lungs, bronchitis, pneumonia, influenza, purpura hemorrhagica, or
glanders. An accident or exertion may cause a rupture of a vessel.
Plethora and hypertrophy of the heart predispose to it. Following the
rupture of a vessel the blood may escape into the lung tissue and cause
a serious attack of pneumonia, or it may fill up the bronchial tubes and
prove fatal by suffocating the animal. When the hemorrhage is from the
lung it is accompanied with coughing; the blood is frothy, of a bright
red color, and comes from both nostrils; whereas when the bleeding is
merely from a rupture of a vessel in some part of the head (heretofore
described as bleeding from the nose) the blood is most likely to issue
from one nostril only, and the discharge is not accompanied with
coughing. The ear may be placed against the windpipe along its course,
and if the blood is from the lungs a gurgling or rattling sound will be
heard. When it occurs in connection with another disease it seldom
requires special treatment. When caused by accident or overexertion the
animal should be kept quiet. If the hemorrhage is profuse and continues
for several hours, 1 dram of the acetate of lead dissolved in a pint of
water may be given as a drench, or 1 ounce of the tincture of the
perchlorid of iron, diluted with a pint of water, may be given instead
of the lead. It is rare that the hemorrhage is so profuse as to require
internal remedies. But hemorrhage into the lung may occur and cause
death by suffocation without the least manifestation of it by the
discharge of blood from the nose.
TUBERCULOSIS OF THE LUNGS.
Pulmonary consumption or tuberculosis has been recognized in the horse
in a number of instances. The symptoms are as of chronic pneumonia or
pleurisy. There is no treatment for the disease.
HEAVES, BROKEN WIND, OR ASTHMA.
Much confusion exists in the popular mind in regard to the nature of
heaves. Many horsemen loosely apply the term to all ailments where the
breathing is difficult or noisy. Scientific veterinarians are well
acquainted with the phenomena and locality of the affection, but there
is a great diversity of opinion as regards the exact cause. Asthma is
generally thought to be caused by spasm of the small circular muscles
that surround the bronchial tubes. The continued existence of this
affection of the muscles leads to a paralysis of them, and the forced
breathing to emphysema, which always accompanies heaves.
Heaves is usually associated with disorder of the function of digestion
or to an error in the choice of feed. Feeding on clover hay or damaged
hay or straw, too bulky and innutritious feed, and keeping the horse in
a dusty atmosphere or a badly ventilated stable produce or predispose to
heaves. Horses brought from a high to a low level are predisposed.
In itself broken wind is not a fatal disease, but death is generally
caused by an affection closely connected with it. After death, if the
organs are examined, the lesions found depend much upon the length of
time broken wind has affected the animal. In recent cases very few
changes are noticeable, but in animals that have been broken-winded for
a long time the changes are well-marked. The lungs are paler than
natural, and of much less weight in proportion to the volume, as
evidenced by floating them in water. The walls of the small bronchial
tubes and the membrane of the larger tubes are thickened. The right side
of the heart is enlarged and its cavities dilated. The stomach is
enlarged and its walls stretched. The important change found in the
lungs is a condition technically called pulmonary emphysema. This is of
two varieties: First, what is termed "vesicular emphysema," which
consists of an enlargement of the capacity of the air cells (air
vesicles) by dilation of their walls. The second form is called
interlobular, or interstitial, emphysema, and follows the first. In
this variety the air finds its way into the lung tissue between the air
cells or the tissue between the small lobules.
_Symptoms._--Almost every experienced horseman is able to detect heaves.
The peculiar movement of the flanks and abdomen point out the ailment at
once. In recent cases, however, the affected animal does not always
exhibit the characteristic breathing unless exerted to a certain extent.
The cough which accompanies this disease is peculiar to it. It is
difficult to describe, but the sound is short and something like a
grunt. When air is inspired--that is, taken in--it appears to be done in
the same manner as in health; it may possibly be done a little quicker
than natural, but not enough to attract any notice. It is when the act
of expiration (or expelling the air from the lungs) is performed that
the great change in the breathing is perceptible. It must be remembered
that the lungs have lost much of their elasticity, and in consequence of
their power of contracting on account of the degeneration of the walls
of the air cells, and also on account of the paralysis of muscular
tissue before mentioned. The air passes into them freely, but the power
to expel it is lost to a great extent by the lungs; therefore the
abdominal muscles are brought into play. These muscles, especially in
the region of the flank, are seen to contract, then pause for a moment,
then complete the act of contracting, thus making a double bellowslike
movement at each expiration, a sort of jerky motion with every breath.
The double expiratory movement may also be detected by allowing the that
the expiratory current is not continuous, but is broken into two jets.
When the animal is exerted a wheezing noise accompanies the breathing.
This noise may be heard to a less extent when the animal is at rest if
the ear is applied to the chest.
As before remarked, indigestion is often present in these cases. The
animal may have a depraved appetite, as shown by a desire to eat dirt
and soiled bedding, which he often devours in preference to the clean
feed in the trough or manger. The stomach is liable to be overloaded
with indigestible feed. The abdomen may assume that form called
"potbellied." The animal frequently passes wind of a very offensive
odor. When first put to work dung is passed frequently; the bowels are
often loose. The animal can not stand much work, as the muscular system
is soft. Round-chested horses are said to be predisposed to the disease,
and it is certain that in cases of long standing the chest usually
becomes rounder than natural.
Certain individuals become very expert in managing a horse affected with
heaves in suppressing the symptoms for a short time. They take advantage
of the fact that the breathing is much easier when the stomach and
intestines are empty. They also resort to the use of medicines that
have a depressing effect. When the veterinarian is examining a horse for
soundness, and he suspects that the animal has been "fixed," he usually
gives the horse as much water as he will drink and then has him ridden
or driven rapidly up a hill or on a heavy road. This will bring out the
characteristic breathing of heaves if the horse is so afflicted, but
will not cause the symptoms of heaves in a healthy horse. All
broken-winded horses have the cough peculiar to the affection, but it is
not regular. A considerable time may elapse before it is heard and then
it may come on in paroxysms, especially when first brought out of the
stable into the cold air, or when excited by work, or after a drink of
cold water. The cough is usually the first symptom of the disease.
_Treatment._--When the disease is established there is no cure for it.
Proper attention paid to the diet will relieve the distressing symptoms
to a certain extent, but they will undoubtedly reappear in their
intensity the first time the animal overloads the stomach or is allowed
food of bad quality. Clover hay or bulky feed which contains but little
nutriment have much to do with the cause of the disease, and therefore
should be entirely omitted when the animal is affected, as well as
before. It has been asserted that the disease is unknown where clover
hay is never used. The diet should be confined to feed of the best
quality and in the smallest quantity. The bad effect of moldy or dusty
hay, fodder, or feed of any kind can not be overestimated. A small
quantity of the best hay once a day is sufficient. This should be cut
and dampened. The animal should invariably be watered before feeding;
never directly after a meal. The animal should not be worked immediately
after a meal. Exertion, when the stomach is full, invariably aggravates
the symptoms. Turning on pasture gives relief. Carrots, potatoes, or
turnips chopped and mixed with oats or corn are a good diet. Half a pint
to a pint of thick, dark molasses with each feed is useful.
Arsenic is efficacious in palliating the symptoms. It is best
administered in the form of a solution of arsenic, as Fowler's solution
or as the white powdered arsenious acid. Of the former the dose is 1
ounce to the drinking water three times daily; of the latter one may
give 3 grains in each feed. These quantities may be cautiously increased
as the animal becomes accustomed to the drug. If the bowels do not act
regularly, a pint of raw linseed oil may be given once or twice a month,
or a handful of Glauber's salt may be given in the feed twice daily, so
long as necessary. It must, however, be borne in mind that all medicinal
treatment is of secondary consideration; careful attention paid to the
diet is of greatest importance. Broken-winded animals should not be used
for breeding purposes. A predisposition to the disease may be
inherited.
CHRONIC COUGH.
A chronic cough may succeed the acute disease of the respiratory organs,
such as pneumonia, bronchitis, laryngitis, etc. It accompanies chronic
roaring, chronic bronchitis, broken wind; it may succeed influenza. As
previously stated, cough is but a symptom and not a disease in itself.
Chronic cough is occasionally associated with diseases other than those
of the organs of respiration. It may be a symptom of chronic indigestion
or of worms. In such cases it is caused by a reflex nervous irritation.
The proper treatment in all cases of chronic cough is to ascertain the
nature of the disease of which it is a symptom, and then cure the
disease if possible and the cough will cease.
The treatment of the affections will be found under their appropriate
heads, to which the reader is referred.
PLEURODYNIA.
This is a form of rheumatism that affects the intercostal muscles; that
is, the muscles between the ribs. The apparent symptoms are very similar
to those of pleurisy. The animal is stiff and not inclined to turn
round; the ribs are kept in a fixed state as much as possible. If the
head is pulled round suddenly, or the affected side struck with the
hand, or if the spaces between the ribs are pressed with the fingers,
the animal will flinch and perhaps emit a grunt or groan expressive of
much pain. It is distinguished from pleurisy by the absence of fever,
cough, the friction sound, the effusion into the chest, and by the
existence of rheumatism in other parts. The treatment for this affection
is the same as for rheumatism affecting other parts.
WOUNDS PENETRATING THE WALLS OF THE CHEST.
A wound penetrating the wall of the chest admits air into the thoracic
cavity outside the lung. This condition is known as pneumothorax and may
result in collapse of the lung. The wound may be so made that when the
walls of the chest are dilating a little air is sucked in, but during
the contraction of the wall the contained air presses against the torn
part in such manner as entirely to close the wound; thus a small
quantity of air gains access with each inspiration, while none is
allowed to escape until the lung is pressed into a very small compass
and forced into the anterior part of the chest. The same thing may occur
from a broken rib inflicting a wound in the lung. In this form the air
gains access from the lung, and there may not be even an opening in the
walls of the chest. In such cases the air may be absorbed, when a
spontaneous cure is the result, but when the symptoms are urgent it is
recommended that the air be removed by a trocar and cannula or by an
aspirator.
It is evident that the treatment of wounds that penetrate the thoracic
cavity should be prompt. It should be quickly ascertained whether or not
a foreign body remains in the wound; then it should be thoroughly
cleaned with a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part in 40 parts of water.
The wound should then be closed immediately. If it is an incised wound,
it should be closed with sutures or with adhesive plasters; if torn or
lacerated, adhesive plaster may be used or a bandage around the chest
over the dressing. At all events, air must be prevented from getting
into the chest as soon and as effectually as possible. The after
treatment of the wound should consist principally in keeping the parts
clean with a solution of carbolic acid, and applying fresh dressing as
often as required to keep the wound in a healthy condition. Care should
be taken that the discharges from the wound have an outlet in the most
dependent part. (See Wounds and their treatment, p. 484.) If pleurisy
supervenes, it should be treated as advised under that head.
THUMPS, OR SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM.
"Thumps" is generally thought by the inexperienced to be a palpitation
of the heart. While it is true that palpitation of the heart is
sometimes called "thumps," it must not be confounded with the affection
under consideration.
In the beginning of this article on the diseases of the organs of
respiration, the diaphragm was briefly referred to as the principal and
essential muscle of respiration. Spasmodic or irregular contractions of
it in man are manifested by what is familiarly known as hiccoughs.
Thumps in the horse is similar to hiccoughs in man although in all cases
the peculiar noise is not made in the throat of the horse.
There should be no difficulty in distinguishing this affection from
palpitation of the heart. The jerky motion affects the whole body, and
is not confined to the region of the heart. If one hand is placed on the
body at about the middle of the last rib, while the other hand is placed
over the heart behind the left elbow, it will be easily demonstrated
that there is no connection between the thumping or jerking of the
diaphragm and the beating of the heart. In fact, when the animal is
affected with spasms of the diaphragm the beating of the heart is
usually much weaker and less perceptible than natural. Thumps is
produced by causes similar to those that produce congestion of the lungs
and dilatation or palpitation of the heart, and may occur in connection
with these conditions. If not relieved, death usually results from
congestion or edema of the lungs, as the breathing is interfered with
by the inordinate action of this important muscle of inspiration so much
that proper aeration of the blood can not take place. The treatment
should be as prescribed for congestion of the lungs, and, in addition,
antispasmodics, such as 1 ounce of sulphuric ether in warm water or 3
drams of asafetida.
RUPTURE OF THE DIAPHRAGM.
Post-mortem examinations after colic or severe accident sometimes reveal
rupture of the diaphragm. This may take place after death, from the
generation of gases in the decomposing carcass, which distend the
intestines so that the diaphragm is ruptured by the great pressure
against it. The symptoms are intensely difficult respiration and great
depression. There is no treatment.
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS.
BY JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S.,
_Formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University._
USES OF THE URINARY ORGANS.
The urinary organs constitute the main channel through which are
excreted the nitrogenous or albuminoid principles, whether derived
directly from the feed or from the muscular and other nitrogenized
tissues of the body. They constitute, besides, the channel through which
are thrown out most of the poisons, whether taken in by the mouth or
skin or developed in connection with faulty or natural digestion,
blood-forming, nutrition, or tissue destruction; or, finally, poisons
that are developed within the body, as the result of normal cell life or
of the life of bacterial or other germs that have entered the body from
without. Bacteria themselves largely escape from the body through the
kidneys. To a large extent, therefore, these organs are the sanitary
scavengers and purifiers of the system, and when their functions are
impaired or arrested the retained poisons quickly show their presence in
resulting disorders of the skin and connective tissue beneath it, of the
nervous system, or other organs. Nor is this influence one-sided.
Scarcely an important organ of the body can suffer derangement without
entailing a corresponding disorder of the urinary system. Nothing can be
more striking than the mutual balance maintained between the liquid
secretions of the skin and kidneys during hot and cold weather. In
summer, when so much liquid exhales through the skin as sweat,
comparatively little urine is passed, whereas in winter, when the skin
is inactive, the urine is correspondingly increased. This vicarious
action of skin and kidneys is usually kept within the limits of health,
but at times the draining off of the water by the skin leaves too little
to keep the solids of the urine safely in solution, and these are liable
to crystallize out and form stone and gravel. Similarly the passage, in
the sweat, of some of the solids that normally leave the body, dissolved
in the urine, serves to irritate the skin and produce troublesome
eruptions.
PROMINENT CAUSES OF URINARY DISORDERS.
A disordered liver contributes to the production under different
circumstances of an excess of biliary coloring matter which stains the
urine; of an excess of hippuric acid and allied products which, being
less soluble than urea (the normal product of tissue change), favor the
formation of stone, of taurocholic acid, and other bodies that tend when
in excess to destroy the blood globules and to cause irritation of the
kidneys by the resulting hemoglobin excreted in the urine, and of
glycogen too abundant to be burned up in the system, which induces
saccharine urine (diabetes). Any disorder leading to impaired functional
activity of the lungs is causative of an excess of hippuric acid and
allied bodies, of oxalic acid, of sugar, etc., in the urine, which
irritate the kidneys, even if they do not produce solid deposits in the
urinary passages. Diseases of the nervous system, and notably of the
base of the brain and of the spinal cord, induce various urinary
disorders, prominent among which are diabetes, chylous urine, and
albuminuria. Certain affections, with imperfect nutrition or destructive
waste of the bony tissues, tend to charge the urine with phosphates of
lime and magnesia and endanger the formation of stone and gravel. In all
extensive inflammations and acute fevers the liquids of the urine are
diminished, while the solids (waste products), which should form the
urinary secretion, are increased, and the surcharged urine proves
irritant to the urinary organs or the retained waste products poison the
system at large.
Diseases of the heart and lungs, by interfering with the free, onward
flow of the blood from the right side of the heart, tend to throw that
liquid back on the veins, and this backward pressure of venous blood
strongly tends to disorders of the kidneys. Certain poisons taken with
the feed and water, notably that found in magnesian limestone and those
found in irritant, diuretic plants, are especially injurious to the
kidneys, as are also various cryptogams, whether in musty hay or oats.
The kidneys may be irritated by feeding green vegetables covered with
hoar frost or by furnishing an excess of feed rich in phosphates (wheat
bran, beans, peas, vetches, lentils, rape cake, cottonseed cake) or by a
privation of water, which entails a concentrated condition and high
density of the urine. Exposure in cold rain or snow storms, cold drafts
of air, and damp beds are liable to further disorder an already
overworked or irritable kidney. Finally, sprains of the back and loins
may cause bleeding from the kidneys or inflammation.
The right kidney, weighing 23-1/2 ounces, is shaped like a French bean,
and extends from the loins forward to beneath the heads of the last two
ribs. The left kidney (Pl. VIII) resembles a heart of cards, and extends
from the loins forward beneath the head of the last rib only. Each
consists of three distinct parts--(a) the external (cortical), or
vascular part, in which the blood vessels form elaborate capillary
networks within the dilated globular sacs which form the beginnings of
the secreting (uriniferous) tubes and on the surface of the sinuous,
secreting tubes leading from the sacs inward toward the second, or
medullary, part of the organ; (b) the internal (medullary) part, made
up in the main of blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves extending
between the notch on the inner border of the kidney to and from the
outer vascular portion, in which the secretion of urine is almost
exclusively carried on; and (d) a large, saccular reservoir in the
center of the kidney, into which all uriniferous tubes pour their
secretions and from which the urine is carried away through a tube g
(ureter), which passes out of the notch at the inner border of the
kidney and which opens by a valve-closed orifice into the roof of the
bladder just in front of its neck. The bladder is a dilatable reservoir
for the retention of the urine until the discomfort of its presence
causes its voluntary discharge. It is kept closed by circular, muscular
fibers surrounding its neck or orifice, and is emptied by looped,
muscular fibers extending in all directions forward from the neck around
the blind anterior end of the sac. From the bladder the urine escapes
through a dilatable tube (urethra) which extends from the neck of the
bladder backward on the floor of the pelvis, and in the male through the
penis to its free end, where it opens through a pink, conical papilla.
In the mare the urethra is not more than an inch in length, and is
surrounded by the circular, muscular fibers closing the neck of the
bladder. Its opening may be found directly in the median line of the
floor of the vulva, about 4-1/2 inches from its external opening.
GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE.
These apply especially to acute inflammations and the irritation caused
by stone. The animal moves stiffly on the hind limbs, straddles, and
makes frequent attempts to pass urine, which may be in excess, deficient
in amount, liable to sudden arrest in spite of the straining, passed in
driblets, or entirely suppressed. Again, it may be modified in density
or constituents. Difficulty in making a sharp turn, or in lying down and
rising with or without groaning, dropping the back when mounted or when
pinched on the loins is suggestive of kidney disease, and so to a less
extent are swelled legs, dropsy, and diseases of the skin and nervous
system. The oiled hand introduced through the rectum may feel the
bladder beneath and detect any overdistention, swelling, tenderness, or
stone. In ponies the kidneys even may be reached.
EXAMINATION OF THE URINE.