[1] In 1905 the Rev. Geo. Grenfell reported that he had that summer
shot a gorilla in the Bwela country, east of the Mongala affluent of
the Congo.
GORINCHEM, or GORCUM, a fortified town of Holland in the province of
south Holland, on the right bank of the Merwede at the confluence of the
Linge, 16 m. by rail W. of Dordrecht. It is connected by the Zederik and
Merwede canals with Amsterdam, and steamers ply hence in every
direction. Pop. (1900) 11,987. Gorinchem possesses several interesting
old houses, and overlooking the river are some fortified gateways of the
17th century. The principal buildings are the old church of St Vincent,
containing the monuments of the lords of Arkel; the town hall, a prison,
custom-house, barracks and a military hospital. The charitable and
benevolent institutions are numerous, and there are also a library and
several learned associations. Gorinchem possesses a good harbour, and
besides working in gold and silver, carries on a considerable trade in
grain, hemp, cheese, potatoes, cattle and fish, the salmon fishery being
noted. Woerkum, or Woudrichem, a little below the town on the left bank
of the Merwede, is famous for its quaint old buildings, which are
decorated with mosaics.
GORING, GEORGE GORING, LORD (1608-1657), English Royalist soldier, son
of George Goring, earl of Norwich, was born on the 14th of July 1608. He
soon became famous at court for his prodigality and dissolute manners.
His father-in-law, Richard Boyle, earl of Cork, procured for him a post
in the Dutch army with the rank of colonel. He was permanently lamed by
a wound received at Breda in 1637, and returned to England early in
1639, when he was made governor of Portsmouth. He served in the Scottish
war, and already had a considerable reputation when he was concerned in
the "Army Plot." Officers of the army stationed at York proposed to
petition the king and parliament for the maintenance of the royal
authority. A second party was in favour of more violent measures, and
Goring, in the hope of being appointed lieutenant-general, proposed to
march the army on London and overawe the parliament during Strafford's
trial. This proposition being rejected by his fellow officers, he
betrayed the proceedings to Mountjoy Blount, earl of Newport, who passed
on the information indirectly to Pym in April. Colonel Goring was
thereupon called on to give evidence before the Commons, who commended
him for his services to the Commonwealth. This betrayal of his comrades
induced confidence in the minds of the parliamentary leaders, who sent
him back to his Portsmouth command. Nevertheless he declared for the
king in August. He surrendered Portsmouth to the parliament in September
1642 and went to Holland to recruit for the Royalist army, returning to
England in December. Appointed to a cavalry command by the earl of
Newcastle, he defeated Fairfax at Seacroft Moor near Leeds in March
1643, but in May he was taken prisoner at Wakefield on the capture of
the town by Fairfax. In April 1644 he effected an exchange. At Marston
Moor he commanded the Royalist left, and charged with great success,
but, allowing his troopers to disperse in search of plunder, was routed
by Cromwell at the close of the battle. In November 1644, on his
father's elevation to the earldom of Norwich, he became Lord Goring. The
parliamentary authorities, however, refused to recognize the creation of
the earldom, and continued to speak of the father as Lord Goring and the
son as General Goring. In August he had been dispatched by Prince
Rupert, who recognized his ability, to join Charles in the south, and in
spite of his dissolute and insubordinate character he was appointed to
supersede Henry, Lord Wilmot, as lieut.-general of the Royalist horse
(see GREAT REBELLION). He secured some successes in the west, and in
January 1645 advanced through Hampshire and occupied Farnham; but want
of money compelled him to retreat to Salisbury and thence to Exeter. The
excesses committed by his troops seriously injured the Royalist cause,
and his exactions made his name hated throughout the west. He had
himself prepared to besiege Taunton in March, yet when in the next month
he was desired by Prince Charles, who was at Bristol, to send
reinforcements to Sir Richard Grenville for the siege of Taunton, he
obeyed the order only with ill-humour. Later in the month he was
summoned with his troops to the relief of the king at Oxford. Lord
Goring had long been intriguing for an independent command, and he now
secured from the king what was practically supreme authority in the
west. It was alleged by the earl of Newport that he was willing to
transfer his allegiance once more to the parliament. It is not likely
that he meditated open treason, but he was culpably negligent and
occupied with private ambitions and jealousies. He was still engaged in
desultory operations against Taunton when the main campaign of 1645
opened. For the part taken by Goring's army in the operations of the
Naseby campaign see GREAT REBELLION. After the decisive defeat of the
king, the army of Fairfax marched into the west and defeated Goring in a
disastrous fight at Langport on the 10th of July. He made no further
serious resistance to the parliamentary general, but wasted his time in
frivolous amusements, and in November he obtained leave to quit his
disorganized forces and retire to France on the ground of health. His
father's services secured him the command of some English regiments in
the Spanish service. He died at Madrid in July or August 1657. Clarendon
gives him a very unpleasing character, declaring that "Goring ... would,
without hesitation, have broken any trust, or done any act of treachery
to have satisfied an ordinary passion or appetite; and in truth wanted
nothing but industry (for he had wit, and courage, and understanding and
ambition, uncontrolled by any fear of God or man) to have been as
eminent and successful in the highest attempt of wickedness as any man
in the age he lived in or before. Of all his qualifications
dissimulation was his masterpiece; in which he so much excelled, that
men were not ordinarily ashamed, or out of countenance, with being
deceived but twice by him."
See the life by C. H. Firth in the _Dictionary of National Biography_;
Dugdale's _Baronage_, where there are some doubtful stories of his
life in Spain; the _Clarendon State Papers_; Clarendon's _History of
the Great Rebellion_; and S. R. Gardiner's _History of the Great Civil
War_.
GORKI, MAXIM (1868- ), the pen-name of the Russian novelist Alexei
Maximovich Pyeshkov, who was born at Nizhni-Novgorod on the 26th of
March 1868. His father was a dyer, but he lost both his parents in
childhood, and in his ninth year was sent to assist in a boot-shop. We
find him afterwards in a variety of callings, but devouring books of all
sorts greedily, whenever they fell into his hands. He ran away from the
boot-shop and went to help a land-surveyor. He was then a cook on board
a steamer and afterwards a gardener. In his fifteenth year he tried to
enter a school at Kazan, but was obliged to betake himself again to his
drudgery. He became a baker, than hawked about _kvas_, and helped the
barefooted tramps and labourers at the docks. From these he drew some of
his most striking pictures, and learned to give sketches of humble life
generally with the fidelity of a Defoe. After a long course of drudgery
he had the good fortune to obtain the place of secretary to a barrister
at Nizhni-Novgorod. This was the turning-point of his fortunes, as he
found a sympathetic master who helped him. He also became acquainted
with the novelist Korolenko, who assisted him in his literary efforts.
His first story was _Makar Chudra_, which was published in the journal
_Kavkaz_. He contributed to many periodicals and finally attracted
attention by his tale called _Chelkash_, which appeared in _Russkoe
Bogatsvo_ ("Russian wealth"). This was followed by a series of tales in
which he drew with extraordinary vigour the life of the _bosniaki_, or
tramps. He has sometimes described other classes of society, tradesmen
and the educated classes, but not with equal success. There are some
vigorous pictures, however, of the trading class in his _Foma Gordeyev_.
But his favourite type is the rebel, the man in revolt against society,
and him he describes from personal knowledge, and enlists our sympathies
with him. We get such a type completely in _Konovalov_. Gorki is always
preaching that we must have ideals--something better than everyday life,
and this view is brought out in his play _At the Lowest Depths_, which
had great success at Moscow, but was coldly received at St Petersburg.
For a good criticism of Gorki see _Ideas and Realities in Russian
Literature_, by Prince Kropotkin. Many of his works have been
translated into English.
GORLITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the
left bank of the Neisse, 62 m. E. from Dresden on the railway to
Breslau, and at the junction of lines to Berlin, Zittau and Halle. Pop.
(1885) 55,702, (1905) 80,931. The Neisse at this point is crossed by a
railway bridge 1650 ft. long and 120 ft. high, with 32 arches. Gorlitz
is one of the handsomest, and, owing to the extensive forests of 70,000
acres, which are the property of the municipality, one of the wealthiest
towns in Germany. It is surrounded by beautiful walks and fine gardens,
and although its old walls and towers have now been demolished, many of
its ancient buildings remain to form a picturesque contrast with the
signs of modern industry. From the hill called Landskrone, about 1500
ft. high, an extensive prospect is obtained of the surrounding country.
The principal buildings are the fine Gothic church of St Peter and St
Paul, dating from the 15th century, with two stately towers, a famous
organ and a very heavy bell; the Frauen Kirche, erected about the end of
the 15th century, and possessing a fine portal and choir in pierced
work; the Kloster Kirche, restored in 1868, with handsome choir stalls
and a carved altar dating from 1383; and the Roman Catholic church,
founded in 1853, in the Roman style of architecture, with beautiful
glass windows and oil-paintings. The old town hall (Rathaus) contains a
very valuable library, having at its entrance a fine flight of steps.
There is also a new town hall which was erected in 1904-1906. Other
buildings are: the old bastion, named Kaisertrutz, now used as a
guardhouse and armoury; the gymnasium buildings in the Gothic style
erected in 1851; the Ruhmeshalle with the Kaiser Friedrich museum, the
house of the estates of the province (Standehaus), two theatres and the
barracks. Near the town is the chapel of the Holy Cross, where there is
a model of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem made during the 15th century.
In the public park there is a bust of Schiller, a monument to Alexander
von Humboldt, and a statue of the mystic Jakob Bohme (1575-1624); a
monument has been erected in the town in commemoration of the war of
1870-71, and also one to the emperor William I. and a statue of Prince
Frederick Charles. In connexion with the natural history society there
is a valuable museum, and the scientific institute possesses a large
library and a rich collection of antiquities, coins and articles of
_virtu_. Gorlitz, next to Breslau, is the largest and most flourishing
commercial town of Silesia, and is also regarded as classic ground for
the study of German Renaissance architecture. Besides cloth, which forms
its staple article of commerce, it has manufactories of various linen
and woollen wares, machines, railway wagons, glass, sago, tobacco,
leather, chemicals and tiles.
Gorlitz existed as a village from a very early period, and at the
beginning of the 12th century received civic rights. It was then known
as Drebenau, but on being rebuilt after its destruction by fire in 1131
it received the name of Zgorzelice. About the end of the 12th century it
was strongly fortified, and for a short time it was the capital of a
duchy of Gorlitz. It was several times besieged and taken during the
Thirty Years' War, and it also suffered considerably in the Seven Years'
War. In the battle which took place near it between the Austrians and
Prussians on the 7th of September 1757, Hans Karl von Winterfeldt, the
general of Frederick the Great, was slain. In 1815 the town, with the
greater part of Upper Lusatia, came into the possession of Prussia.
See Neumann, _Geschichte von Gorlitz_ (1850).
GORRES, JOHANN JOSEPH VON (1776-1848), German writer, was born on the
25th of January 1776, at Coblenz. His father was a man of moderate
means, who sent his son to a Latin college under the direction of the
Roman Catholic clergy. The sympathies of the young Gorres were from the
first strongly with the French Revolution, and the dissoluteness and
irreligion of the French exiles in the Rhineland confirmed him in his
hatred of princes. He harangued the revolutionary clubs, and insisted on
the unity of interests which should ally all civilized states to one
another. He then commenced a republican journal called _Das rote Blatt_,
and afterwards _Rubezahl_, in which he strongly condemned the
administration of the Rhenish provinces by France.
After the peace of Campo Formio (1797) there was some hope that the
Rhenish provinces would be constituted into an independent republic. In
1799 the provinces sent an embassy, of which Gorres was a member, to
Paris to put their case before the directory. The embassy reached Paris
on the 20th of November 1799; two days before this Napoleon had assumed
the supreme direction of affairs. After much delay the embassy was
received by him; but the only answer they obtained was "that they might
rely on perfect justice, and that the French government would never lose
sight of their wants." Gorres on his return published a tract called
_Resultate meiner Sendung nach Paris_, in which he reviewed the history
of the French Revolution. During the thirteen years of Napoleon's
dominion Gorres lived a retired life, devoting himself chiefly to art or
science. In 1801 he married Catherine de Lasaulx, and was for some years
teacher at a secondary school in Coblenz; in 1806 he moved to
Heidelberg, where he lectured at the university. As a leading member of
the Heidelberg Romantic group, he edited together with K. Brentano and
L. von Arnim the famous _Zeitung fur Einsiedler_ (subsequently re-named
_Trost-Einsamkeit_), and in 1807 he published _Die teutschen
Volksbucher_. He returned to Coblenz in 1808, and again found occupation
as a teacher in a secondary school, supported by civic funds. He now
studied Persian, and in two years published a _Mythengeschichte der
asiatischen Welt_, which was followed ten years later by _Das
Heldenbuch von Iran_, a translation of part of the _Shahnama_, the epic
of Firdousi. In 1813 he actively took up the cause of national
independence, and in the following year founded _Der rheinische Merkur_.
The intense earnestness of the paper, the bold outspokenness of its
hostility to Napoleon, and its fiery eloquence secured for it almost
instantly a position and influence unique in the history of German
newspapers. Napoleon himself called it _la cinquieme puissance_. The
ideal it insisted on was a united Germany, with a representative
government, but under an emperor after the fashion of other days,--for
Gorres now abandoned his early advocacy of republicanism. When Napoleon
was at Elba, Gorres wrote an imaginary proclamation issued by him to the
people, the intense irony of which was so well veiled that many
Frenchmen mistook it for an original utterance of the emperor. He
inveighed bitterly against the second peace of Paris (1815), declaring
that Alsace and Lorraine should have been demanded back from France.
Stein was glad enough to use the _Merkur_ at the time of the meeting of
the congress of Vienna as a vehicle for giving expression to his hopes.
But Hardenberg, in May 1815, warned Gorres to remember that he was not
to arouse hostility against France, but only against Bonaparte. There
was also in the _Merkur_ an antipathy to Prussia, a continual expression
of the desire that an Austrian prince should assume the imperial title,
and also a tendency to pronounced liberalism--all of which made it most
distasteful to Hardenberg, and to his master King Frederick William III.
Gorres disregarded warnings sent to him by the censorship and continued
the paper in all its fierceness. Accordingly it was suppressed early in
1816, at the instance of the Prussian government; and soon after Gorres
was dismissed from his post as teacher at Coblenz. From this time his
writings were his sole means of support, and he became a most diligent
political pamphleteer. In the wild excitement which followed Kotzebue's
assassination, the reactionary decrees of Carlsbad were framed, and
these were the subject of Gorres's celebrated pamphlet _Teutschland und
die Revolution_ (1820). In this work he reviewed the circumstances which
had led to the murder of Kotzebue, and, while expressing all possible
horror at the deed itself, he urged that it was impossible and
undesirable to repress the free utterance of public opinion by
reactionary measures. The success of the work was very marked, despite
its ponderous style. It was suppressed by the Prussian government, and
orders were issued for the arrest of Gorres and the seizure of his
papers. He escaped to Strassburg, and thence went to Switzerland. Two
more political tracts, _Europa und die Revolution_ (1821) and _In Sachen
der Rheinprovinzen und in eigener Angelegenheit_ (1822), also deserve
mention.
In Gorres's pamphlet _Die heilige Allianz und die Volker auf dem
Kongress zu Verona_ he asserted that the princes had met together to
crush the liberties of the people, and that the people must look
elsewhere for help. The "elsewhere" was to Rome; and from this time
Gorres became a vehement Ultramontane writer. He was summoned to Munich
by King Ludwig of Bavaria as Professor of History in the university, and
there his writing enjoyed very great popularity. His _Christliche
Mystik_ (1836-1842) gave a series of biographies of the saints, together
with an exposition of Roman Catholic mysticism. But his most celebrated
ultramontane work was a polemical one. Its occasion was the deposition
and imprisonment by the Prussian government of the archbishop Clement
Wenceslaus, in consequence of the refusal of that prelate to sanction in
certain instances the marriages of Protestants and Roman Catholics.
Gorres in his _Athanasius_ (1837) fiercely upheld the power of the
church, although the liberals of later date who have claimed Gorres as
one of their own school deny that he ever insisted on the absolute
supremacy of Rome. _Athanasius_ went through several editions, and
originated a long and bitter controversy. In the _Historisch-politische
Blatter_, a Munich journal, Gorres and his son Guido (1805-1852)
continually upheld the claims of the church. Gorres received from the
king the order of merit for his services. He died on the 29th of January
1848.
Gorres's _Gesammelte Schriften_ (only his political writings) appeared
in six volumes (1854-1860), to which three volumes of _Gesammelte
Briefe_ were subsequently added (1858-1874). Cp. J. Galland, _Joseph
von Gorres_ (1876, 2nd ed. 1877); J. N. Sepp, _Gorres und seine
Zeitgenossen_ (1877), and by the same author, _Gorres_, in the series
_Geisteshelden_ (1896). A _Gorres-Gesellschaft_ was founded in 1876.
GORSAS, ANTOINE JOSEPH (1752-1793), French publicist and politician, was
born at Limoges (Haute-Vienne) on the 24th of March 1752, the son of a
shoemaker. He established himself as a private tutor in Paris, and
presently set up a school for the army at Versailles, which was attended
by commoners as well as nobles. In 1781 he was imprisoned for a short
time in the Bicetre on an accusation of corrupting the morals of his
pupils, his real offence being the writing of satirical verse. These
circumstances explain the violence of his anti-monarchical sentiment. At
the opening of the states-general he began to publish the _Courrier de
Versailles a Paris et de Paris a Versailles_, in which appeared on the
4th of October 1789 the account of the banquet of the royal bodyguard.
Gorsas is said to have himself read it in public at the Palais Royal,
and to have headed one of the columns that marched on Versailles. He
then changed the name of his paper to the _Courrier des
quatre-vingt-trois departements_, continuing his incendiary propaganda,
which had no small share in provoking the popular insurrections of June
and August 1792. During the September massacres he wrote in his paper
that the prisons were the centre of an anti-national conspiracy and that
the people exercised a just vengeance on the guilty. On the 10th of
September 1792 he was elected to the Convention for the department of
Seine-et-Oise, and on the 10th of January 1793 was elected one of its
secretaries. He sat at first with the Mountain, but having been long
associated with Roland and Brissot, his agreement with the Girondists
became gradually more pronounced; during the trial of Louis XVI. he
dissociated himself more and more from the principles of the Mountain,
and he voted for the king's detention during the war and subsequent
banishment. A violent attack on Marat in the _Courrier_ led to an armed
raid on his printing establishment on the 9th of March 1793. The place
was sacked, but Gorsas escaped the popular fury by flight. The facts
being reported to the Convention, little sympathy was shown to Gorsas,
and a resolution (which was evaded) was passed forbidding
representatives to occupy themselves with journalism. On the 2nd of June
he was ordered by the Convention to hold himself under arrest with other
members of his party. He escaped to Normandy to join Buzot, and after
the defeat of the Girondists at Pacy-sur-Eure he found shelter in
Brittany. He was imprudent enough to return to Paris in the autumn,
where he was arrested on the 6th of October and guillotined the next
day.
See the _Moniteur_, No. 268 (1792), Nos. 20, 70 new series 18 (1793);
M. Tourneux, _Bibl. de l'hist. de Paris_, 10,291 seq. (1894).
GORST, SIR JOHN ELDON (1835- ). English statesman, was born at Preston
in 1835, the son of Edward Chaddock Gorst, who took the name of Lowndes
on succeeding to the family estate in 1853. He graduated third wrangler
from St John's College, Cambridge, in 1857, and was admitted to a
fellowship. After beginning to read for the bar in London, his father's
illness and death led to his sailing to New Zealand, where he married in
1860 Mary Elizabeth Moore. The Maoris had at that time set up a king of
their own in the Waikato district and Gorst, who had made friends with
the chief Tamihana (William Thomson), acted as an intermediary between
the Maoris and the government. Sir George Grey made him inspector of
schools, then resident magistrate, and eventually civil commissioner in
Upper Waikato. Tamihana's influence secured his safety in the Maori
outbreak of 1863. In 1908 he published a volume of recollections, under
the title of _New Zealand Revisited: Recollections of the Days of my
Youth_. He then returned to England and was called to the bar at the
Inner Temple in 1865, becoming Q.C. in 1875. He stood unsuccessfully for
Hastings in the Conservative interest in 1865, and next year entered
parliament as member for the borough of Cambridge, but failed to secure
re-election at the dissolution of 1868. After the Conservative defeat of
that year he was entrusted by Disraeli with the reorganization of the
party machinery, and in five years of hard work he paved the way for the
Conservative success at the general election of 1874. At a bye-election
in 1875 he re-entered parliament as member for Chatham, which he
continued to represent until 1892. He joined Sir Henry Drummond-Wolff,
Lord Randolph Churchill and Mr Arthur Balfour in the "Fourth Party," and
he became solicitor-general in the administration of 1885-1886 and was
knighted. On the formation of the second Salisbury administration (1886)
he became under-secretary for India and in 1891 financial secretary to
the Treasury. At the general election of 1892 he became member for
Cambridge University. He was deputy chairman of committees in the House
of Commons from 1888 to 1891, and on the formation of the third
Salisbury administration in 1895 he became vice-president of the
committee of the council on education (until 1902). Sir John Gorst
adhered to the principles of Tory democracy which he had advocated in
the days of the fourth party, and continued to exhibit an active
interest in the housing of the poor, the education and care of their
children, and in social questions generally, both in parliament and in
the press. But he was always exceedingly "independent" in his political
action. He objected to Mr Chamberlain's proposals for tariff reform, and
lost his seat at Cambridge at the general election of 1906 to a tariff
reformer. He then withdrew from the vice-chancellorship of the Primrose
League, of which he had been one of the founders, on the ground that it
no longer represented the policy of Lord Beaconsfield. In 1910 he
contested Preston as a Liberal, but failed to secure election.
His elder son, SIR J. ELDON GORST (b. 1861), was financial adviser to
the Egyptian government from 1898 to 1904, when he became assistant
under-secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1907 he succeeded Lord
Cromer as British agent and consul-general in Egypt.
An account of Sir John Gorst's connexion with Lord Randolph Churchill
will be found in the _Fourth Party_ (1906), by his younger son, Harold
E. Gorst.
GORTON, SAMUEL (c. 1600-1677), English sectary and founder of the
American sect of Gortonites, was born about 1600 at Gorton, Lancashire.
He was first apprenticed to a clothier in London, but, fearing
persecution for his religious convictions, he sailed for Boston,
Massachusetts, in 1636. Constantly involved in religious disputes, he
fled in turn to Plymouth, and (in 1637-1638) to Aquidneck (Newport),
where he was publicly whipped for insulting the clergy and magistrates.
In 1643 he bought land from the Narraganset Indians at Shawomet--now
Warwick--where he was joined by a number of his followers; but he
quarrelled with the Indians and the authorities at Boston sent soldiers
to arrest Gorton and six of his companions. He served a term of
imprisonment for heresy at Charlestown, after which he was ejected from
the colony. In England in 1646 he published the curious tract
"Simplicities Defence against Seven Headed Policy" (reprinted in 1835),
giving an account of his grievances against the Massachusetts
government. In 1648 he returned to New England with a letter of
protection from the earl of Warwick, and joining his former companions
at Shawomet, which he named Warwick, in honour of the earl, he remained
there till his death at the end of 1677. He is chiefly remembered as the
founder of a small sect called the Gortonites, which survived till the
end of the 18th century. They had a great contempt for the regular
clergy and for all outward forms of religion, holding that the true
believers partook of the perfection of God.
Among his quaint writings are: _An Incorruptible Key composed of the
CX. Psalms wherewith you may open the rest of the Scriptures_ (1647),
and _Saltmarsh returned from the Dead_, with its sequel, _An Antidote
against the Common Plague of the World_ (1657). See L. G. Jones,
_Samuel Gorton: a forgotten Founder of our Liberties_ (Providence,
1896).
GORTON, an urban district in the Gorton parliamentary division of
Lancashire, England, forming an eastern suburb of Manchester. Pop.
(1901) 26,564. It is largely a manufacturing district, having cotton
mills and iron, engineering and chemical works.
GORTYNA, or GORTYN, an important ancient city on the southern side of
the island of Crete. It stood on the banks of the small river Lethaeus
(Mitropolipotamo), about three hours distant from the sea, with which it
communicated by means of its two harbours, Metallum and Lebena. It had
temples of Apollo Pythius, Artemis and Zeus. Near the town was the
famous fountain of Sauros, inclosed by fruit-bearing poplars; and not
far from this was another spring, overhung by an evergreen plane tree
which in popular belief marked the scene of the amours of Zeus and
Europa. Gortyna was, next to Cnossus, the largest and most powerful city
of Crete. The two cities combined to subdue the rest of the island; but
when they had gained their object they quarrelled with each other, and
the history of both towns is from this time little more than a record of
their feuds. Neither plays a conspicuous part in the history of Greece.
Under the Romans Gortyna became the metropolis of the island. Extensive
ruins may still be seen at the modern village of Hagii Deka, and here
was discovered the great inscription containing chapters of its ancient
laws. Though partly ruinous, the church of St Titus is a very
interesting monument of early Christian architecture, dating from about
the 4th century.
See also CRETE, and for a full account of the laws see GREEK LAW.
GORTZ, GEORG HEINRICH VON, BARON VON SCHLITZ (1668-1719), Holstein
statesman, was educated at Jena. He entered the Holstein-Gottorp
service, and after the death of the duchess Hedwig Sophia, Charles
XII.'s sister, became very influential during the minority of her son
Duke Charles Frederick. His earlier policy aimed at strengthening
Holstein-Gottorp at the expense of Denmark. With this object, during
Charles XII.'s stay at Altranstadt (1706-1707), he tried to divert the
king's attention to the Holstein question, and six years later, when the
Swedish commander, Magnus Stenbock, crossed the Elbe, Gortz rendered him
as much assistance as was compatible with not openly breaking with
Denmark, even going so far as to surrender the fortress of Tonning to
the Swedes. Gortz next attempted to undermine the grand alliance against
Sweden by negotiating with Russia, Prussia and Saxony for the purpose of
isolating Denmark, or even of turning the arms of the allies against
her, a task by no means impossible in view of the strained relations
between Denmark and the tsar. The plan foundered, however, on the
refusal of Charles XII. to save the rest of his German domains by ceding
Stettin to Prussia. Another simultaneous plan of procuring the Swedish
crown for Duke Charles Frederick also came to nought. Gortz first
suggested the marriage between the duke of Holstein and the tsarevna
Anne of Russia, and negotiations were begun in St Petersburg with that
object. On the arrival of Charles XII. from Turkey at Stralsund, Gortz
was the first to visit him, and emerged from his presence chief minister
or "grand-vizier" as the Swedes preferred to call the bold and crafty
satrap, whose absolute devotion to the Swedish king took no account of
the intense wretchedness of the Swedish nation. Gortz, himself a man of
uncommon audacity, seems to have been fascinated by the heroic element
in Charles's nature and was determined, if possible, to save him from
his difficulties. He owed his extraordinary influence to the fact that
he was the only one of Charles's advisers who believed, or pretended to
believe, that Sweden was still far from exhaustion, or at any rate had a
sufficient reserve of power to give support to an energetic
diplomacy--Charles's own opinion, in fact. Gortz's position, however,
was highly peculiar. Ostensibly, he was only the Holstein minister at
Charles's court, in reality he was everything in Sweden except a Swedish
subject--finance minister, plenipotentiary to foreign powers, factotum,
and responsible to the king alone, though he had not a line of
instructions. But he was just the man for a hero in extremities, and his
whole course of procedure was, of necessity, revolutionary. His chief
financial expedient was to debase, or rather ruin, the currency by
issuing copper tokens redeemable in better times; but it was no fault of
his that Charles XII., during his absence, flung upon the market too
enormous an amount of this copper money for Gortz to deal with. By the
end of 1718 it seemed as if Gortz's system could not go on much longer,
and the hatred of the Swedes towards him was so intense and universal
that they blamed him for Charles XII.'s tyranny as well as for his own.
Gortz hoped, however, to conclude peace with at least some of Sweden's
numerous enemies before the crash came and then, by means of fresh
combinations, to restore Sweden to her rank as a great power. It must be
admitted that, in pursuance of his "system," Gortz displayed a genius
for diplomacy which would have done honour to a Metternich or a
Talleyrand. He desired peace with Russia first of all, and at the
congress of Aland even obtained relatively favourable terms, only to
have them rejected by his obstinately optimistic master. Simultaneously,
Gortz was negotiating with Cardinal Alberoni and with the whigs in
England; but all his ingenious combinations collapsed like a house of
cards on the sudden death of Charles XII. The whole fury of the Swedish
nation instantly fell upon Gortz. After a trial before a special
commission which was a parody of justice--the accused was not permitted
to have any legal assistance or the use of writing materials--he was
condemned to decapitation and promptly executed. Perhaps Gortz deserved
his fate for "unnecessarily making himself the tool of an unheard-of
despotism," but his death was certainly a judicial murder, and some
historians even regard him as a political martyr.
See R. N. Bain, _Charles XII._ (London, 1895), and _Scandinavia_,
chap. 12 (Cambridge, 1905); B. von Beskow, _Freherre Georg Heinrich
von Gortz_ (Stockholm, 1868). (R. N. B.)
GORZ (Ital. _Gorizia_; Slovene, _Gorica_), the capital of the Austrian
crownland of Gorz and Gradisca, about 390 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop
(1900) 25,432, two-thirds Italians, the remainder mostly Slovenes and
Germans. It is picturesquely situated on the left bank of the Isonzo in
a fertile valley, 35 m. N.N.W. of Trieste by rail. It is the seat of an
archbishop and possesses an interesting cathedral, built in the 14th
century and the richly decorated church of St Ignatius, built in the
17th century by the Jesuits. On an eminence, which dominates the town,
is situated the old castle, formerly the seat of the counts of Gorz, now
partly used as barracks. Owing to the mildness of its climate Gorz has
become a favourite winter-resort, and has received the name of the Nice
of Austria. Its mean annual temperature is 55 deg. F.; while the mean
winter temperature is 38.7 deg. F. It is adorned with several pretty
gardens with a luxuriant southern vegetation. On a height to the N. of
the town is situated the Franciscan convent of Castagnavizza, in whose
chapel lie the remains of Charles X. of France (d. 1836), the last
Bourbon king, of the duke of Angouleme (d. 1844), his son, and of the
duke of Chambord (d. 1883). Seven miles to the north of Gorz is the
Monte Santo (2275 ft.), a much-frequented place on which stands a
pilgrimage church. The industries include cotton and silk weaving, sugar
refining, brewing, the manufacture of leather and the making of
rosoglio. There is also a considerable trade in wooden work, vegetables,
early fruit and wine. Gorz is mentioned for the first time at the
beginning of the 11th century, and received its charter as a town in
1307. During the middle ages the greater part of its population was
German.
GORZ AND GRADISCA, a county and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by
Carniola, S. by Istria, the Triestine territory and the Adriatic, W. by
Italy and N. by Carinthia. It has an area of 1140 sq. m. The coast line,
though extending for 25 m., does not present any harbour of importance.
It is fringed by alluvial deposits and lagoons, which are for the most
part of very modern formation, for as late as the 4th or 5th centuries
Aquileia was a great seaport. The harbour of Grado is the only one
accessible to the larger kind of coasting craft. On all sides, except
towards the south-west where it unites with the Friulian lowland, it is
surrounded by mountains, and about four-sixths of its area is occupied
by mountains and hills. From the Julian Alps, which traverse the
province in the north, the country descends in successive terraces
towards the sea, and may roughly be divided into the upper highlands,
the lower highlands, the hilly district and the lowlands. The principal
peaks in the Julian Alps are the Monte Canin (8469 ft.), the Manhart
(8784 ft.), the Jalouc (8708 ft.), the Krn (7367 ft.), the Matajur (5386
ft.), and the highest peak in the whole range, the Triglav or Terglou
(9394 ft.). The Julian Alps are crossed by the Predil Pass (3811 ft.),
through which passes the principal road from Carinthia to the Coastland.
The southern part of the province belongs to the Karst region, and here
are situated the famous cascades and grottoes of Sankt Kanzian, where
the river Reka begins its subterranean course. The principal river of
the province is the Isonzo, which rises in the Triglav, and pursues a
strange zigzag course for a distance of 78 m. before it reaches the
Adriatic. At Gorz the Isonzo is still 138 ft. above the sea, and it is
navigable only in its lowest section, where it takes the name of the
Sdobba. Its principal affluents are the Idria, the Wippach and the Torre
with its tributary the Judrio, which forms for a short distance the
boundary between Austria and Italy. Of special interest not only in
itself but for the frequent allusions to it in classical literature is
the Timavus or Timavo, which appears near Duino, and after a very short
course flows into the Gulf of Trieste. In ancient times it appears,
according to the well-known description of Virgil (_Aen._ i. 244) to
have rushed from the mountain by nine separate mouths and with much
noise and commotion, but at present it usually issues from only three
mouths and flows quiet and still. It is strange enough, however, to see
the river coming out full formed from the rock, and capable at its very
source of bearing vessels on its bosom. According to a probable
hypothesis it is a continuation of the above-mentioned river Reka, which
is lost near Sankt Kanzian.
Agriculture, and specially viticulture, is the principal occupation of
the population, and the vine is here planted not only in regular
vineyards, but is introduced in long lines through the ordinary fields
and carried up the hills in terraces locally called _ronchi_. The
rearing of the silk-worm, especially in the lowlands, constitutes
another great source of revenue, and furnishes the material for the only
extensive industry of the country. The manufacture of silk is carried on
at Gorz, and in and around the village of Haidenschaft. Gorz and
Gradisca had in 1900 a population of 232,338, which is equivalent to 203
inhabitants per square mile. According to nationality about two-thirds
were Slovenes, and the remainder Italians, with only about 2200 Germans.
Almost the whole of the population (99.6%) belongs to the Roman Catholic
Church. The local diet, of which the archbishop of Gorz is a member
_ex-officio_, is composed of 22 members, and the crownland sends 5
deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes the
province is divided into 4 districts and an autonomous municipality,
Gorz (pop. 25,432), the capital. Other principal places are Cormons
(5824), Monfalcone (5536), Kirchheim (5699), Gradisca (3843) and
Aquileia (2319).
Gorz first appears distinctly in history about the close of the 10th
century, as part of a district bestowed by the emperor Otto III. on
John, patriarch of Aquileia. In the 11th century it became the seat of
the Eppenstein family, who frequently bore the title of counts of
Gorizia; and in the beginning of the 12th century the countship passed
from them to the Lurngau family which continued to exist till the year
1500, and acquired possessions in Tirol, Carinthia, Friuli and Styria.
On the death of Count Leonhard (12th April 1500) the fief reverted to
the house of Habsburg. The countship of Gradisca was united with it in
1754. The province was occupied by the French in 1809, but reverted
again to Austria in 1815. It formed a district of the administrative
province of Trieste until 1861, when it became a separate crownland
under its actual name.
GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM GOSCHEN, 1st VISCOUNT (1831-1907), British
statesman, son of William Henry Goschen, a London merchant of German
extraction, was born in London on the 10th of August 1831. He was
educated at Rugby under Dr Tait, and at Oriel College, Oxford, where he
took a first-class in classics. He entered his father's firm of Fruhling
& Goschen, of Austin Friars, in 1853, and three years later became a
director of the Bank of England. His entry into public life took place
in 1863, when he was returned without opposition as member for the city
of London in the Liberal interest, and this was followed by his
re-election, at the head of the poll, in the general election of 1865.
In November of the same year he was appointed vice-president of the
Board of Trade and paymaster-general, and in January 1866 he was made
chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet. When
Mr Gladstone became prime minister in December 1868, Mr Goschen joined
the cabinet as president of the Poor Law Board, and continued to hold
that office until March 1871, when he succeeded Mr Childers as first
lord of the admiralty. In 1874 he was elected lord rector of the
university of Aberdeen. Being sent to Cairo in 1876 as delegate for the
British holders of Egyptian bonds, in order to arrange for the
conversion of the debt, he succeeded in effecting an agreement with the
Khedive.
In 1878 his views upon the county franchise question prevented him from
voting uniformly with his party, and he informed his constituents in the
city that he would not stand again at the forthcoming general election.
In 1880 he was elected for Ripon, and continued to represent that
constituency until the general election of 1885, when he was returned
for the Eastern Division of Edinburgh. Being opposed to the extension of
the franchise, he was unable to join Mr Gladstone's government in 1880;
declining the post of viceroy of India, he accepted that of special
ambassador to the Porte, and was successful in settling the Montenegrin
and Greek frontier questions in 1880 and 1881. He was made an
ecclesiastical commissioner in 1882, and when Sir Henry Brand was raised
to the peerage in 1884, the speakership of the House of Commons was
offered to him, but declined. During the parliament of 1880-1885 he
frequently found himself unable to concur with his party, especially as
regards the extension of the franchise and questions of foreign policy;
and when Mr Gladstone adopted the policy of Home Rule for Ireland, Mr
Goschen followed Lord Hartington (afterwards duke of Devonshire) and
became one of the most active of the Liberal Unionists. His vigorous and
eloquent opposition to Mr Gladstone's Home Rule Bill of 1886 brought him
into greater public prominence than ever, but he failed to retain his
seat for Edinburgh at the election in July of that year. On the
resignation of Lord Randolph Churchill in December 1886, Mr Goschen,
though a Liberal Unionist, accepted Lord Salisbury's invitation to join
his ministry, and became chancellor of the exchequer. Being defeated at
Liverpool, 26th of January 1887, by seven votes, he was elected for St
George's, Hanover Square, on the 9th of February. His chancellorship of
the exchequer during the ministry of 1886 to 1892 was rendered memorable
by his successful conversion of the National Debt in 1888 (see National
Debt). With that financial operation, under which the new 2-3/4% Consols
became known as "Goschens," his name will long be connected. Aberdeen
University again conferred upon him the honour of the lord rectorship in
1888, and he received a similar honour from the University of Edinburgh
in 1890. In the Unionist opposition of 1893 to 1895 Mr Goschen again
took a vigorous part, his speeches both in and out of the House of
Commons being remarkable for their eloquence and debating power. From
1895 to 1900 Mr Goschen was first lord of the admiralty, and in that
office he earned the highest reputation for his business-like grasp of
detail and his statesmanlike outlook on the naval policy of the country.
He retired in 1900, and was raised to the peerage by the title of
Viscount Goschen of Hawkhurst, Kent. Though retired from active politics
he continued to take a great interest in public affairs; and when Mr
Chamberlain started his tariff reform movement in 1903, Lord Goschen was
one of the weightiest champions of free trade on the Unionist side. He
died on the 7th of February 1907, being succeeded in the title by his
son George Joachim (b. 1866), who was Conservative M.P. for East
Grinstead from 1895 to 1900, and married a daughter of the 1st earl of
Cranbrook.
In educational subjects Goschen had always taken the greatest interest,
his best known, but by no means his only, contribution to popular
culture being his participation in the University Extension Movement;
and his first efforts in parliament were devoted to advocating the
abolition of religious tests and the admission of Dissenters to the
universities. His published works indicate how ably he combined the wise
study of economics with a practical instinct for business-like progress,
without neglecting the more ideal aspects of human life. In addition to
his well-known work on _The Theory of the Foreign Exchanges_, he
published several financial and political pamphlets and addresses on
educational and social subjects, among them being that on _Cultivation
of the Imagination_, Liverpool, 1877, and that on _Intellectual
Interest_, Aberdeen, 1888. He also wrote _The Life and Times of Georg
Joachim Goschen, publisher and printer of Leipzig_ (1903). (H. Ch.)
GOS-HAWK, i.e. goose-hawk, the _Astur palumbarius_ of ornithologists,
and the largest of the short-winged hawks used in falconry. Its English
name, however, has possibly been transferred to this species from one of
the long-winged hawks or true falcons, since there is no tradition of
the gos-hawk, now so called, having ever been used in Europe to take
geese or other large and powerful birds. The genus _Astur_ may be
readily distinguished from _Falco_ by the smooth edges of its beak, its
short wings (not reaching beyond about the middle of the tail), and its
long legs and toes--though these last are stout and comparatively
shorter than in the sparrow-hawks (_Accipiter_). In plumage the gos-hawk
has a general resemblance to the peregrine falcon, and it undergoes a
corresponding change as it advances from youth to maturity--the young
being longitudinally streaked beneath, while the adults are transversely
barred. The irides, however, are always yellow, or in old birds orange,
while those of the falcons are dark brown. The sexes differ greatly in
size. There can be little doubt that the gos-hawk, nowadays very rare in
Britain, was once common in England, and even towards the end of the
18th century Thornton obtained a nestling in Scotland, while Irish
gos-hawks were of old highly celebrated. Being strictly a woodland-bird,
its disappearance may be safely connected with the disappearance of the
ancient forests in Great Britain, though its destructiveness to poultry
and pigeons has doubtless contributed to its present scarcity. In many
parts of the continent of Europe it still abounds. It ranges eastward to
China and is much valued in India. In North America it is represented by
a very nearly allied species, _A. atricapillus_, chiefly distinguished
by the closer barring of the breast. Three or four examples
corresponding with this form have been obtained in Britain. A good many
other species of _Astur_ (some of them passing into _Accipiter_) are
found in various parts of the world, but the only one that need here be
mentioned is the _A. novae-hollandiae_ of Australia, which is remarkable
for its dimorphism--one form possessing the normal dark-coloured plumage
of the genus and the other being perfectly white, with crimson irides.
Some writers hold these two forms to be distinct species and call the
dark-coloured one _A. cinereus_ or _A. raii_. (A. N.)
GOSHEN, a division of Egypt settled by the Israelites between Jacob's
immigration and the Exodus. Its exact delimitation is a difficult
problem. The name may possibly be of Semitic, or at least non-Egyptian
origin, as in Palestine we meet with a district (Josh. x. 41) and a city
(_ib._ xv. 51) of the same name. The Septuagint reads [Greek: Gesem
Arabias] in Gen. xlv. 10, and xlvi. 34, elsewhere simply [Greek: Gesem].
In xlvi. 28 "Goshen ... the land of Goshen" are translated respectively
"Heroopolis ... the land of Rameses." This represents a late Jewish
identification. Ptolemy defines "Arabia" as an Egyptian nome on the
eastern border of the delta, with capital Phacussa, corresponding to the
Egyptian nome Sopt and town Kesem. It is doubtful whether Phacussa be
situated at the mounds of Fakus, or at another place, Saft-el-Henneh,
which suits Strabo's description of its locality rather better. The
extent of Goshen, according to the apocryphal book of Judith (i. 9, 10),
included Tanis and Memphis; this is probably an overstatement. It is
indeed impossible to say more than that it was a place of good pasture,
on the frontier of Palestine, and fruitful in edible vegetables and in
fish (Numbers xi. 5). (R. A. S. M.)
GOSHEN, a city and the county-seat of Elkhart county, Indiana, U.S.A.,
on the Elkhart river, about 95 m. E. by S. of Chicago, at an altitude of
about 800 ft. Pop. (1890) 6033; (1900) 7810 (462 foreign-born); (1910)
8514. Goshen is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis,
and the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railways, and is connected by
electric railway with Warsaw and South Bend. The city has a Carnegie
library, and is the seat of Goshen College (under Mennonite control),
chartered as Elkhart Institute, at Elkhart, Ind., in 1895, and removed
to Goshen and opened under its present name in 1903. The college
includes a collegiate department, an academy, a Bible school, a normal
school, a summer school and correspondence courses, and schools of
business, of music and of oratory, and in 1908-1909 had 331 students, 73
of whom were in the Academy. Goshen is situated in a good farming region
and is an important lumber market. There is a good water-power. Among
the city's manufactures are wagons and carriages, furniture,
wooden-ware, veneering, sash and doors, ladders, lawn swings, rubber
goods, flour, foundry products and agricultural machinery. The
municipality owns its water works and its electric-lighting system.
Goshen was first settled in 1828 and was first chartered as a city in
1868.
GOSLAR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover,
romantically situated on the Gose, an affluent of the Oker, at the north
foot of the Harz, 24 m. S.E. of Hildesheim and 31 m. S.W. from
Brunswick, by rail. Pop. (1905) 17,817. It is surrounded by walls and is
of antique appearance. Among the noteworthy buildings are the "Zwinger,"
a tower with walls 23 ft. thick; the market church, in the Romanesque
style, restored since its partial destruction by fire in 1844, and
containing the town archives and a library in which are some of Luther's
manuscripts; the old town hall (Rathaus), possessing many interesting
antiquities; the Kaiserworth (formerly the hall of the tailors' gild and
now an inn) with the statues of eight of the German emperors; and the
Kaiserhaus, the oldest secular building in Germany, built by the emperor
Henry III. before 1050 and often the residence of his successors. This
was restored in 1867-1878 at the cost of the Prussian government, and
was adorned with frescoes portraying events in German history. Other
buildings of interest are:--the small chapel which is all that remains
since 1820 of the old and famous cathedral of St Simon and St Jude
founded by Henry III. about 1040, containing among other relics of the
cathedral an old altar supposed to be that of the idol Krodo which
formerly stood on the Burgberg near Neustadt-Harzburg; the church of the
former Benedictine monastery of St Mary, or Neuwerk, of the 12th
century, in the Romanesque style, with wall-paintings of considerable
merit; and the house of the bakers' gild now an hotel, the birthplace of
Marshal Saxe. There are four Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic
church, a synagogue, several schools, a natural science museum,
containing a collection of Harz minerals, the Fenkner museum of
antiquities and a number of small foundations. The town has equestrian
statues of the emperor Frederick I. and of the German emperor William I.
The population is chiefly occupied in connexion with the sulphur,
copper, silver and other mines in the neighbourhood. The town has also
been long noted for its beer, and possesses some small manufactures and
a considerable trade in fruit.
Goslar is believed to have been founded by Henry the Fowler about 920,
and when in the time of Otto the Great the mineral treasures in the
neighbourhood were discovered it increased rapidly in prosperity. It was
often the meeting-place of German diets, twenty-three of which are said
to have been held here, and was frequently the residence of the
emperors. About 1350 it joined the Hanseatic League. In the middle of
the 14th century the famous _Goslar statutes_, a code of laws, which was
adopted by many other towns, was published. The town was unsuccessfully
besieged in 1625, during the Thirty Years' War, but was taken by the
Swedes in 1632 and nearly destroyed by fire. Further conflagrations in
1728 and 1780 gave a severe blow to its prosperity. It was a free town
till 1802, when it came into the possession of Prussia. In 1807 it was
joined to Westphalia, in 1816 to Hanover and in 1866 it was, along with
Hanover, re-united to Prussia.
See T. Erdmann, _Die alte Kaiserstadt Goslar und ihre Umgebung in
Geschichte, Sage und Bild_ (Goslar, 1892); Crusius, _Geschichte der
vormals kaiserlichen freien Reichstadt Goslar_ (1842-1843); A.
Wolfstieg, _Verfassungsgeschichte von Goslar_ (Berlin, 1885); T.
Asche, _Die Kaiserpfalz zu Goslar_ (1892); Neuburg, _Goslars Bergbau
bis 1552_ (Hanover, 1892); and the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Goslar_,
edited by G. Bode (Halle, 1893-1900). For the _Goslarische Statuten_
see the edition published by Goschen (Berlin, 1840).
GOSLICKI, WAWRZYNIEC (? 1533-1607), Polish bishop, better known under
his Latinized name of Laurentius Grimalius Goslicius, was born about
1533. After having studied at Cracow and Padua, he entered the church,
and was successively appointed bishop of Kaminietz and of Posen.
Goslicki was an active man of business, was held in high estimation by
his contemporaries and was frequently engaged in political affairs. It
was chiefly through his influence, and through the letter he wrote to
the pope against the Jesuits, that they were prevented from establishing
their schools at Cracow. He was also a strenuous advocate of religious
toleration in Poland. He died on the 31st of October 1607.
His principal work is _De Optimo senatore_, &c. (Venice, 1568). There
are two English translations published respectively under the titles
_A commonwealth of good counsaile_, &c. (1607), and _The Accomplished
Senator, done into English by Mr Oldisworth_ (1733).
GOSLIN, or GAUZLINUS (d. c. 886), bishop of Paris and defender of the
city against the Northmen (885), was, according to some authorities, the
son of Roricon II., count of Maine, according to others the natural son
of the emperor Louis I. In 848 he became a monk, and entered a monastery
at Reims, later he became abbot of St Denis. Like most of the prelates
of his time he took a prominent part in the struggle against the
Northmen, by whom he and his brother Louis were taken prisoners (858),
and he was released only after paying a heavy ransom (_Prudentii
Trecensis episcopi Annales_, ann. 858). From 855 to 867 he held
intermittently, and from 867 to 881 regularly, the office of chancellor
to Charles the Bald and his successors. In 883 or 884 he was elected
bishop of Paris, and foreseeing the dangers to which the city was to be
exposed from the attacks of the Northmen, he planned and directed the
strengthening of the defences, though he also relied for security on the
merits of the relics of St Germain and St Genevieve. When the attack
finally came (885), the defence of the city was entrusted to him and to
Odo, count of Paris, and Hugh, abbot of St Germain l'Auxerrois. The city
was attacked on the 26th of November, and the struggle for the
possession of the bridge (now the Pont-au-Change) lasted for two days;
but Goslin repaired the destruction of the wooden tower overnight, and
the Normans were obliged to give up the attempt to take the city by
storm. The siege lasted for about a year longer, while the emperor
Charles the Fat was in Italy. Goslin died soon after the preliminaries
of the peace had been agreed on, worn out by his exertions, or killed by
a pestilence which raged in the city.
See Amaury Duval, _L'Eveque Gozlin ou le siege de Paris par les
Normands, chronique du IX^e siecle_ (2 vols., Paris, 1832, 3rd ed.
_ib._ 1835).
GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW (d. 1607), English navigator. Nothing is known of
his birth, parentage or early life. In 1602, in command of the
"Concord," chartered by Sir Walter Raleigh and others, he crossed the
Atlantic; coasted from what is now Maine to Martha's Vineyard, landing
at and naming Cape Cod and Elizabeth Island (now Cuttyhunk) and giving
the name Martha's Vineyard to the island now called No Man's Land; and
returned to England with a cargo of furs, sassafras and other
commodities obtained in trade with the Indians about Buzzard's Bay. In
London he actively promoted the colonization of the regions he had
visited and, by arousing the interest of Sir Ferdinando Gorges and other
influential persons, contributed toward securing the grants of the
charters to the London and Plymouth Companies in 1606. In 1606-1607 he
was associated with Christopher Newport in command of the three vessels
by which the first Jamestown colonists were carried to Virginia. As a
member of the council he took an active share in the affairs of the
colony, ably seconding the efforts of John Smith to introduce order,
industry and system among the motley array of adventurers and idle
"gentlemen" of which the little band was composed. He died from swamp
fever on the 22nd of August 1607.
See _The Works of John Smith_ (Arber's Edition, London, 1884); and J.
M. Brereton, _Brief and True Relation of the North Part of Virginia_
(reprinted by B. F. Stevens, London, 1901), an account of Gosnold's
voyage of 1602.
GOSPATRIC (fl. 1067), earl of Northumberland, belonged to a family which
had connexions with the royal houses both of Wessex and Scotland. Before
the Conquest he accompanied Tostig on a pilgrimage to Rome (1061); and
at that time was a landholder in Cumberland. About 1067 he bought the
earldom of Northumberland from William the Conqueror; but, repenting of
his submission, fled with other Englishmen to the court of Scotland
(1068). He joined the Danish army of invasion in the next year; but was
afterwards able, from his possession of Bamburgh castle, to make terms
with the conqueror, who left him undisturbed till 1072. The peace
concluded in that year with Scotland left him at William's mercy. He
lost his earldom and took refuge in Scotland, where Malcolm seems to
have provided for him.
See E. A. Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1877), and the
_English Hist. Review_, vol. xix. (London, 1904).
GOSPEL (O. Eng. _godspel_, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. _bona
annuntiatio_, or _evangelium_, Gr. [Greek: euangelion]; cf. Goth. _iu
spillon_, "to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek,
from _iu_, that which is good, and _spellon_ to announce), primarily the
"glad tidings" announced to the world by Jesus Christ. The word thus
came to be applied to the whole body of doctrine taught by Christ and
his disciples, and so to the Christian revelation generally (see
CHRISTIANITY); by analogy the term "gospel" is also used in other
connexions as equivalent to "authoritative teaching." In a narrower
sense each of the records of the life and teaching of Christ preserved
in the writings of the four "evangelists" is described as a Gospel. The
many more or less imaginative lives of Christ which are not accepted by
the Christian Church as canonical are known as "apocryphal gospels" (see
APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE). The present article is concerned solely with
general considerations affecting the four canonical Gospels; see for
details of each, the articles under MATTHEW, MARK, LUKE and JOHN.
_The Four Gospels._--The disciples of Jesus proclaimed the Gospel that
He was the Christ. Those to whom this message was first delivered in
Jerusalem and Palestine had seen and heard Jesus, or had heard much
about Him. They did not require to be told who He was. But more and more
as the work of preaching and teaching extended to such as had not this
knowledge, it became necessary to include in the Gospel delivered some
account of the ministry of Jesus. Moreover, alike those who had followed
Him during His life on earth, and all who joined themselves to them,
must have felt the need of dwelling on His precepts, so that these must
have been often repeated, and also in all probability from an early time
grouped together according to their subjects, and so taught. For some
time, probably for upwards of thirty years, both the facts of the life
of Jesus and His words were only related orally. This would be in
accordance with the habits of mind of the early preachers of the Gospel.
Moreover, they were so absorbed in the expectation of the speedy return
of Christ that they did not feel called to make provision for the
instruction of subsequent generations. The Epistles of the New Testament
contain no indications of the existence of any written record of the
life and teaching of Christ. Tradition indicates A.D. 60-70 as the
period when written accounts of the life and teaching of Jesus began to
be made (see MARK, GOSPEL OF, and MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF). This may be
accepted as highly probable. We cannot but suppose that at a time when
the number of the original band of disciples of Jesus who survived must
have been becoming noticeably smaller, and all these were advanced in
life, the importance of writing down that which had been orally
delivered concerning the Gospel-history must have been realized. We also
gather from Luke's preface (i. 1-4) that the work of writing was
undertaken in these circumstances and under the influence of this
feeling, and that various records had already in consequence been made.
But do our Gospels, or any of them, in the form in which we actually
have them, belong to the number of those earliest records? Or, if not,
what are the relations in which they severally stand to them? These are
questions which in modern criticism have been greatly debated. With a
view to obtaining answers to them, it is necessary to consider the
reception of the Gospels in the early Church, and also to examine and
compare the Gospels themselves. Some account of the evidence supplied in
these two ways must be given in the present article, so far as it is
common to all four Gospels, or to three or two of them, and in the
articles on the several Gospels so far as it is especial to each.
1. _The Reception of the Gospels in the Early Church._--The question of
the use of the Gospels and of the manner in which they were regarded
during the period extending from the latter years of the 1st century to
the beginning of the last quarter of the 2nd is a difficult one. There
is a lack of explicit references to the Gospels;[1] and many of the
quotations which may be taken from them are not exact. At the same time
these facts can be more or less satisfactorily accounted for by various
circumstances. In the first place, it would be natural that the habits
of thought of the period when the Gospel was delivered orally should
have continued to exert influence even after the tradition had been
committed to writing. Although documents might be known and used, they
would not be regarded as the authorities for that which was
independently remembered, and would not, therefore, necessarily be
mentioned. Consequently, it is not strange that citations of sayings of
Christ--and these are the only express citations in writings of the
Subapostolic Age--should be made without the source whence they were
derived being named, and (with a single exception) without any clear
indication that the source was a document. The exception is in the
little treatise commonly called the Epistle of Barnabas, probably
composed about A.D. 130, where (c. iv. 14) the words "many are called
but few chosen" are introduced by the formula "as it is written."
For the identification, therefore, of the source or sources used we have
to rely upon the amount of correspondence with our Gospels in the
quotations made, and in respect to other parallelisms of statement and
of expression, in these early Christian writers. The correspondence is
in the main full and true as regards spirit and substance, but it is
rarely complete in form. The existence of some differences of language
may, however, be too readily taken to disprove derivation. Various forms
of the same saying occurring in different documents, or remembered from
oral tradition and through catechetical instruction, would sometimes be
purposely combined. Or, again, the memory might be confused by this
variety, and the verification of quotations, especially of brief ones,
was difficult, not only from the comparative scarcity of the copies of
books, but also because ancient books were not provided with ready means
of reference to particular passages. On the whole there is clearly a
presumption that where we have striking expressions which are known to
us besides only in one of our Gospel-records, that particular record has
been the source of it. And where there are several such coincidences the
ground for the supposition that the writing in question has been used
may become very strong. There is evidence of this kind, more or less
clear in the several cases, that all the four Gospels were known in the
first two or three decades of the 2nd century. It is fullest as to our
first Gospel and, next to this one, as to our third.
After this time it becomes manifest that, as we should expect, documents
were the recognized authorities for the Gospel history; but there is
still some uncertainty as to the documents upon which reliance was
placed, and the precise estimation in which they were severally held.
This is in part at least due to the circumstance that nearly all the
writings which have remained of the Christian literature belonging to
the period _circa_ A.D. 130-180 are addressed to non-Christians, and
that for the most part they give only summaries of the teaching of
Christ and of the facts of the Gospel, while terms that would not be
understood by, and names that would not carry weight with, others than
Christians are to a large extent avoided. The most important of the
writings now in question are two by Justin Martyr (_circa_ A.D.
145-160), viz. his _Apology_ and his _Dialogue with Trypho_. In the
former of these works he shows plainly his intention of adapting his
language and reasoning to Gentile, and in the latter to Jewish, readers.
In both his name for the Gospel-records is "Memoirs of the Apostles."
After a great deal of controversy there has come to be very wide
agreement that he reckoned the first three Gospels among these Memoirs.
In the case of the second and third there are indications, though slight
ones, that he held the view of their composition and authorship which
was common from the last quarter of the century onwards (see MARK,
GOSPEL OF, and LUKE, GOSPEL OF), but he has made the largest use of our
first Gospel. It is also generally allowed that he was acquainted with
the fourth Gospel, though some think that he used it with a certain
reserve. Evidence may, however, be adduced which goes far to show that
he regarded it, also, as of apostolic authority. There is a good deal of
difference of opinion still as to whether Justin reckoned other sources
for the Gospel-history besides our Gospels among the Apostolic Memoirs.
In this connexion, however, as well as on other grounds, it is a
significant fact that within twenty years or so after the death of
Justin, which probably occurred _circa_ A.D. 160, Tatian, who had been a
hearer of Justin, produced a continuous narrative of the Gospel-history
which received the name _Diatessaron_ ("through four"), in the main a
compilation from our four Gospels.[2]
Before the close of the 2nd century the four Gospels had attained a
position of unique authority throughout the greater part of the Church,
not different from that which they have held since, as is evident from
the treatise of Irenaeus _Against Heresies_ (c. A.D. 180; see esp. iii.
i. 1 f. and x., xi.) and from other evidence only a few years later. The
struggle against Gnosticism, which had been going on during the middle
part of the century, had compelled the Church both to define her creed
and to draw a sharper line of demarcation than heretofore between those
writings whose authority she regarded as absolute and all others. The
effect of this was no doubt to enhance the sense generally entertained
of the value of the four Gospels. At the same time in the formal
statements now made it is plainly implied that the belief expressed is
no new one. And it is, indeed, difficult to suppose that agreement on
this subject between different portions of the Church could have
manifested itself at this time in the spontaneous manner that it does,
except as the consequence of traditional feelings and convictions, which
went back to the early part of the century, and which could hardly have
arisen without good foundation, with respect to the special value of
these works as embodiments of apostolic testimony, although all that
came to be supposed in regard to their actual authorship cannot be
considered proved.
2. _The Internal Criticism of the Gospels._--In the middle of the 19th
century an able school of critics, known as the Tubingen school, sought
to show from indications in the several Gospels that they were composed
well on in the 2nd century in the interests of various strongly marked
parties into which the Church was supposed to have been divided by
differences in regard to the Judaic and Pauline forms of Christianity.
These theories are now discredited. It may on the contrary be
confidently asserted with regard to the first three Gospels that the
local colouring in them is predominantly Palestinian, and that they
show no signs of acquaintance with the questions and the circumstances
of the 2nd century; and that the character even of the Fourth Gospel is
not such as to justify its being placed, at furthest, much after the
beginning of that century.
We turn to the literary criticism of the Gospels, where solid results
have been obtained. The first three Gospels have in consequence of the
large amount of similarity between them in contents, arrangement, and
even in words and the forms of sentences and paragraphs, been called
Synoptic Gospels. It has long been seen that, to account for this
similarity, relations of interdependence between them, or of common
derivation, must be supposed. And the question as to the true theory of
these relations is known as the _Synoptic Problem_. Reference has
already been made to the fact that during the greater part of the
Apostolic age the Gospel history was taught orally. Now some have held
that the form of this oral teaching was to a great extent a fixed one,
and that it was the common source of our first three Gospels. This oral
theory was for a long time the favourite one in England; it was never
widely held in Germany, and in recent years the majority of English
students of the Synoptic Problem have come to feel that it does not
satisfactorily explain the phenomena. Not only are the resemblances too
close, and their character in part not of a kind, to be thus accounted
for, but even many of the differences between parallel contexts are
rather such as would arise through the revision of a document than
through the freedom of oral delivery.
It is now and has for many years been widely held that a document which
is most nearly represented by the Gospel of Mark, or which (as some
would say) was virtually identical with it, has been used in the
composition of our first and third Gospels. This source has supplied the
Synoptic Outline, and in the main also the narratives common to all
three. Questions connected with the history of this document are treated
in the article on MARK, GOSPEL OF.
There is also a considerable amount of matter common to Matthew and
Luke, but not found in Mark. It is introduced into the Synoptic Outline
very differently in those two Gospels, which clearly suggests that it
existed in a separate form, and was independently combined by the first
and third evangelists with their other document. This common matter has
also a character of its own; it consists mainly of pieces of discourse.
The form in which it is given in the two Gospels is in several passages
so nearly identical that we must suppose these pieces at least to have
been derived immediately or ultimately from the same Greek document. In
other cases there is more divergence, but in some of them this is
accounted for by the consideration that in Matthew passages from the
source now in question have been interwoven with parallels in the other
chief common source before mentioned. There are, however, instances in
which no such explanation will serve, and it is possible that our first
and third evangelists may have used two documents which were not in all
respects identical, but which corresponded very closely on the whole.
The ultimate source of the subject matter in question, or of the most
distinctive and larger part of it, was in all probability an Aramaic
one, and in some parts different translations may have been used.
This second source used in the composition of Matthew and Luke has
frequently been called "The Logia" in order to signify that it was a
collection of the sayings and discourses of Jesus. This name has been
suggested by Schleiermacher's interpretation of Papias' fragment on
Matthew (see MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF). But some have maintained that the
source in question also contained a good many narratives, and in order
to avoid any premature assumption as to its contents and character
several recent critics have named it "Q." It may, however, fairly be
called "the Logian document," as a convenient way of indicating the
character of the greater part of the matter which our first and third
evangelists have taken from it, and this designation is used in the
articles on the Gospels of Luke and Matthew. The reconstruction of this
document has been attempted by several critics. The arrangement of its
contents can, it seems, best be learned from Luke.
3. One or two remarks may here be added as to the bearing of the results
of literary criticism upon the use of the Gospels. Their effect is to
lead us, especially when engaged in historical inquiries, to look beyond
our Gospels to their sources, instead of treating the testimony of the
Gospels severally as independent and ultimate. Nevertheless it will
still appear that each Gospel has its distinct value, both historically
and in regard to the moral and spiritual instruction afforded. And the
fruits of much of that older study of the Gospels, which was largely
employed in pointing out the special characteristics of each, will still
prove serviceable.
AUTHORITIES.--1. German Books: _Introductions to the New
Testament_--H. J. Holtzmann (3rd ed., 1892), B. Weiss (Eng. trans.,
1887), Th. Zahn (2nd ed., 1900), G. A. Julicher (6th ed., 1906; Eng.
trans., 1904); H. v. Soden, _Urchristliche Literaturgeschichte_, vol.
i. (1905; Eng. trans., 1906). Books on the Synoptic Gospels,
especially the Synoptic Problem: H. J. Holtzmann, _Die synoptischen
Evangelien_ (1863); Weizsacker, _Untersuchungen uber die evangelische
Geschichte_ (1864); B. Weiss, _Das Marcus-Evangelium und seine
synoptischen Parallelen_ (1872); _Das Matthaus-Evangelium und seine
Lucas-Parallelen_ (1876); H. H. Wendt, _Die Lehre Jesu_ (1886); A.
Resch, _Agrapha_ (1889); &c.; P. Wernle, _Die synoptische Frage_
(1899); W. Soltau, _Unsere Evangelien, ihre Quellen und ihr
Quellenwert_ (1901); H. J. Holtzmann, _Hand-Commentar zum N.T._, vol.
i. (1889); J. Wellhausen, _Das Evangelium Marci_, _Das Evangelium
Matthai_, _Das Evangelium Lucas_ (1904), _Einleitung in die drei
ersten Evangelien_ (1905); A. Harnack, _Spruche und Reden Jesu, die
zweite Quelle des Matthaus und Lukas_ (1907).