known
as the _Gottingen Dichterbund_ or _Hainbund_ (see GERMANY:
_Literature_).
See Freusdorff, _Gottingen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart_ (Gottingen,
1887); the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Gottingen_, edited by G. Schmidt,
A. Hasselblatt and G. Kastner; Unger, _Gottingen und die Georgia
Augusta_ (1861); and _Gottinger Professoren_ (Gotha, 1872); and O.
Mejer, _Kulturgeschichtliche Bilder aus Gottingen_ (1889).
GOTTLING, CARL WILHELM (1793-1869), German classical scholar, was born
at Jena on the 19th of January 1793. He studied at the universities of
Jena and Berlin, took part in the war against France in 1814, and
finally settled down in 1822 as professor at the university of his
native town, where he continued to reside till his death on the 20th of
January 1869. In his early years Gottling devoted himself to German
literature, and published two works on the Nibelungen: _Uber das
Geschichtliche im Nibelungenliede_ (1814) and _Nibelungen und Gibelinen_
(1817). The greater part of his life, however, was devoted to the study
of classical literature, especially the elucidation of Greek authors.
The contents of his _Gesammelte Abhandlungen aus dem klassischen
Altertum_ (1851-1863) and _Opuscula Academica_ (published in 1869 after
his death) sufficiently indicate the varied nature of his studies. He
edited the [Greek: Techne] (grammatical manual) of Theodosius of
Alexandria (1822), Aristotle's _Politics_ (1824), and _Economics_ (1830)
and Hesiod (1831; 3rd ed. by J. Flach, 1878). Mention may also be made
of his _Allgemeine Lehre vom Accent der griechischen Sprache_ (1835),
enlarged from a smaller work, which was translated into English (1831)
as the _Elements of Greek Accentuation_; and of his _Correspondence with
Goethe_ (published 1880).
See memoirs by C. Nipperdey, his colleague at Jena (1869), G. Lothholz
(Stargard, 1876), K. Fischer (preface to the _Opuscula Academica_),
and C. Bursian in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, ix.
GOTTSCHALK [GODESCALUS, GOTTESCALE], (c. 808-867?), German theologian,
was born near Mainz, and was devoted (_oblatus_) from infancy by his
parents,--his father was a Saxon, Count Bern,--to the monastic life. He
was trained at the monastery of Fulda, then under the abbot Hrabanus
Maurus, and became the friend of Walafrid Strabo and Loup of Ferrieres.
In June 829, at the synod of Mainz, on the pretext that he had been
unduly constrained by his abbot, he sought and obtained his liberty,
withdrew first to Corbie, where he met Ratramnus, and then to the
monastery of Orbais in the diocese of Soissons. There he studied St
Augustine, with the result that he became an enthusiastic believer in
the doctrine of absolute predestination, in one point going beyond his
master--Gottschalk believing in a predestination to condemnation as well
as in a predestination to salvation, while Augustine had contented
himself with the doctrine of preterition as complementary to the
doctrine of election. Between 835 and 840 Gottschalk was ordained
priest, without the knowledge of his bishop, by Rigbold, _chorepiscopus_
of Reims. Before 840, deserting his monastery, he went to Italy,
preached there his doctrine of double predestination, and entered into
relations with Notting, bishop of Verona, and Eberhard, count of Friuli.
Driven from Italy through the influence of Hrabanus Maurus, now
archbishop of Mainz, who wrote two violent letters to Notting and
Eberhard, he travelled through Dalmatia, Pannonia and Norica, but
continued preaching and writing. In October 848 he presented to the
synod at Mainz a profession of faith and a refutation of the ideas
expressed by Hrabanus Maurus in his letter to Notting. He was convicted,
however, of heresy, beaten, obliged to swear that he would never again
enter the territory of Louis the German, and handed over to Hincmar,
archbishop of Reims, who sent him back to his monastery at Orbais. The
next year at a provincial council at Quierzy, presided over by Charles
the Bald, he attempted to justify his ideas, but was again condemned as
a heretic and disturber of the public peace, was degraded from the
priesthood, whipped, obliged to burn his declaration of faith, and shut
up in the monastery of Hautvilliers. There Hincmar tried again to induce
him to retract. Gottschalk however continued to defend his doctrine,
writing to his friends and to the most eminent theologians of France and
Germany. A great controversy resulted. Prudentius, bishop of Troyes,
Wenilo of Sens, Ratramnus of Corbie, Loup of Ferrieres and Florus of
Lyons wrote in his favour. Hincmar wrote _De praedestinatione_ and _De
una non trina deitate_ against his views, but gained little aid from
Johannes Scotus Erigena, whom he had called in as an authority. The
question was discussed at the councils of Kiersy (853), of Valence (855)
and of Savonnieres (859). Finally the pope Nicolas I. took up the case,
and summoned Hincmar to the council of Metz (863). Hincmar either could
not or would not appear, but declared that Gottschalk might go to defend
himself before the pope. Nothing came of this, however, and when Hincmar
learned that Gottschalk had fallen ill, he forbade him the sacraments or
burial in consecrated ground unless he would recant. This Gottschalk
refused to do. He died on the 30th of October between 866 and 870.
Gottschalk was a vigorous and original thinker, but also of a violent
temperament, incapable of discipline or moderation in his ideas as in
his conduct. He was less an innovator than a reactionary. Of his many
works we have only the two professions of faith (cf. Migne, _Patrologia
Latina_, cxxi. c. 347 et seq.), and some poems, edited by L. Traube in
_Monumenta Germaniae historica: Poetae Latini aevi Carolini_ (t. iii.
707-738). Some fragments of his theological treatises have been
preserved in the writings of Hincmar, Erigena, Ratramnus and Loup of
Ferrieres.
From the 17th century, when the Jansenists exalted Gottschalk, much
has been written on him. Mention may be made of two recent studies, F.
Picavet, "Les Discussions sur la liberte au temps de Gottschalk, de
Raban Maur, d'Hincmar, et de Jean Scot," in _Comptes rendus de l'acad.
des sciences morales et politiques_ (Paris, 1896); and A. Freystedt,
"Studien zu Gottschalks Leben und Lehre," in _Zeitschrift fur
Kirchengeschichte_ (1897), vol. xviii.
GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON (1823-1909), German man of letters, was born at
Breslau on the 30th of September 1823, the son of a Prussian artillery
officer. He received his early education at the gymnasia in Mainz and
Coburg, and subsequently at Rastenburg in East Prussia. In 1841 he
entered the university of Konigsberg as a student of law, but, in
consequence of his pronounced liberal opinions, was expelled. The
academic authorities at Breslau and Leipzig were not more tolerant
towards the young fire-eater, and it was only in Berlin that he
eventually found himself free to prosecute his studies. During this
period of unrest he issued _Lieder der Gegenwart_ (1842) and
_Zensurfluchtlinge_ (1843)--the poetical fruits of his political
enthusiasm. He completed his studies in Berlin, took the degree of
_doctor juris_ in Konigsberg, and endeavoured to obtain there the _venia
legendi_. His political views again stood in the way, and forsaking the
legal career, Gottschall now devoted himself entirely to literature. He
met with immediate success, and beginning as dramaturge in Konigsberg
with _Der Blinde von Alcala_ (1846) and _Lord Byron in Italien_ (1847)
proceeded to Hamburg where he occupied a similar position. In 1852 he
married Marie, baroness von Seherr-Thoss, and for the next few years
lived in Silesia. In 1862 he took over the editorship of a Posen
newspaper, but in 1864 removed to Leipzig. Gottschall was raised, in
1877, by the king of Prussia to the hereditary nobility with the prefix
"von," having been previously made a _Geheimer Hofrat_ by the grand duke
of Weimar. Down to 1887 Gottschall edited the _Brockhaus'sche Blatter
fur litterarische Unterhaltung_ and the monthly periodical _Unsere
Zeit_. He died at Leipzig on the 21st of March 1909.
Gottschall's prolific literary productions cover the fields of poetry,
novel-writing and literary criticism. Among his volumes of lyric poetry
are _Sebastopol_ (1856), _Janus_ (1873), _Bunte Bluten_ (1891). Among
his epics, _Carlo Zeno_ (1854), _Maja_ (1864), dealing with an episode
in the Indian Mutiny, and _Merlins Wanderungen_ (1887). The comedy _Pitt
und Fox_ (1854), first produced on the stage in Breslau, was never
surpassed by the other lighter pieces of the author, among which may be
mentioned _Die Welt des Schwindels_ and _Der Spion von Rheinsberg_. The
tragedies, _Mazeppa_, _Catharine Howard_, _Amy Robsart_ and _Der Gotze
von Venedig_, were very successful; and the historical novels, _Im Banne
des schwarzen Adlers_ (1875; 4th ed., 1884), _Die Erbschaft des Blutes_
(1881), _Die Tochter Rubezahls_ (1889), and _Verkummerte Existenzen_
(1892), enjoyed a high degree of popularity. As a critic and historian
of literature Gottschall has also done excellent work. His _Die deutsche
Nationalliteratur des 19. Jahrhunderts_ (1855; 7th ed., 1901-1902), and
_Poetik_ (1858; 6th ed., 1903) command the respect of all students of
literature.
Gottschall's collected _Dramatische Werke_ appeared in 12 vols. in
1880 (2nd ed., 1884); he has also, in recent years, published many
volumes of collected essays and criticisms. See his autobiography,
_Aus meiner Jugend_ (1898).
GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH (1700-1766), German author and critic, was
born on the 2nd of February 1700, at Judithenkirch near Konigsberg, the
son of a Lutheran clergyman. He studied philosophy and history at the
university of his native town, but immediately on taking the degree of
_Magister_ in 1723, fled to Leipzig in order to evade impressment in the
Prussian military service. Here he enjoyed the protection of J. B.
Mencke (1674-1732), who, under the name of "Philander von der Linde,"
was a well-known poet and also president of the _Deutschubende poetische
Gesellschaft_ in Leipzig. Of this society Gottsched was elected "Senior"
in 1726, and in the next year reorganized it under the title of the
_Deutsche Gesellschaft_. In 1730 he was appointed extraordinary
professor of poetry, and, in 1734, ordinary professor of logic and
metaphysics in the university. He died at Leipzig on the 12th of
December 1766.
Gottsched's chief work was his _Versuch einer kritischen Dichtkunst fur
die Deutschen_ (1730), the first systematic treatise in German on the
art of poetry from the standpoint of Boileau. His _Ausfuhrliche
Redekunst_ (1728) and his _Grundlegung einer_ _deutschen Sprachkunst_
(1748) were of importance for the development of German style and the
purification of the language. He wrote several plays, of which _Der
sterbende Cato_ (1732), an adaptation of Addison's tragedy and a French
play on the same theme, was long popular on the stage. In his _Deutsche
Schaubuhne_ (6 vols., 1740-1745), which contained mainly translations
from the French, he provided the German stage with a classical
repertory, and his bibliography of the German drama, _Notiger Vorrat zur
Geschichte der deutschen dramatischen Dichtkunst_ (1757-1765), is still
valuable. He was also the editor of several journals devoted to literary
criticism. As a critic, Gottsched insisted on German literature being
subordinated to the laws of French classicism; he enunciated rules by
which the playwright must be bound, and abolished bombast and buffoonery
from the serious stage. While such reforms obviously afforded a healthy
corrective to the extravagance and want of taste which were rampant in
the German literature of the time, Gottsched went too far. In 1740 he
came into conflict with the Swiss writers Johann Jakob Bodmer (q.v.) and
Johann Jakob Breitinger (1701-1776), who, under the influence of Addison
and contemporary Italian critics, demanded that the poetic imagination
should not be hampered by artificial rules; they pointed to the great
English poets, and especially to Milton. Gottsched, although not blind
to the beauties of the English writers, clung the more tenaciously to
his principle that poetry must be the product of rules, and, in the
fierce controversy which for a time raged between Leipzig and Zurich, he
was inevitably defeated. His influence speedily declined, and before his
death his name became proverbial for pedantic folly.
His wife, Luise Adelgunde Victorie, nee Kulmus (1713-1762), in some
respects her husband's intellectual superior, was an author of some
reputation. She wrote several popular comedies, of which _Das Testament_
is the best, and translated the _Spectator_ (9 vols., 1730-1743), Pope's
_Rape of the Lock_ (1744) and other English and French works. After her
death her husband edited her _Samtliche kleinere Gedichte_ with a memoir
(1763).
See T. W. Danzel, _Gottsched und seine Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1848); J.
Cruger, Gottsched, _Bodmer, und Breitinger_ (with selections from
their writings) (Stuttgart, 1884); F. Servaes, _Die Poetik Gottscheds
und der Schweizer_ (Strassburg, 1887); E. Wolff, _Gottscheds Stellung
im deutschen Bildungsleben_ (2 vols., Kiel, 1895-1897), and G. Waniek,
_Gottsched und die deutsche Literatur seiner Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1897). On
Frau Gottsched, see P. Schlenther, _Frau Gottsched und die burgerliche
Komodie_ (Berlin, 1886).
GOTZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS (1721-1781), German poet, was born at Worms on the
9th of July 1721. He studied theology at Halle (1739-1742), where he
became intimate with the poets Johann W. L. Gleim and Johann Peter Uz,
acted for some years as military chaplain, and afterwards filled various
other ecclesiastical offices. He died at Winterburg on the 4th of
November 1781. The writings of Gotz consist of a number of short lyrics
and several translations, of which the best is a rendering of Anacreon.
His original compositions are light, lively and sparkling, and are
animated rather by French wit than by German depth of sentiment. The
best known of his poems is _Die Madcheninsel_, an elegy which met with
the warm approval of Frederick the Great.
Gotz's _Vermischte Gedichte_ were published with biography by K. W.
Ramler (Mannheim, 1785; new ed., 1807), and a collection of his poems,
dating from the years 1745-1765, has been edited by C. Schuddekopf in
the _Deutsche Literaturdenkmale des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts_ (1893).
See also _Briefe von und an J. N. Gotz_, edited by C. Schuddekopf
(1893).
GOUACHE, a French word adapted from the Ital. _guazzo_ (probably in
origin connected with "wash"), meaning literally a "ford," but used also
for a method of painting in opaque water-colour. The colours are mixed
with or painted in a vehicle of gum or honey, and whereas in true
water-colours the high lights are obtained by leaving blank the surface
of the paper or other material used, or by allowing it to show through a
translucent wash in "gouache," these are obtained by white or other
light colour. "Gouache" is frequently used in miniature painting.
GOUDA (or TER GOUWE), a town of Holland, in the province of South
Holland, on the north side of the Gouwe at its confluence with the Ysel,
and a junction station 12-1/2 m. by rail N.E. of Rotterdam. Pop. (1900)
22,303. Tramways connect it with Bodegraven (5-1/2m. N.) on the old
Rhine and with Oudewater (8 m. E.) on the Ysel; and there is a regular
steamboat service in various directions, Amsterdam being reached by the
canalized Gouwe; Aar, Drecht and Amstel. The town of Gouda is laid out
in a fine open manner and, like other Dutch towns, is intersected by
numerous canals. On its outskirts pleasant walks and fine trees have
replaced the old fortifications. The Groote Markt is the largest
market-square in Holland. Among the numerous churches belonging to
various denominations, the first place must be given to the Groote Kerk
of St John. It was founded in 1485, but rebuilt after a fire in 1552,
and is remarkable for its dimensions (345 ft. long and 150 ft. broad),
for a large and celebrated organ, and a splendid series of over forty
stained-glass windows presented by cities and princes and executed by
various well-known artists, including the brothers Dirk (d. c. 1577) and
Wouter (d. c. 1590) Crabeth, between the years 1555 and 1603 (see
_Explanation of the Famous and Renowned Glass Works, &c._, Gouda, 1876,
reprinted from an older volume, 1718). Other noteworthy buildings are
the Gothic town hall, founded in 1449 and rebuilt in 1690, and the
weigh-house, built by Pieter Post of Haarlem (1608-1669) and adorned
with a fine relief by Barth. Eggers (d. c. 1690). The museum of
antiquities (1874) contains an exquisite chalice of the year 1425 and
some pictures and portraits by Wouter Crabeth the younger, Corn. Ketel
(a native of Gouda, 1548-1616) and Ferdinand Bol (1616-1680). Other
buildings are the orphanage, the hospital, a house of correction for
women and a music hall.
In the time of the counts the wealth of Gouda was mainly derived from
brewing and cloth-weaving; but at a later date the making of clay
tobacco pipes became the staple trade, and, although this industry has
somewhat declined, the churchwarden pipes of Gouda are still well known
and largely manufactured. In winter-time it is considered a feat to
skate hither from Rotterdam and elsewhere to buy such a pipe and return
with it in one's mouth without its being broken. The mud from the Ysel
furnishes the material for large brick-works and potteries; there are
also a celebrated manufactory of stearine candles, a yarn factory, an
oil refinery and cigar factories. The transit and shipping trade is
considerable, and as one of the principal markets of South Holland, the
round, white Gouda cheeses are known throughout Europe. Boskoop, 5 m. N.
by W. of Gouda on the Gouwe, is famous for its nursery gardens; and the
little old-world town of Oudewater as the birthplace of the famous
theologian Arminius in 1560. The town hall (1588) of Oudewater contains
a picture by Dirk Stoop (d. 1686), commemorating the capture of the town
by the Spaniards in 1575 and the subsequent sack and massacre.
GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE, musical composer of the 16th century, was born about
1510. The French and the Belgians claim him as their countryman. In all
probability he was born at Besancon, for in his edition of the songs of
Arcadelt, as well as in the mass of 1554, he calls himself "natif de
Besancon" and "Claudius Godimellus Vescontinus." This discountenances
the theory of Ambros that he was born at Vaison near Avignon. As to his
early education we know little or nothing, but the excellent Latin in
which some of his letters were written proves that, in addition to his
musical knowledge, he also acquired a good classical training. It is
supposed that he was in Rome in 1540 at the head of a music-school, and
that besides many other celebrated musicians, Palestrina was amongst his
pupils. About the middle of the century he seems to have left Rome for
Paris, where, in conjunction with Jean Duchemin, he published, in 1555,
a musical setting of Horace's Odes. Infinitely more important is another
collection of vocal pieces, a setting of the celebrated French version
of the Psalms by Marot and Beza published in 1565. It is written in four
parts, the melody being assigned to the tenor. The invention of the
melodies was long ascribed to Goudimel, but they have now definitely
been proved to have originated in popular tunes found in the
collections of this period. Some of these tunes are still used by the
French Protestant Church. Others were adopted by the German Lutherans, a
German imitation of the French versions of the Psalms in the same metres
having been published at an early date. Although the French version of
the Psalms was at first used by Catholics as well as Protestants, there
is little doubt that Goudimel had embraced the new faith. In Michel
Brenet's Biographie (_Annales franc-cuntoises_, Besancon, 1898, P.
Jacquin) it is established that in Metz, where he was living in 1565,
Goudimel moved in Huguenot circles, and even figured as godfather to the
daughter of the president of Senneton. Seven years later he fell a
victim to religious fanaticism during the St Bartholomew massacres at
Lyons from the 27th to the 28th of August 1572, his death, it is stated,
being due to "les ennemis de la gloire de Dieu et quelques mechants
envieux de l'honneur qu'il avait acquis." Masses and motets belonging to
his Roman period are found in the Vatican library, and in the archives
of various churches in Rome; others were published. Thus the work
entitled _Missae tres a Claudio Goudimel praestantissimo musico auctore,
nunc primum in lucem editae_, contains one mass by the learned editor
himself, the other two being by Claudius Sermisy and Jean Maillard
respectively. Another collection, _La Fleur des chansons des deux plus
excellens musiciens de nostre temps_, consists of part songs by Goudimel
and Orlando di Lasso. Burney gives in his history a motet of Goudimel's
_Domine quid multiplicati sunt_.
GOUFFIER, the name of a great French family, which owned the estate of
Bonnivet in Poitou from the 14th century. _Guillaume Gouffier_,
chamberlain to Charles VII., was an inveterate enemy of Jacques Coeur,
obtaining his condemnation and afterwards receiving his property (1491).
He had a great number of children, several of whom played a part in
history. Artus, seigneur de Boisy (c. 1475-1520) was entrusted with the
education of the young count of Angouleme (Francis I.), and on the
accession of this prince to the throne as Francis I. became grand master
of the royal household, playing an important part in the government; to
him was given the task of negotiating the treaty of Noyon in 1516; and
shortly before his death the king raised the estates of Roanne and Boisy
to the rank of a duchy, that of Roannais, in his favour. ADRIEN GOUFFIER
(d. 1523) was bishop of Coutances and Albi, and grand almoner of France.
GUILLAUME GOUFFIER, seigneur de Bonnivet, became admiral. of France (see
BONNIVET). CLAUDE GOUFFIER, son of Artus, was created comte de
Maulevrier (1542) and marquis de Boisy (1564).
There were many branches of this family, the chief of them being the
dukes of Roannais, the counts of Caravas, the lords of Crevecoeur and of
Bonnivet, the marquises of Thois, of Brazeux, and of Espagny. The name
of Gouffier was adopted in the 18th century by a branch of the house of
Choiseul. (M. P.*)
GOUGE, MARTIN (c. 1360-1444), surnamed DE CHARPAIGNE, French chancellor,
was born at Bourges about 1360. A canon of Bourges, in 1402 he became
treasurer to John, duke of Berri, and in 1406 bishop of Chartres. He was
arrested by John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, with the hapless Jean
de Montaigu (1349-1409) in 1409, but was soon released and then
banished. Attaching himself to the dauphin Louis, duke of Guienne, he
became his chancellor, the king's ambassador in Brittany, and a member
of the grand council; and on the 13th of May 1415, he was transferred
from the see of Chartres to that of Clermont-Ferrand. In May 1418, when
the Burgundians re-entered Paris, he only escaped death at their hands
by taking refuge in the Bastille. He then left Paris, but only to fall
into the hands of his enemy, the duke de la Tremoille, who imprisoned
him in the castle of Sully. Rescued by the dauphin Charles, he was
appointed chancellor of France on the 3rd of February 1422. He
endeavoured to reconcile Burgundy and France, was a party to the
selection of Arthur, earl of Richmond, as constable, but had to resign
his chancellorship in favour of Regnault of Chartres; first from March
25th to August 6th 1425, and again when La Tremoille had supplanted
Richmond. After the fall of La Tremoille in 1433 he returned to court,
and exercised a powerful influence over affairs of state almost till his
death, which took place at the castle of Beaulieu (Puy-de-Dome) on the
25th or 26th of November 1444.
See Hiver's account in the _Memoires de la Societe des Antiquaires du
Centre_, p. 267 (1869); and the _Nouvelle Biographie generale_, vol.
xxi.
GOUGE (adopted from the Fr. _gouge_, derived from the Late Lat. _gubia_
or _gulbia_, in Ducange _gulbium_, an implement _ad hortum excolendum_,
and also _instrumentum ferreum in usu fabrorum_; according to the _New
English Dictionary_ the word is probably of Celtic origin, _gylf_, a
beak, appearing in Welsh, and _gilb_, a boring tool, in Cornish), a tool
of the chisel type with a curved blade, used for scooping a groove or
channel in wood, stone, &c. (see Tool). A similar instrument is used in
surgery for operations involving the excision of portions of bone.
"Gouge" is also used as the name of a bookbinder's tool, for impressing
a curved line on the leather, and for the line so impressed. In mining,
a "gouge" is the layer of soft rock or earth sometimes found in each
side of a vein of coal or ore, which the miner can scoop out with his
pick, and thus attack the vein more easily from the side. The verb "to
gouge" is used in the sense of scooping or forcing out.
GOUGH, HUGH GOUGH, VISCOUNT (1779-1869), British field-marshal, a
descendant of Francis Gough who was made bishop of Limerick in 1626, was
born at Woodstown, Limerick, on the 3rd of November 1779. Having obtained
a commission in the army in August 1794, he served with the 78th
Highlanders at the Cape of Good Hope, taking part in the capture of Cape
Town and of the Dutch fleet in Saldanha Bay in 1796. His next service was
in the West Indies, where, with the 87th (Royal Irish Fusiliers), he
shared in the attack on Porto Rico, the capture of Surinam, and the
brigand war in St Lucia. In 1809 he was called to take part in the
Peninsular War, and, joining the army under Wellington, commanded his
regiment as major in the operations before Oporto, by which the town was
taken from the French. At Talavera he was severely wounded, and had his
horse shot under him. For his conduct on this occasion he was afterwards
promoted lieutenant-colonel, his commission, on the recommendation of
Wellington, being antedated from the day of the duke's despatch. He was
thus the first officer who ever received brevet rank for services
performed in the field at the head of a regiment. He was next engaged at
the battle of Barrosa, at which his regiment captured a French eagle. At
the defence of Tarifa the post of danger was assigned to him, and he
compelled the enemy to raise the siege. At Vitoria, where Gough again
distinguished himself, his regiment captured the baton of Marshal
Jourdan. He was again severely wounded at Nivelle, and was soon after
created a knight of St Charles by the king of Spain. At the close of the
war he returned home and enjoyed a respite of some years from active
service. He next took command of a regiment stationed in the south of
Ireland, discharging at the same time the duties of a magistrate during a
period of agitation. Gough was promoted major-general in 1830. Seven
years later he was sent to India to take command of the Mysore division
of the army. But not long after his arrival in India the difficulties
which led to the first Chinese war made the presence of an energetic
general on the scene indispensable, and Gough was appointed
commander-in-chief of the British forces in China. This post he held
during all the operations of the war; and by his great achievements and
numerous victories in the face of immense difficulties, he at length
enabled the English plenipotentiary, Sir H. Pottinger, to dictate peace
on his own terms. After the conclusion of the treaty of Nanking in August
1842 the British forces were withdrawn; and before the close of the year
Gough, who had been made a G.C.B, in the previous year for his services
in the capture of the Canton forts, was created a baronet. In August 1843
he was appointed commander-in-chief of the British forces in India, and
in December he took the command in person against the Mahrattas, and
defeated them at Maharajpur, capturing more than fifty guns. In 1845
occurred the rupture with the Sikhs, who crossed the Sutlej in large
numbers, and Sir Hugh Gough conducted the operations against them, being
well supported by Lord Hardinge, the governor-general, who volunteered to
serve under him. Successes in the hard-fought battles of Mudki and
Ferozeshah were succeeded by the victory of Sobraon, and shortly
afterwards the Sikhs sued for peace at Lahore. The services of Sir Hugh
Gough were rewarded by his elevation to the peerage of the United Kingdom
as Baron Gough (April 1846). The war broke out again in 1848, and again
Lord Gough took the field; but the result of the battle of Chillianwalla
being equivocal, he was superseded by the home authorities in favour of
Sir Charles Napier; before the news of the supersession arrived Lord
Gough had finally crushed the Sikhs in the battle of Gujarat (February
1849). His tactics during the Sikh wars were the subject of an embittered
controversy (see SIKH WARS). Lord Gough now returned to England, was
raised to a viscountcy, and for the third time received the thanks of
both Houses of Parliament. A pension of L2000 per annum was granted to
him by parliament, and an equal pension by the East India Company. He did
not again see active service. In 1854 he was appointed colonel of the
Royal Horse Guards, and two years later he was sent to the Crimea to
invest Marshal Pelissier and other officers with the insignia of the
Bath. Honours were multiplied upon him during his latter years. He was
made a knight of St Patrick, being the first knight of the order who did
not hold an Irish peerage, was sworn a privy councillor, was named a
G.C.S.I., and in November 1862 was made field-marshal. He was twice
married, and left children by both his wives. He died on the 2nd of March
1869.
See R. S. Rait, _Lord Gough_ (1903); and Sir W. Lee Warner, _Lord
Dalhousie_ (1904).
GOUGH, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW (1817-1886), American temperance orator, was
born at Sandgate, Kent, England, on the 22nd of August 1817. He was
educated by his mother, a schoolmistress, and at the age of twelve was
sent to the United States to seek his fortune. He lived for two years
with family friends on a farm in western New York, and then entered a
book-bindery in New York City to learn the trade. There in 1833 his
mother joined him, but after her death in 1835 he fell in with dissolute
companions, and became a confirmed drunkard. He lost his position, and
for several years supported himself as a ballad singer and story-teller
in the cheap theatres and concert-halls of New York and other eastern
cities. Even this means of livelihood was being closed to him, when in
Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1842 he was induced to sign a temperance
pledge. After several lapses and a terrific struggle, he determined to
devote his life to lecturing in behalf of temperance reform. Gifted with
remarkable powers of pathos and of description, he was successful from
the start, and was soon known and sought after throughout the entire
country, his appeals, which were directly personal and emotional, being
attended with extraordinary responses. He continued his work until the
end of his life, made several tours of England, where his American
success was repeated, and died at his work, being stricken with apoplexy
on the lecture platform at Frankford, Pennsylvania, where he passed away
two days later, on the 18th of February 1886. He published an
_Autobiography_ (1846); _Orations_ (1854); _Temperance Addresses_
(1870); _Temperance Lectures_ (1879); and _Sunlight and Shadow, or
Gleanings from My Life Work_ (1880).
GOUGH, RICHARD (1735-1809), English antiquary, was born in London on the
21st of October 1735. His father was a wealthy M.P. and director of the
East India Company. Gough was a precocious child, and at twelve had
translated from the French a history of the Bible, which his mother
printed for private circulation. When fifteen he translated Abbe
Fleury's work on the Israelites; and at sixteen he published an
elaborate work entitled _Atlas Renovatus, or Geography modernized_. In
1752 he entered Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where he began his
work on British topography, published in 1768. Leaving Cambridge in
1756, he began a series of antiquarian excursions in various parts of
Great Britain. In 1773 he began an edition in English of Camden's
_Britannia_, which appeared in 1789. Meantime he published, in 1786,
the first volume of his splendid work, the _Sepulchral Monuments of
Great Britain, applied to illustrate the history of families, manners,
habits, and arts at the different periods from the Norman Conquest to
the Seventeenth Century_. This volume, which contained the first four
centuries, was followed in 1796 by a second volume containing the 15th
century, and an introduction to the second volume appeared in 1799.
Gough was chosen a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London in
1767, and from 1771 to 1791 he was its director. He was elected F.R.S.
in 1775. He died at Enfield on the 20th of February 1809. His books and
manuscripts relating to Anglo-Saxon and northern literature, all his
collections in the department of British topography, and a large number
of his drawings and engravings of other archaeological remains, were
bequeathed to the university of Oxford.
Among the minor works of Gough are _An Account of the Bedford Missal_
(in MS.); _A Catalogue of the Coins of Canute, King of Denmark_
(1777); _History of Pleshy in Essex_ (1803); _An Account of the Coins
of the Seleucidae, Kings of Syria_ (1804); and "History of the Society
of Antiquaries of London," prefixed to their _Archaeologia_.
GOUJET, CLAUDE PIERRE (1697-1767), French abbe and litterateur, was born
in Paris on the 19th of October 1697. He studied at the College of the
Jesuits, and at the College Mazarin, but he nevertheless became a strong
Jansenist. In 1705 he assumed the ecclesiastical habit, in 1719 entered
the order of Oratorians, and soon afterwards was named canon of St
Jacques l'Hopital. On account of his extreme Jansenist opinions he
suffered considerable persecution from the Jesuits, and several of his
works were suppressed at their instigation. In his latter years his
health began to fail, and he lost his eyesight. Poverty compelled him to
sell his library, a sacrifice which hastened his death, which took place
at Paris on the 1st of February 1767.
He is the author of _Supplement au dictionnaire de Moreri_ (1735), and
a _Nouveau Supplement_ to a subsequent edition of the work; he
collaborated in _Bibliotheque francaise, ou histoire litteraire de la
France_ (18 vols., Paris, 1740-1759); and in the _Vies des saints_ (7
vols., 1730); he also wrote _Memoires historiques et litteraires sur
le college royal de France_ (1758); _Histoire des Inquisitions_
(Paris, 1752); and supervised an edition of Richelet's _Dictionnaire_,
of which he has also given an abridgment. He helped the abbe Fabre in
his continuation of Fleury's _Histoire ecclesiastique_.
See _Memoires hist. et litt. de l'abbe Goujet_ (1767).
GOUJON, JEAN (c. 1520-c. 1566), French sculptor of the 16th century.
Although some evidence has been offered in favour of the date 1520
(_Archives de l'art francais_, iii. 350), the time and place of his
birth are still uncertain. The first mention of his name occurs in the
accounts of the church of St Maclou at Rouen in the year 1540, and in
the following year he was employed at the cathedral of the same town,
where he added to the tomb of Cardinal d'Amboise a statue of his nephew
Georges, afterwards removed, and possibly carved portions of the tomb of
Louis de Breze, executed some time after 1545. On leaving Rouen, Goujon
was employed by Pierre Lescot, the celebrated architect of the Louvre,
on the restorations of St-Germain l'Auxerrois; the building
accounts--some of which for the years 1542-1544 were discovered by M. de
Laborde on a piece of parchment binding--specify as his work, not only
the carvings of the pulpit (Louvre), but also a Notre Dame de Piete, now
lost. In 1547 appeared Martin's French translation of Vitruvius, the
illustrations of which were due, the translator tells us in his
"Dedication to the King," to Goujon, "nagueres architecte de Monseigneur
le Connetable, et maintenant un des votres." We learn from this
statement not only that Goujon had been taken into the royal service on
the accession of Henry II., but also that he had been previously
employed under Bullant on the chateau of Ecouen. Between 1547 and 1549
he was employed in the decoration of the Loggia ordered from Lescot for
the entry of Henry II. into Paris, which took place on the 16th of June
1549. Lescot's edifice was reconstructed at the end of the 18th century
by Bernard Poyet into the Fontaine des Innocents, this being a
considerable variation of the original design. At the Louvre, Goujon,
under the direction of Lescot, executed the carvings of the south-west
angle of the court, the reliefs of the Escalier Henri II., and the
Tribune des Cariatides, for which he received 737 livres on the 5th of
September 1550. Between 1548 and 1554 rose the chateau d'Anet, in the
embellishment of which Goujon was associated with Philibert Delorme in
the service of Diana of Poitiers. Unfortunately the building accounts of
Anet have disappeared, but Goujon executed a vast number of other works
of equal importance, destroyed or lost in the great Revolution. In 1555
his name appears again in the Louvre accounts, and continues to do so
every succeeding year up to 1562, when all trace of him is lost. In the
course of this year an attempt was made to turn out of the royal
employment all those who were suspected of Huguenot tendencies. Goujon
has always been claimed as a Reformer; it is consequently possible that
he was one of the victims of this attack. We should therefore probably
ascribe the work attributed to him in the Hotel Carnavalet (_in situ_),
together with much else executed in various parts of Paris--but now
dispersed or destroyed--to a period intervening between the date of his
dismissal from the Louvre and his death, which is computed to have taken
place between 1564 and 1568, probably at Bologna. The researches of M.
Tomaso Sandonnini (see _Gazette des Beaux Arts_, 2^e periode, vol.
xxxi.) have finally disposed of the supposition, long entertained, that
Goujon died during the St Bartholomew massacre in 1572.
_List of authentic works of Jean Goujon_: Two marble columns supporting
the organ of the church of St Maclou (Rouen) on right and left of porch
on entering; left-hand gate of the church of St Maclou; bas-reliefs for
decoration of screen of St Germain l'Auxerrois (now in Louvre);
"Victory" over chimney-piece of Salle des Gardes at Ecouen; altar at
Chantilly; illustrations for Jean Martin's translation of Vitruvius;
bas-reliefs and sculptural decoration of Fontaine des Innocents;
bas-reliefs adorning entrance of Hotel Carnavalet, also series of
satyrs' heads on keystones of arcade of courtyard; fountain of Diana
from Anet (now in Louvre); internal decoration of chapel at Anet;
portico of Anet (now in courtyard of Ecole des Beaux Arts); bust of
Diane de Poictiers (now at Versailles); Tribune of Caryatides in the
Louvre; decoration of "Escalier Henri II.," Louvre; oeils de boeuf and
decoration of Henri II. facade, Louvre; groups for pediments of facade
now placed over entrance to Egyptian and Assyrian collections, Louvre.
See A. A. Pottier, _Oeuvres de Goujon_ (1844); Reginald Lister, _Jean
Goujon_ (London, 1903).
GOUJON, JEAN MARIE CLAUDE ALEXANDRE (1766-1795), French publicist and
statesman, was born at Bourg on the 13th of April 1766, the son of a
postmaster. The boy went early to sea, and saw fighting when he was
twelve years old; in 1790 he settled at Meudon, and began to make good
his lack of education. As procureur-general-syndic of the department of
Seine-et-Oise, in August, 1792, he had to supply the inhabitants with
food, and fulfilled his difficult functions with energy and tact. In the
Convention, which he entered on the death of Herault de Sechelles, he
took his seat on the benches of the Mountain. He conducted a mission to
the armies of the Rhine and the Moselle with creditable moderation, and
was a consistent advocate of peace within the republic. Nevertheless, he
was a determined opponent of the counter-revolution, which he denounced
in the Jacobin Club and from the Mountain after his recall to Paris,
following on the revolution of the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794). He was
one of those who protested against the readmission of Louvet and other
survivors of the Girondin party to the Convention in March 1795; and,
when the populace invaded the legislature on the 1st Prairial (May 20,
1795) and compelled the deputies to legislate in accordance with their
desires, he proposed the immediate establishment of a special commission
which should assure the execution of the proposed changes and assume the
functions of the various committees. The failure of the insurrection
involved the fall of those deputies who had supported the demands of the
populace. Before the close of the sitting, Goujon, with Romme, Duroi,
Duquesnoy, Bourbotte, Soubrany and others were put under arrest by their
colleagues, and on their way to the chateau of Taureau in Brittany had
a narrow escape from a mob at Avranches. They were brought back to Paris
for trial before a military commission on the 17th of June, and, though
no proof of their complicity in organizing the insurrection could be
found--they were, in fact, with the exception of Goujon and Bourbotte,
strangers to one another--they were condemned. In accordance with a
pre-arranged plan, they attempted suicide on the staircase leading from
the court-room with a knife which Goujon had successfully concealed.
Romme, Goujon and Duquesnoy succeeded, but the other three merely
inflicted wounds which did not prevent their being taken immediately to
the guillotine. With their deaths the Mountain ceased to exist as a
party.
See J. Claretie, _Les Derniers Montagnards, histoire de l'insurrection
de Prairial an III d'apres les documents_ (1867); _Defense du
representant du peuple Goujon_ (Paris, no date), with the letters and
a hymn written by Goujon during his imprisonment. For other documents
see Maurice Tourneux (Paris, 1890, vol. i., pp. 422-425).
GOULBURN, EDWARD MEYRICK (1818-1897), English churchman, son of Mr
Serjeant Goulburn, M.P., recorder of Leicester, and nephew of the Right
Hon. Henry Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer in the ministries of
Sir Robert Peel and the duke of Wellington, was born in London on the
11th of February 1818, and was educated at Eton and at Balliol College,
Oxford. In 1839 he became fellow and tutor of Merton, and in 1841 and
1843 was ordained deacon and priest respectively. For some years he held
the living of Holywell, Oxford, and was chaplain to Samuel Wilberforce,
bishop of the diocese. In 1849 he succeeded Tait as headmaster of Rugby,
but in 1857 he resigned, and accepted the charge of Quebec Chapel,
Marylebone. In 1858 he became a prebendary of St Paul's, and in 1859
vicar of St John's, Paddington. In 1866 he was made dean of Norwich, and
in that office exercised a long and marked influence on church life. A
strong Conservative and a churchman of traditional orthodoxy, he was a
keen antagonist of "higher criticism" and of all forms of rationalism.
His _Thoughts on Personal Religion_ (1862) and _The Pursuit of Holiness_
were well received; and he wrote the _Life_ (1892) of his friend Dean
Burgon, with whose doctrinal views he was substantially in agreement. He
resigned the deanery in 1889, and died at Tunbridge Wells on the 3rd of
May 1897.
See _Life_ by B. Compton (1899).
GOULBURN, HENRY (1784-1856), English statesman, was born in London on
the 19th of March 1784 and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge.
In 1808 he became member of parliament for Horsham; in 1810 he was
appointed under-secretary for home affairs and two and a half years
later he was made under-secretary for war and the colonies. Still
retaining office in the Tory government he became a privy councillor in
1821, and just afterwards was appointed chief secretary to the
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, a position which he held until April 1827.
Here although frequently denounced as an Orangeman, his period of office
was on the whole a successful one, and in 1823 he managed to pass the
Irish Tithe Composition Bill. In January 1828 he was made chancellor of
the exchequer under the duke of Wellington; like his leader he disliked
Roman Catholic emancipation, which he voted against in 1828. In the
domain of finance Goulburn's chief achievements were to reduce the rate
of interest on part of the national debt, and to allow any one to sell
beer upon payment of a small annual fee, a complete change of policy
with regard to the drink traffic. Leaving office with Wellington in
November 1830, Goulburn was home secretary under Sir Robert Peel for
four months in 1835, and when this statesman returned to office in
September 1841 he became chancellor of the exchequer for the second
time. Although Peel himself did some of the chancellor's work, Goulburn
was responsible for a further reduction in the rate of interest on the
national debt, and he aided his chief in the struggle which ended in the
repeal of the corn laws. With his colleagues he left office in June
1846. After representing Horsham in the House of Commons for over four
years Goulburn was successively member for St Germans, for West Looe,
and for the city of Armagh. In May 1831 he was elected for Cambridge
University, and he retained this seat until his death on the 12th of
January 1856 at Betchworth House, Dorking. Goulburn was one of Peel's
firmest supporters and most intimate friends. His eldest son, Henry
(1813-1843), was senior classic and second wrangler at Cambridge in
1835.
See S. Walpole, _History of England_ (1878-1886).
GOULBURN, a city of Argyle county, New South Wales, Australia, 134 m.
S.W. of Sydney by the Great Southern railway. Pop. (1901) 10,618. It
lies in a productive agricultural district, at an altitude of 2129 ft.,
and is a place of great importance, being the chief depot of the inland
trade of the southern part of the state. There are Anglican and Roman
Catholic cathedrals. Manufactures of boots and shoes, flour and beer,
and tanning are important. The municipality was created in 1859; and
Goulburn became a city in 1864.
GOULD, AUGUSTUS ADDISON (1805-1866), American conchologist, was born at
New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the 23rd of April 1805, graduated at
Harvard College in 1825, and took his degree of doctor of medicine in
1830. Thrown from boyhood on his own exertions, it was only by industry,
perseverance and self-denial that he obtained the means to pursue his
studies. Establishing himself in Boston, he devoted himself to the
practice of medicine, and finally rose to high professional rank and
social position. He became president of the Massachusetts Medical
Society, and was employed in editing the vital statistics of the state.
As a conchologist his reputation is world-wide, and he was one of the
pioneers of the science in America. His writings fill many pages of the
publications of the Boston Society of Natural History (see vol. xi. p.
197 for a list) and other periodicals. He published with L. Agassiz the
_Principles of Zoology_ (2nd ed. 1851); he edited the _Terrestrial and
Air-breathing Mollusks_ (1851-1855) of Amos Binney (1803-1847); he
translated Lamarck's _Genera of Shells_. The two most important
monuments to his scientific work, however, are _Mollusca and Shells_
(vol. xii., 1852) of the United States exploring expedition (1838-1842)
under Lieutenant Charles Wilkes (1833), published by the government, and
the _Report on the Invertebrata_ published by order of the legislature
of Massachusetts in 1841. A second edition of the latter work was
authorized in 1865, and published in 1870 after the author's death,
which took place at Boston on the 15th of September 1866. Gould was a
corresponding member of all the prominent American scientific societies,
and of many of those of Europe, including the London Royal Society.
GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP (1824-1896), American astronomer, a son of
Benjamin Apthorp Gould (1787-1859), principal of the Boston Latin
school, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the 27th of September
1824. Having graduated at Harvard College in 1844, he studied
mathematics and astronomy under C. F. Gauss at Gottingen, and returned
to America in 1848. From 1852 to 1867 he was in charge of the longitude
department of the United States coast survey; he developed and organized
the service, was one of the first to determine longitudes by telegraphic
means, and employed the Atlantic cable in 1866 to establish
longitude-relations between Europe and America. The _Astronomical
Journal_ was founded by Gould in 1849; and its publication, suspended in
1861, was resumed by him in 1885. From 1855 to 1859 he acted as director
of the Dudley observatory at Albany, New York; and published in 1859 a
discussion of the places and proper motions of circumpolar stars to be
used as standards by the United States coast survey. Appointed in 1862
actuary to the United States sanitary commission, he issued in 1869 an
important volume of _Military and Anthropological Statistics_. He fitted
up in 1864 a private observatory at Cambridge, Mass.; but undertook in
1868, on behalf of the Argentine republic, to organize a national
observatory at Cordoba; began to observe there with four assistants in
1870, and completed in 1874 his _Uranometria Argentina_ (published 1879)
for which he received in 1883 the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical
Society. This was followed by a zone-catalogue of 73,160 stars (1884),
and a general catalogue (1885) compiled from meridian observations of
32,448 stars. Gould's measurements of L. M. Rutherfurd's photographs of
the Pleiades in 1866 entitle him to rank as a pioneer in the use of the
camera as an instrument of precision; and he secured at Cordoba 1400
negatives of southern star-clusters, the reduction of which occupied the
closing years of his life. He returned in 1885 to his home at Cambridge,
where he died on the 26th of November 1896.
See _Astronomical Journal_, No. 389; _Observatory_, xx. 70 (same
notice abridged); _Science_ (Dec. 18, 1896, S. C. Chandler);
_Astrophysical Journal_, v. 50; _Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society_,
lvii. 218.
GOULD, SIR FRANCIS CARRUTHERS (1844- ), English caricaturist and
politician, was born in Barnstaple on the 2nd of December 1844. Although
in early youth he showed great love of drawing, he began life in a bank
and then joined the London Stock Exchange, where he constantly sketched
the members and illustrated important events in the financial world;
many of these drawings were reproduced by lithography and published for
private circulation. In 1879 he began the regular illustration of the
Christmas numbers of _Truth_, and in 1887 he became a contributor to the
_Pall Mall Gazette_, transferring his allegiance to the _Westminster
Gazette_ on its foundation and subsequently acting as assistant editor.
Among his independent publications are _Who killed Cock Robin?_ (1897),
_Tales told in the Zoo_ (1900), two volumes of _Froissart's Modern
Chronicles, told and pictured by F. C. Gould_ (1902 and 1903), and
_Picture Politics_--a periodical reprint of his _Westminster Gazette_
cartoons, one of the most noteworthy implements of political warfare in
the armoury of the Liberal party. Frequently grafting his ideas on to
subjects taken freely from _Uncle Remus_, _Alice in Wonderland_, and the
works of Dickens and Shakespeare, Sir F. C. Gould used these literary
vehicles with extraordinary dexterity and point, but with a satire that
was not unkind and with a vigour from which bitterness, virulence and
cynicism were notably absent. He was knighted in 1906.