in a moderate quantity. Tonic medicines should be substituted for those
used during the fever. The same medicines advised for the convalescing
period of bronchitis are equally efficient in this case, especially the
iodid of potash; likewise, the same general instructions apply here.
The chief causes of death in pneumonia are heart failure from
exhaustion, suffocation, or blood poisoning from death (gangrene) of
lung tissue. The greater the area of lung tissue diseased the greater
the danger; hence double pneumonia is more fatal than pneumonia of one
lung.
THE WINDPIPE.
The windpipe, or trachea as it is technically called, is the flexible
tube that extends from, the larynx, which it succeeds at the throat, to
above the base of the heart in the chest, where it terminates by
dividing into the right and left bronchi--the tubes going to the right
and left lung, respectively. The windpipe is composed of about fifty
incomplete rings of cartilage united by ligaments. A muscular layer is
situated on the superior surface of the rings. Internally the tube is
lined with a continuation of the mucous membrane that lines the entire
respiratory tract, which here has very little sensibility in contrast to
that lining the larynx, which is endowed with exquisite sensitiveness.
The windpipe is not subject to any special disease, but is more or less
affected during laryngitis (sore throat), influenza, bronchitis, etc.,
and requires no special treatment. The membrane may be left in a
thickened condition after these attacks. One or more of the rings may be
accidentally fractured, or the tube may be distorted or malformed as the
result of violent injury. After the operation of tracheotomy it is not
uncommon to find a tumor or malformation as a result, or sequel, of the
operation. In passing over this section attention is merely called to
these defects, as they require no particular attention in the way of
treatment. It may be stated, however, that any one of the
before-mentioned conditions may constitute one of the causes of noisy
respiration described as "thick wind."
GUTTURAL POUCHES.
These two sacs are situated above the throat, and communicate with the
pharynx, as well as with the cavity of the tympanum of the ear. They are
peculiar to solipeds. Normally, they contain air. Their function is
unknown.
One or both guttural pouches may contain pus. The symptoms are as
follows: Swelling on the side below the ear and an intermittent
discharge of matter from one or both nostrils, especially when the head
is depressed.
The swelling is soft, and, if pressed upon, matter will escape from the
nose if the head is depressed. As before mentioned, these pouches
communicate with the pharynx, and through this small opening matter may
escape. A recovery is probable if the animal is turned out to graze, or
if he is fed from the ground, as the dependent position of the head
favors the escape of matter from the pouches. In addition to this, give
the tonics recommended for nasal gleet. If this treatment fails, an
operation must be performed, which should not be attempted by any one
unacquainted with the anatomy of the part.
BRONCHITIS AND BRONCHO-PNEUMONIA.
Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. When this
inflammation extends to the air sacs at the termini of the smallest
branches of the bronchial tubes, the disease is broncho-pneumonia.
Bronchitis affecting the larger tubes is less serious than when the
smaller are involved. The disease may be either acute or chronic. The
causes are generally much the same as for other diseases of the
respiratory organs, noticed in the beginning of this article. The
special causes are these: The inhalation of irritating gases and smoke
and fluids or solids gaining access to the parts. Bronchitis is
occasionally associated with influenza and other specific fevers. It
also supervenes on common cold or sore throat.
_Symptoms._--The animal appears dull; the appetite is partially or
wholly lost; the head hangs; the breathing is quickened; the cough, at
first dry, and having somewhat the character of a "barking cough," is
succeeded in a few days by a moist, rattling cough; the mouth is hot;
the visible membranes in the nose are red; the pulse is frequent, and
during the first stage is hard and quick, but as the disease advances
becomes smaller and more frequent. There is a discharge from the
nostrils that is at first whitish, but later becomes creamy or frothy,
still later it is sometimes tinged with blood, and occasionally it may
be of a brownish or rusty color. By auscultation, or placing the ear to
the sides of the chest, unnatural sounds can now be heard. The air
passing through the diseased tubes causes a wheezing sound when the
small tubes are affected, and a hoarse, cooing, or snoring sound when
the larger tubes are involved. After one or two days the dry stage of
the disease is succeeded by a moist state of the membrane. The ear now
detects a different sounds caused by the bursting of the bubbles as the
air passes through the fluid, which is the exudate of inflammation and
the augmented mucous secretions of the membrane. The mucus may be
secreted in great abundance, which, by blocking up the tubes, may cause
a collapse of a large extent of breathing surface. Usually the mucus is
expectorated; that is, discharged through the nose. The matter is
coughed up, and when it reaches the larynx much of it may be swallowed,
and some is discharged from the nostrils. The horse can not spit, like
the human being, nor does the matter coughed up gain access to the
mouth. If in serious cases all the symptoms become aggravated, the
breathing is labored, short, and quick, it usually indicates that the
inflammation has reached the breathing cells and that catarrhal
pneumonia is established. In this case the ribs rise and fall much more
than natural. This fact alone is enough to exclude the idea that the
animal may be affected with pleurisy, because in that disease the ribs
are as nearly fixed as it is in the power of the animal to do so, and
the breathing is accomplished to a great extent by aid of the abdominal
muscles. The horse persists in standing throughout the attack. He
prefers to stand with head to a door or window to gain all the fresh air
possible, but if not tied may occasionally wander listlessly about the
stall. The bowels most likely are constipated; the dung is covered with
slimy mucus. The urine is decreased in quantity and darker in color than
usual. The animal shows more or less thirst; in some cases the mouth is
full of saliva. The discharge from the nose increases in quantity as the
disease advances and inflammation subsides. This is rather a good
symptom, as it shows that one stage has passed. The discharge then
gradually decreases, the cough becomes less rasping, but of more
frequent occurrence, until it gradually disappears with the return of
health.
Bronchitis, affecting the smaller tubes, is one of the most fatal
diseases, while that of the larger tubes is never very serious. It must
be stated, however, that it is an exceedingly difficult matter for a
nonexpert to discriminate between the two forms, and, further, it may as
well be said here that he will have difficulty in discriminating between
bronchitis and pneumonia.
_Treatment._--The matter of first importance is to insure pure air to
breathe, and next to make the patient's quarters as comfortable as
possible. A well-ventilated box stall serves best for all purposes.
Cover the body with a blanket, light or heavy, as the season of the year
demands. Hand-rub the legs until they are warm, then wrap them in cotton
and apply flannel or Derby bandages from the hoofs to the knees and
hocks. If the legs can not be made warm with hand rubbing alone, apply
dry mustard. Rub in thoroughly and then put the bandages on; also rub
mustard paste well over the side of the chest, covering the space
beginning immediately behind the shoulder blade and running back about
eighteen inches, and from the median line beneath the breast to within
ten inches of the ridge of the backbone. Repeat the application to the
side of the chest about three days after the first one is applied.
Compel the animal to inhale steam from a bucketful of boiling water
containing a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine and spirits of camphor,
as advised for cold in the head. In serious cases the steam should be
inhaled every hour, and in any case the oftener it is done the greater
will be the beneficial results. Three times a day administer an
electuary containing acetate of potash (2 drams), with licorice and
molasses or honey. It is well to keep a bucketful of cold water before
the animal all the time. If the horse is prostrated and has no appetite,
give the following drench: Spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces;
rectified spirits, 3 ounces; water, 1 pint. Repeat the dose every four
or five hours if it appears to benefit. When the horse is hard to
drench, give the following: Pulverized carbonate of ammonia, 3 drams;
linseed meal and molasses sufficient to make the whole into a stiff
mass; wrap it with a small piece of tissue paper and give as a ball.
This ball may be repeated every four or five hours. When giving the ball
care should be taken to prevent its breaking in the mouth, as in case of
such accident it will make the mouth sore and prevent the animal from
eating. If the bowels are constipated, give enemas of warm water. Do not
give purgative medicines. Do not bleed the animal.
If the animal retains an appetite, a soft diet is preferable, such as
scalded oats, bran mashes, and grass, if in season. If he refuses cooked
feed, allow in small quantities anything he will eat. Hay, cob corn,
oats, bread, apples, and carrots may be tried in turn. Some horses will
drink sweet milk when they refuse all other kinds of feed, and
especially is this the case if the drinking water is withheld for a
while. One or 2 gallons at a time, four or five times a day, will
support life. Bear in mind that when the disease is established recovery
can not occur in less than two or three weeks, and more time may be
necessary. Good nursing and patience are required.
When the symptoms have abated and nothing remains of the disease except
the cough and a white discharge from the nostrils, all other medicines
should be discontinued and a course of tonic treatment pursued. Give the
following mixture: Reduced iron, 3 ounces; powdered gentian, 8 ounces;
mix well together and divide into sixteen powders. Give a powder every
night and morning mixed with bran and oats, if the animal will eat it,
or shaken with about a pint of flaxseed tea and administered as a
drench.
If the cough remains after the horse is apparently well, give 1 dram of
iodid of potassium dissolved in a bucketful of drinking water one hour
before each meal for two or three weeks if necessary. Do not put the
animal to work too soon after recovery. Allow ample time to regain
strength. This disease is prone to become chronic and may run into an
incurable case of thick wind.
PLEURISY.
The thoracic cavity is divided into two lateral compartments, each
containing one lung and a part of the heart. Each lung has its separate
pleural membrane, or covering. The pleura is the thin, glistening
membrane that covers the lung and also completely covers the internal
walls of the chest. It is very thin, and to the ordinary observer
appears to be part of the lung, which, in fact, it is for all practical
purposes. The smooth, shiny surface of the lung, as well as the smooth,
shiny surface so familiar on the rib, is the pleura. In health this
surface is always moist. A fluid is thrown off by the pleura, which
causes the surface to be constantly moist. This is to prevent the
effects of friction between the lungs and the walls of the chest and
other contiguous parts which come in contact. It must be remembered that
the lungs are dilating each time a breath is taken in, and contracting
each time a breath of air is expelled. It may be readily seen that if it
were not for the moistened state of the surface of the pleura the
continual dilatation and contraction and the consequent rubbing of the
parts against each other would cause serious friction.
Inflammation of this membrane is called pleurisy. Being so closely
united with the lung, it can not always escape participation in the
disease when the latter is inflamed. Pleurisy may be due to the same
predisposing and exciting causes as mentioned in the beginning of this
work as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration, such
as exposure to sudden changes of temperature, confinement in damp
stables, etc. It may be caused also by wounds that penetrate the chest,
for it must be remembered that such wounds must necessarily pierce the
pleura. A fractured rib may involve the pleura. The inflammation
following such wounds may be circumscribed; that is, confined to a small
area surrounding the wound, or it may spread from the wound and involve
a large portion of the pleura. The pleura may be involved secondarily
when the heart or its membrane is the primary seat of the disease. It
may occur in conjunction with bronchitis, influenza, and other diseases.
Diseased growths that interfere with the pleura may induce pleurisy. The
most frequent cause of pleurisy is an extension of inflammation from
adjacent diseased lung. It is a common complication of pneumonia.
Pleurisy will be described here as an independent affection, although it
should be remembered that it is very often associated with the foregoing
diseases.
The first lesion of pleurisy is overfilling of the blood vessels that
ramify in this membrane and dryness of the surface. This is followed by
the formation of a coating of coagulated fibrin on the diseased pleura
and the transudation of serum which collects in the chest. This serum
may contain flakes of fibrin and it may be straw colored or red from an
admixture of blood. The quantity of this accumulation may amount to
several gallons.
_Symptoms._--When the disease exists as an independent affection it is
ushered in by a chill, but this is usually overlooked. About the first
thing noticed is the disinclination of the animal to move or turn
around. When made to do so he grunts or groans with pain. He stands
stiff; the ribs are fixed--that is, they move very little in the act of
breathing--but the abdomen works more than natural; both the fore feet
and elbows may be turned out; during the onset of the attack the animal
may be restless and act as if he had a slight colic; he may even lie
down, but does not remain long down, for when he finds no relief he soon
gets up. After effusion begins these signs of restlessness disappear.
Every movement of the chest causes pain; therefore the cough is
peculiar; it is short and suppressed and comes as near being no cough as
the animal can make it in his desire to suppress it. The breathing is
hurried, the mouth is hot, the temperature being elevated from 102 deg. or
103 deg. to 105 deg. F. Symptoms that usually accompany fever are present, such
as costiveness, scanty, dark-colored urine, etc. The pulse is frequent,
perhaps 70 or more a minute, and is hard and wiry. The legs and ears are
cold.
Percussion is of valuable service in this affection. After effusion
occurs the sound produced by percussing over the lower part of the chest
is dull. By striking different parts one may come to a spot of greater
or less extent where the blows cause much pain to be evinced. The animal
may grunt or groan every time it is struck. Another method of detecting
the affected part is to press the fingers between the ribs, each space
in succession, beginning behind the elbow, until a place where the
pressure causes more flinching than at any other part is reached.
Auscultation is also useful. In the first stage, when the surfaces are
dry and rough, one may hear, immediately under the ear, a distinct sound
very much like that produced by rubbing two pieces of coarse paper
together. No such friction sound occurs when the membrane is healthy, as
the natural moisture, heretofore mentioned, prevents the friction. In
many cases this friction is so pronounced that it may be felt by placing
the hand over the affected part. When the dry stage is succeeded by the
exudation of fluid this friction sound disappears. After the effusion
into the cavity takes place sometimes there is heard a tinkling or
metallic sound, due to dropping of the exudate from above into the
collected fluid in the bottom of the cavity, as the collected fluid more
of less separates the lung from the chest walls.
Within two or three days the urgent symptoms may abate owing to the
exudation of the fluid, and the subsidence of the pain. The fluid may
now undergo absorption, and the case may terminate favorably within a
week or 10 days.
If the quantity of the effusion is large its own volume retards the
process of absorption to a great extent, and consequently convalescence
is delayed. In severe cases the pulse becomes more frequent, the
breathing more hurried and labored, the flanks work like bellows, the
nostrils flap, the eyes stare wildly, the countenance expresses much
anxiety, and general signs of dissolution are plain. After a time
swellings appear under the chest and abdomen and down the legs. The
accumulation in the chest is called hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest.
When this fluid contains pus the case usually proves fatal. The
condition of pus within the cavity is called empyema.
Pleurisy may affect only a small area of one side or it may affect both
sides. It is oftener confined to the right side.
_Treatment._--The instructions in regard to the general management of
bronchitis and pneumonia must be adhered to in the treatment of
pleurisy. Comfortable quarters, pure air, warm clothing to the body and
bandages to the legs, a plentiful supply of pure cold water, the
laxative feed, etc., in this case are equally necessary and efficacious.
The hot applications applied to the chest, as directed in the treatment
of pneumonia, are very beneficial in pleurisy, and should be kept up
while the symptoms show the animal to be in pain.
During the first few days, when pain is manifested by restlessness,
apply hot packs to the sides diligently. After four or five days, when
the symptoms show that the acute stage has somewhat subsided, mustard
may be applied as recommended for pneumonia. From the beginning the
following drench may be given every six hours, if the horse takes it
kindly: Solution of the acetate of ammonia, 3 ounces; spirits of nitrous
ether, 1 ounce; bicarbonate of potassium, 3 drams; water, 1 pint.
If the patient becomes debilitated, the stimulants as prescribed for
pneumonia should be used according to the same directions. The same
attention should be given to the diet. If the animal will partake of the
bran mashes, scalded oats, and grass, it is the best; but if he refuses
the laxative diet, then he should be tried with different kinds of feed
and allowed whichever kind he desires.
In the beginning of the attack, if the pain is severe, causing the
animal to lie down or paw, morphin may be given by the mouth in 5-grain
doses, or the fluid extract of _Cannabis indica_ may be used in doses of
2 to 4 drams.
If the case is not progressing favorable in ten or twelve days after the
beginning of the attack, convalescence is delayed by the fluid in the
chest failing to be absorbed. The animal becomes dull and weak and
evinces little or no desire for feed. The breathing becomes still more
rapid and difficult. An effort must now be made to excite the absorption
of the effusion. An application of liniment or mild blister should be
rubbed over the lower part of both sides and the bottom of the chest.
The following drench may be given three times a day, for seven or eight
days, if it is necessary and appears to benefit: Tincture of the
perchlorid of iron, 1 ounce; tincture of gentian, 2 ounces; water, 1
pint. Also give 1 dram of iodid of potassium, dissolved in the drinking
water, an hour before feeding every night and morning for a week or
two.
_Hydrothorax_ is sometimes difficult to overcome by means of the use of
medicines alone, when the operation of tapping the chest is performed to
allow an escape for the accumulated fluid. The operation is performed
with a combined instrument called the trocar and cannula. The puncture
is made in the lower part of the chest, in the space between the eighth
and ninth ribs. Wounding of the intercostal artery is avoided by
inserting the instrument as near as possible to the anterior edge of the
rib. If the operation is of benefit, it is only so when performed before
the strength is lowered beyond recovery. The operation merely receives a
passing notice here, as it is not presumed that the nonprofessional will
attempt it, although in the hands of the expert it is attended with
little danger or difficulty.
We have described here bronchitis, pneumonia, and pleurisy mainly as
they occur as independent diseases, but it should be remembered that
they merge into each other and may occur together at one time. While it
is true that much more might have been said in regard to the different
stages and types of the affections, and also in regard to the treatment
of each stage and each particular type, the plan adopted of advising
plain, conservative treatment is considered the wisest on account of
simplifying as much as possible a subject of which the reader is
supposed to know very little.
PLEUROPNEUMONIA.
This is the state in which an animal is affected with pleurisy and
pneumonia combined, which is not infrequently the case. At the beginning
of the attack only one of the affections may be present, but the other
soon follows. It has already been stated that the pleura is closely
adherent to the lung. The pleura on this account is frequently more or
less affected by the spreading of the inflammation from the lung tissue.
There is a combination of the symptoms of both diseases, but to the
ordinary observer the symptoms of pleurisy are the most obvious. The
course of treatment to be pursued differs in no manner from that given
for the affections when they occur independently. The symptoms will be
the guide as to the advisability of giving oil and laudanum for the pain
if the pleurisy is very severe. It should not be resorted to unless it
is necessary to allay the pain.
BRONCHO-PLEUROPNEUMONIA.
This is the term or terms applied when bronchitis, pleurisy, and
pneumonia all exist at once. It is impossible for one who is not an
expert to diagnose the state with certainty. The apparent symptoms are
the same as when the animal is affected with pleuropneumonia.
SUPPURATION AND ABSCESS IN THE LUNG.
There are instances, and especially when the surroundings of the patient
have been bad or the disease is of an especially severe type, when
pneumonia terminates in an abscess in the lung. Sometimes, when the
inflammation has been extreme, suppuration in a large portion of the
lung takes place. Impure air, the result of improper ventilation, is
among the most frequent causes of this termination. The symptoms of
suppuration in the lung are chronic pneumonia, a solidified area of lung
tissue, continued low fever, and, in some cases, offensive smell of the
breath, and the discharge of the matter from the nostrils.
MORTIFICATION.
Gangrene, or mortification, means the death of the part affected.
Occasionally, owing to the intensity of the inflammation or bad
treatment, pneumonia and pleuropneumonia terminate in mortification,
which is soon followed by the death of the animal. Perhaps the most
common cause of this complication is the presence of a foreign body in
the lung, as food particles or medicine. Rough drenching or drenching
through the nostrils may cause this serious condition.
HEMOPTYSIS, OR BLEEDING FROM THE LUNGS.