_Further descent of the De Corbeau.—Remarks on its general
course and character.—Junction of Leaf and Long Prairie
Rivers.—The latter pursued by the Pillagers in their wars
against the Sessitons and Yanktons.—Cause of the appellation of
Mukkundwa.—Their robbery of Berti, and assertion of a belligerent
principle.—Forest trees of the De Corbeau.—Monotony of its
scenery.—Meeting with a Chippewa hunter.—Arrival at the mouth
of the river, and entrance of the Mississippi.—Concourse of
Indians assembled at that point.—Council with them.—Sketch of the
speeches of Grosse Gueule, Soangikumig, and White Fisher.—Arrival
of the Pierced Prairie.—First intelligence of the breaking out of
the Sauc War.—Close of the Narrative.—Notice of the effects of
the disuse of ardent spirits by the men, and the observance of
the Sabbath._
The ensuing portion of our voyage down this stream, occupied a day and
a half, during which we probably descended a hundred and twenty miles.
Its general course, from the forks, is south-east. It is swelled by
two principal tributaries from the west, called Leaf and Long Prairie
rivers, each of which brings in an ample volume, and both bear the
impress of draining an extensive area. On the other bank, it is joined
by the Kioshk, or Gull River, a stream of inferior size. Lesser streams
or creeks, were noticed at several points, on either shore, by which
the mass of water is considerably augmented. Altogether it is a stream
of noble size, and is driven on through a diluvial formation, with a
velocity indicating no small ratio of descent. There is no part of it,
which can be called still water; much of it is rapid. For about seventy
miles below the junction of Shell River, there is a regular series of
distinct rapids, in each of which, the descent is several feet, and
it requires dexterity to avoid running against the boulders, or “lost
rocks,” which shew themselves above the water. Below the junction
of Leaf River, this characteristic becomes less noticeable, and it
disappears entirely, below the entrance of the Long Prairie branch.
Its banks are elevated, presenting to the eye, a succession of pine
forests, on the one hand, and an alluvial bend, bearing elms and soft
maple, on the other. There is a small willow island about eighteen
miles below the junction of Shell river, and several small elm islands
in its central parts; but nothing at all comparable, in size, soil and
timber, with the large and noted island, called _Isle De Corbeau_,
which marks its junction with the Mississippi.
Long Prairie River is the avenue through which the Chippewas ascend, in
their war excursions against the Sessitons and Yanktons. And many tales
are related of mishaps and adventures on this stream, and the plains
contiguous to it. Some of these it may be supposed, are _tales_ merely.
Others are the events of Indian history. But truth and fiction appear
to be so blended in the accounts, that the separation of the one, from
the other, must be often difficult, if not impossible. The recent war
party, of which we saw one of the trophies, while encamped on the
island of Colcaspi, went up this river in canoes. They encountered the
Sioux, as they affirm, coming out against them. A fight ensued in the
prairies, and was continued with changes of position throughout the
day. Three Sioux and one Chippewa fell. The Sioux withdrew to a more
remote position near their village. And the Chippewas returned to exult
over the scalps of their enemy, and to meditate another blow. We saw
several traces of this war party in our descent of the De Corbeau, in
their places of hasty encampment, and also in remains of very small
fires, tracks in landing on an open sand bank, and abandoned canoes,
stranded and partly sunk, on the shores.
This war, between the Chippewas and Sioux, appears to be of ancient
origin. It is at least coeval with the discovery of the country.
Although the Chippewas are confessedly conquerors of the country they
possess on this border, the conquests are of remote date. For the
French, in exploring northward, found them already seated here. The
part the Leech Lake Indians have played in this war, has rendered
them conspicuous in their nation, and as before indicated, led to
the appellation of Mukkundwais, or Pillagers, by which they are
distinctively known. The circumstances which imposed upon them this
name, are these.
Tradition asserts that in the interval which happened between
the first attack on the French power in Canada, and the final
acknowledgment of English supremacy, great irregularities existed
in the fur trade in this quarter. The French were loved by the
Indians, and naturally retained their influence to the last. And when
the English entered the field of the trade, they were essentially
dependent upon French clerks, and wholly so, on French or Canadian
boatmen. During this era, a Mr. Berti entered the country, with a
large assortment of goods. He took his station at the mouth of the De
Corbeau, where he carried on a lucrative trade with the Chippewas. He
had, however, more goods than these had furs to purchase, and among
them, guns and ammunition, which he very well knew would find a ready
sale among the Sioux. But, the Leech Lake Indians, forbid his going
into the Sioux country, alleging that the Sioux were their enemies, and
that the putting of guns and powder in their hands, would be to join
their cause. Mr. Berti did not probably consider these declarations
as absolutely final, for he proceeded towards the mouth of the Long
Prairie River, in order to go to the Sioux. The result, however, was
most disastrous to him. This band arrested his progress, and with arms
in their hands, robbed him of all his goods without discrimination, but
spared his own life and the lives of his men, who were suffered to go
back, with their private effects. Mr. Berti was probably overwhelmed by
this misfortune, for he never returned from the country, but soon after
this event, died a natural death, and was buried in the region about
Sandy Lake.
The forest of this fork of the Mississippi, abounds in almost every
variety of the pine family. We observed the sugar maple less frequently
on our whole route, than would be inferred from the knowledge,
that this tree is spread over the sources of the Mississippi, and
flourishes, even in its most northern latitudes; and that the sugar
made from it, is relied on by the Indians, as one of the regular of the
minor means of their subsistence. This may be accounted for, perhaps
satisfactorily, from knowing that river alluvions, and low grounds
generally, are unfavorable to its growth. Its true position is the
uplands, to which the Indians are known to resort, in the season of
sugar making. Other species of the maple, frequently exhibited their
soft foliage, over the stream, together with the elm, and the ash, and
some varieties of the oak. Pine is, however, by far the most abundant
and valuable timber tree, disclosed along the immediate banks of this
river, and it affords a repository of this species, which will be
much resorted to, when the agricultural plains above the falls of St.
Anthony, shall teem with their destined population.
The mere exhibition of woods and waters, however inspiring in their
effects, is not sufficient to keep the attention from flagging, if
there be no striking succession of variety in their character. It
seems not less a physical, than a moral truth, that “uniformity will
tire, though it be uniformity of excellence.” The eye is perpetually
searching for something new, and however it may have been with other
explorers, I think we may venture to say, that with us, novelty has
been a far more constant or immediate passion, than utility. The
“lightning splintered” pine, which raises its dead arms, amid the
living foliage, is suited to call forth a remark. The waterfowl with a
tuft, or the shell with a deep cicatrice or a pearly interior, gives
occasion for interrupting the silence, that plainer species would have
left unbroken. And it is this search for something distinctive or
peculiar, that gives an edge to the zeal of discovery.
On the third day of our voyage down this river, towards noon the
monotony of its incidents, was relieved by descrying an Indian canoe,
ascending the channel before us. A simultaneous yell of recognition,
both from it, and from our men, shewed the accuracy, with which each
could identify, on a first glance, and at a distance, the approach of
friends, for it proved to be a Chippewa with his family. Our flag-staff
was instantly placed in its socket, in the stern of the canoe, and the
distance between us and them, made to appear less, under the influence
of _un chanson du voyageur_. The Indian, who, on reaching him, seemed
pleased, informed us that we were at no great distance from the mouth
of the river, where the Sandy Lake and Mille Lac bands were assembled,
awaiting our arrival. And that the count, by which they were assured of
the day appointed for meeting them, would be finished with the setting
of this day’s sun. We had pushed forward to attain the object, and were
highly gratified, that it had pleased a favoring Providence, to enable
us to keep our word, with them. Every face in this canoe, appeared to
wear a smile, and the _maja! maja!_ which the owner of it uttered on
parting, conveyed with a truth, which could hardly be mistaken, the
equivalent English sentiment of “God speed you!”
The remainder of the distance was easily despatched. We reached
the parting of the channels, which encloses the large island of _De
Corbeau_, about twelve o’clock. On issuing out of the upper channel,
and entering the broad current of the majestic Mississippi, we beheld
the opposite shore lined with Indian lodges, with the American flag
conspicuously displayed. The Indians commenced firing a salute the
instant we hove in sight, and continued it, with yells of joy, to the
moment of our landing. A throng then crowded the banks, among whom I
recognized the two principal chiefs, who, with their retinue, evinced,
both by word and act, the gratification they felt; not only at the
meeting, but the punctuality with which it had been observed. We were
gratified on being told, within a few hours of our arrival, that our
canoe, with the goods and supplies from Sandy Lake, was in sight; and
soon found the event verified, in the safe arrival of the men, and the
landing of the packages.
Being thus enabled to proceed with the council, it was determined
immediately to assemble the Indians, and state to them, in a more full
and formal manner than had been done at Sandy Lake, the objects of the
visit. On closing the address, the presents and provisions designed
for these bands, were issued to them. Kwiwizainsish, or the Grosse
Gueule, Soangikumig, or the Strong Ground, White Fisher, and the son of
Pugusainjigun, were the principal speakers in reply. The peculiarities
in the speech of each, may be adverted to.
The Grosse Gueule, observed, that, as the line was a question between
the Chippewas and Sioux, a firm peace could never exist, until the line
was surveyed and marked, so that each party could see where it ran.
This was wanted in the section of country, immediately west of them.
The Sioux, were in the habit of trespassing on it. And when their own
hunters went out, in the pursuit of game, they did not like to stop
short of the game, and they saw no marked line to stop them. He said
that it had been promised at the treaty at Prairie du Chien, that
the line should be run, and he wished me to convey his words on the
subject, to the President. He was in favor of peace now as he had been,
when he had met the Government in council at Tipisagi, and at Fond du
Lac.
Soangikumig,[19] said, through his brother, that he had taken a part in
defending the lines. He hoped that they might be made plain, so that
each party could see them. As it was, a perpetual pretence was given,
for crossing the path, (or lines.) It must be expected that the peace
would often be broken, when it could be, so easily.
Wabojeeg, or the White Fisher, stated that he had given his influence
to peace counsels. He had been present at the treaty of Fond du Lac.
The Sandy Lake Indians had been lately reproached, as it were, for
their pacific character, by hearing the Leech Lake war party passing
so near to them. (This party went up Long Prairie River.) He hoped the
same advice given to Chippewas, would be given to Sioux. If the Sioux
would not _come_ over the lines, they, (the Chippewas,) would not
_go_ over them. He thought the lines might have been differently run.
Their hunters always came out of Sauc river, which had been given up
to the Sioux. But as they had been agreed to, by their old Chiefs, who
were now gone, (he referred particularly to the late Katawabida, and
Babisikundadi,) it would be best to let them remain.
Nittum Egabowa, or the Front Standing Man, confined his speech to
personal topics. He said the medal he wore, and by virtue of which, he
claimed the Chieftainship, had been presented to his deceased father,
at the treaty of Prairie du Chien. He presented a pipe.
Ascertaining the trading house of a Mr. Baker to be near our
encampment, after closing the council, we embarked and descended the
Mississippi about eighteen miles to _Prairie Piercée_. Intelligence had
reached this place a few days before, by way of St. Peter’s, of open
hostilities among the Saucs and Foxes, and we here saw a western paper,
giving an account of an action with the militia on River Rock, the
murder of St. Vrain, the agent for these tribes, and other particulars
indicating the frontier to be irretrievably plunged into an Indian war.
At this point, (i. e. the mouth of the De Corbeau) a remote point
in our north-western geography, the route, of which the preceeding
sketches give an outline, intersects that of the expedition to the
sources of the Mississippi, under the direction of the present
Secretary of War, Gov. Cass, in 1820. And in order that no part of the
present volume may be considered as going over grounds pre-occupied by
the details embraced in our “Narrative Journal of Travels,” the account
of the present expedition is here terminated.
In submitting it to the public, it is conceived suitable to remark,
that it has been accomplished, from beginning to end, without the use
of so much as a drop of ardent spirits, of any kind, either by the
men upon whom the fatigues of the labor fell, or by the gentlemen who
composed the exploring party. This fact itself might be deemed an empty
annunciation, were it not in my power to add the gratifying result,
that no diminution of the strength or capacity of the men to perform
their labor has been, at any time experienced; nor has any sickness
at all supervened. At no stage of the journey, have the men, who were
originally engaged with a distinct understanding on this point, asked
for or required any liquor, or evinced any murmuring that it had been
excluded from the supplies. But even, where the labor was most severe,
on portages, in morasses, or in crossing highlands, they have evinced
a readiness, a cheerfulness, and an ability for sustaining continued
fatigue, which has often been the subject of remark and commendation by
the party. Often when the day’s work was done, when they had labored
hard at the paddle or carrying-strap, and sometimes when even a portion
of the night had been added to it, they showed a joyful spirit in
the encampment. And they frequently went to gather wood, after such
fatigues, for supplying the night fires, with the boatman’s song.
Another fact, may, with equal pleasure, be recorded, and it seems
intimately connected, in its influence with the preceeding. No Sabbath
day was employed in travelling. It was laid down as a principle, to
rest on that day, and wherever it overtook us, whether on the land,
or on the water, the men knew that their labor would cease, and
that the day would be given them for rest. Such of them as felt the
inclination, had the further privilege of hearing a portion of the
scriptures read, or expounded, or uniting in other devotional rites.
There were but a few hours of a single morning and a few hours of a
single evening, of separate Sabbaths, at distant points, which were
necessarily employed in reaching particular places. And the use of
these appeared to be unavoidable under the particular circumstances of
our local position. It may, perhaps, be thought, that the giving up of
one seventh part of the whole time, employed on a public expedition
in a very remote region, and with many men to subsist, must have, in
this ratio, increased the time devoted to the route. But the result
was far otherwise. The time devoted to recruit the men, not only gave
the surgeon of the party an opportunity to heal up the bruises and
chafings they complained of, but it replenished them with strength;
they commenced the week’s labor with renewed zest, and this zest was,
in a measure, kept up by the reflection, that the ensuing Sabbath
would be a day of rest. It was found by computing the whole route,
and comparing the time employed, with that which had been devoted on
similar routes, in this part of the world, that an equal space had been
gone over, in less time, than it had ever been known to be performed,
by loaded canoes, or (as the fact is) by light canoes, before. And the
whole expedition, its incidents and results, have been of a character
furnishing strong reasons for uniting in ascriptions of praise to that
Eternal Power, who hath been our shield from “the pestilence that
walketh in darkness, and from the destruction that wasteth at noon-day.”
EXPLORATORY TRIP
THROUGH THE
ST. CROIX AND BURNTWOOD
(OR BRULÉ) RIVERS.
[Illustration: _Sᵗ. CROIX AND MISACODA OR BURNTWOOD RIVERS._]
INTRODUCTORY MEMORANDA.
The principal points at which the waters of the Mississippi river
communicate, by interlocking rivers and portages, with the lakes,
are the following, proceeding from south to north, namely,
1. By the Illinois and Chicago Creek, (with Lake Michigan.)
2. By the Wisconsin and Fox Rivers, (with Green Bay.)
3. By the Chippewa and Mushkee (or Mauvais) Rivers, (with Lake
Superior.)
4. By the St. Croix and Burntwood (or Brulé) Rivers, (do.)
5. By the Savanne and St. Louis Rivers, (do.)
The routes by the Illinois, and by the Wisconsin, were first
laid open by French enterprise, and have been used for canoes
and flat-bottomed boats in their natural state, and without any
practical improvement which as yet, facilitates the communication,
about a hundred and sixty years. They are so familiar in our
geography, have been so much explored, and are so well appreciated,
as prominent points for effecting canal and railroad routes, that
it is only to be desired that early and efficient measures should
be taken for opening them.
The route of the Chippewa (or Sauteaux) River, is imperfectly
known, and has never been fully and accurately delineated and
described. It is a long river, having a number of fingered
branches, which spread over a large area of interior midland
country. They are connected, at distant points, with the principal
sources of the St. Croix and the Wisconsin of the Mississippi; with
the Mushkee, the Montreal, and the Ontonagon of Lake Superior; and
with the Monomonee, and the North Branch of Fox River of Green Bay.
The portages are of no great length, but being at considerable
altitudes above both the Mississippi and the lakes, and remote from
either, they are impracticable for boats.
In 1766 or ’67, J. Carver ascended the Chippewa River to the
Ottawa Fork. He ascended it no higher, and his delineations of
it, on the map which accompanied his original work, published in
London, cannot now be referred to. Dr. Douglass Houghton, and
Lieut. Robert E. Clary, U. S. A. delineated this stream, in 1831,
to the junction of the Red Cedar Fork, and up that fork to its
source in Lac Chetac; they continued the delineation of the route
thence, by portages, into the Ottawa Fork of the Chippewa, up that
river to Lac Courtorielle, or Ottawa Lake, and thence by a series
of short portages, to the Namakagon Branch of the St. Croix, and up
that branch, to the commencement of the series of portages, which
connect it with the Mushkee or Mauvais River of Lake Superior.
The latter river was delineated in its entire length. These
topographical observations, were commenced at the most easterly
point of the route. They remain in manuscript. Duplicates of them
have been communicated to the government.
The route of the St. Croix and Brulé, describes a shorter line
between Lake Superior and the Mississippi, than the preceeding; and
it is one, that has been, and continues to be, much used by the
traders and by the resident Indian population. We cannot refer,
however, to any accurate delineation of it, or to any printed
account of the country. Carver, in his way to the Kiministiquoia,
or Grand Portage, visited the upper forks of the St. Croix, and
descended the Burntwood, or Brulé, to which he gave the name of
Goddard’s River.
The channel of communication which exists through the Savanne and
St. Louis Rivers, was delineated by Capt. D. B. Douglass, as a
member of the expedition sent into that quarter by the government
in 1820. But the result of his observations, has not been given to
the public. The route has been again delineated with care, in its
whole extent, from Fond du Lac to Sandy Lake, during the present
year, by Lieut. James Allen, of the U. S. Army, and will with his
other delineations, be transmitted for the use of the Topographical
Bureau at Washington.
Lieut. Allen’s delineations, also, embrace the St. Croix and
Burntwood Rivers, in their whole length; and exhibit the first
actual survey of these streams, which the topographical history of
the region, presents.
Portions of these surveys have been prepared by the officer
making them, to illustrate the present volume, together with the
octavo sketches, which accompany the Narrative to Itasca, Cass and
Leech Lakes.
EXPLORATION
OF THE
ST. CROIX AND BURNTWOOD RIVERS.
CHAPTER I.
_Interval of the banks of the Mississippi, between the mouths of
the River De Corbeau and St. Croix, adverted to.—Plains above St.
Anthony’s Falls, agricultural.—Fact respecting the recession of
the bison.—Geological change in the character of the Mississippi,
in crossing 45 deg. parallel.—Fort Snelling.—Council.—Reach
the mouth of the St. Croix.—Picturesque character of St. Croix
Lake.—Traits of its natural history.—Encamp near a diminutive
kind of barrows.—“Standing Cedars.”—An Indian trader.—Green-stone
rock.—Falls of the St. Croix.—Traditionary account of an ancient
Indian battle, fought at these falls by the Chippewas, Saucs,
Foxes, and Sioux.—Wahb Ojeeg._
That portion of the Upper Mississippi, lying between the junction
of the De Corbeau and St. Anthony’s Falls, presents to the eye a
succession of prairie and forest land, which has the characteristics
of a valuable agricultural country. It is difficult in passing it, to
resist the idea, that it will, at some future day, sustain a dense
population. It is so elevated above the bed of the Mississippi, as to
be out of the reach of its periodical floods. The banks are rendered
permanent by resting upon a basis of fixed rocks, (the primitive,)
which appear in the channel of the river. The soil is arable upland,
apparently light, but of that ferruginous character, which has
turned out so durable and fertile in Michigan. Like the prairies of
the latter, the plough might be set in motion, without the labor of
clearing and grubbing, and a farm reclaimed with no additional labor
but that of fencing. Wood is often wanting on the immediate margin
of the river. It is not always so; and when thus wanting, forests
may be observed on the hilly grounds, at a distance. Wild hay might
be cut in any quantity. It is among the facts which mark the natural
history of the region, that the buffalo, or more strictly speaking,
the bison, which fed on these plains, in 1820, has not appeared here
since. The Virginia deer and the elk are, however, still abundant. The
absence of lime stone will probably prove the most formidable bar to
its settlement. Nothing of this kind is found except in its southern
borders. There appears to be no formations of rock elevated above the
soil, but the limited district called the _Pètites Roches_. And the
strata here are exclusively referable to the primitive series.
The entrances of a small river called Nokassippi, about two hundred
miles above St. Anthony’s Falls, may be considered as the termination
of this tract. Above this point, although the Mississippi has some rich
alluvions, as at the mouth of Sandy Lake River, its vegetation assumes
generally an alpine character, and a large portion of the wide area of
its valley, is traversed by pine ridges, with innumerable intervening
lakes, and extensive tracts of, what the natives denominate, mushkeegs.
On crossing through the forty-fifth parallel of latitude, the
Mississippi exhibits a change in the materials of its banks preparatory
to its entering the limestone region. This is first rendered strikingly
visible on the rapids immediately above the Falls of St. Anthony. The
fall itself is an imposing exhibition of geological scenery. The river
here sinks its level about forty feet, in the distance of, say 1,500
yards.[20] Sixteen feet of this has been estimated to consist of a
perpendicular fall, reaching, with irregularities from shore to shore.
Debris is accumulated in rude masses below, and the rapids are filled
with fallen or rolled rocks which impart a character of wildness to the
scene. We made a portage of 1,250 yards, having descended nearer to
the brink of the fall than is common. Fort Snelling is situated at the
estimate distance of nine miles below the falls, at the junction with
the river St. Peter’s. It occupies a commanding position, and exercises
it may be inferred, an important influence over the contiguous Indian
tribes, and the Indian trade. We reached this post on the 24th of
July. Capt. Jouett, the commanding officer, promptly afforded every
facility for communicating the object of the visit to the Sioux, and
requesting their concurrence, which was promised by the chiefs, in a
council convened at the Agency House. We refer to the subjoined report
for its results. No recent details of the progress of the Sauc war, had
been received. Having accomplished the object we proceeded down the
Mississippi, and reached the mouth of the St. Croix, at three o’clock
in the afternoon of the 26th, five days before the decisive action of
Gen. Atkinson with the combined Saucs and Foxes below.
The River St. Croix has one peculiarity, to distinguish it from all
other American rivers. It has its source and its termination in a
lake, and each of these bears the same name with itself. The lake at
its mouth is not less than thirty miles in length, and is, probably,
no where, much over a mile wide. Its banks are high and afford a
series of picturesque views, which keep the eye constantly on the
stretch. The country is an upland prairie, interspersed with groves
and majestic eminences. The waters are beautifully transparent, and
the margin exhibits a pebbly beach, so cleanly washed, that it would
scarcely afford earth enough to stain the fairest shoe. If “Loch
Katrine” presents a more attractive outline of sylvan coast, it must be
beautiful indeed. We went up it, turning point after point, with the
pleasure that novelty imparts, aided by the chanting of our canoe-men.
We were in hourly expectation of reaching its head for our night
encampment; but we saw the sun set, casting its golden hues and its
deep shadows over the water, and going down in a gorgeous amphitheatre
of fleecy clouds. The moon almost imperceptibly shone out, to supply
its place, creating a scene of moonlight stillness, which was suited to
fix a living impression of
“The silence that is in the starry sky,
The sleep that is among the lonely hills.”
Nothing could present a greater contrast, to the noisy scene of horses
and horsemen, war and bloodshed, which, we were then unconscious,
was about being acted, so near to us. We allude to the pursuit and
destruction of the Black Hawk’s army.
We encamped at a late hour, near a lofty eminence, which exhibited
on its summit, a number of small mounds or barrows strongly relieved
by the moonlight, which shone across the eminence, and left us in
the shade. We resumed our way again, before the hour of five in the
morning, (27th) and were still something more than two hours in
reaching the head of the lake. In going out of this beautiful sheet
of water, we would revert to some traits in its natural productions
which serve to distinguish it, as well as its prominent scenery,
although there are none equally distinctive. The great carboniferous
limestone formation,[21] which fills the Mississippi valley, also
reaches here, although there is now reason to believe that it reaches
but little farther north. Its vegetation has little that is peculiar.
The red cedar is found, hanging from some of its craggy shores on the
lower part. Some fresh water shells, generally thin and small, with
primary and lateral teeth wanting, characterize the sandy portions of
its shore. There are some willow islands at the point where the River
St. Croix enters it. And this point of the ingress of a large stream,
presents the characteristics of what have been, not inaptly, called
_drowned lands_, i. e. land bearing trees permanently standing in the
water.
The St. Croix above this point exhibits the appearance of a wide,
deep, ample river, with prominent banks, and forests of hard wood, and
pine species. Its islands consist of rich alluvions, heavily timbered
and subject to inundations. About two o’clock we passed the “Standing
Cedars,” a point called so, in the treaty of limits between the Sioux
and Chippewa tribes, and described in the inexact phraseology of the
Indians, to be “about a day’s paddle, in a canoe, above the lake.”
Howbeit, we were but a few minutes over nine hours, in performing the
distance, with a strong crew of _engagés_, however, in light canoes,
and with every appliance in pushing forward.
As evening approached, we encountered a man descending the river,
having four canoes in company, with several Frenchmen and their Indian
families. It turned out to be a Mr. B. who had been engaged in trade,
in the Chippewa country. We examined his papers to determine whether
he had been legally licensed, and caused a search of his canoes in
quest of whiskey. None of this article, or strong drink of any kind was
discovered. Little doubt had been felt, from information, which was
not, however proved, of his having used this article in the course of
his trade; whether with or without permission, could not be determined.
We revoked his license for the unexpired part of the time specified in
it, and permitted him to proceed out of the country, with the canoes
and the very trifling property which he possessed, which seemed,
indeed, to be essential to the mere subsistence of the numerous persons
with him.
The narrowing of the valley, and increased rapidity of the current,
had, for some time, admonished us of our approach to the falls. About
six o’clock we entered through a defile, formed by perpendicular walls
of rock on either shore. Its seamed and mossy surface did not permit us
to determine its character, without getting a fresh fracture. It proved
to be greenstone. We were in the midst of a formation of this rock, and
for two hours, urged our way up rapids and swift channels, made by the
broken and angular character of this stratum. We reached the foot of
the falls, and encamped there at eight o’clock in the evening.
The word “falls,” as applied here, is but another name for
impracticable rapids. The river tears its way through a vast bed of
greenstone, whose black and square masses, stand on either side, and
in the bed of the stream. Common quartz, imperfectly chrystalized, is
seen in the mass, and is the sole mineral apparent, although a more
attentive search may disclose others. A portage of four hundred yards
is made to avoid the falls. But there is still a series of rapids,
extending, with short interruptions, several miles above.
The physical character of this spot is such as to arrest a passing
attention; but it is inferior to the moral interest arising out of it.
It is the battle ground of Wahb Ojeeg, a celebrated Chippewa war chief
of the last century, and testifies to an event in Indian tradition,
which is not so remote as to be added to the events of the oblivious
years of their residence upon this continent. We have neither time nor
space to enter into details of this kind, and can merely advert to the
incident we have named. Like most of the incidents of Indian warfare
in the region, it is connected with the restless spirit, erratic
adventure, and ambitious daring of the tribes who are, this season,
(1832,) arrayed in hostility to the settlements on the Wisconsin. It
is one of the links of the curious chain of history, of the Sauc and
Fox tribes, who have fought their way from the St. Lawrence, thus
far across the continent, and been successively embroiled, with each
of the white powers, and, perhaps with some exceptions, with each of
the Indian tribes of the north. They appear, by their language and
traditions, to be Algonquins, and may be traced, as a starting point,
to the north shores of Lake Ontario. They appear to have been driven
thence for perfidy. They attacked the fort of Detroit, unsuccessfully.
They lived long at, and gave name to Sagana. They went to the Fox
River of Green Bay which is named after them, and here embroiled
themselves with the Monomonees, the Chippewas and the French. They were
finally driven thence by force of arms. They fled to the Wisconsin
where Carver speaks of their villages in 1766, thence to their recent
residence on Rock River, and by the last tragic act in their history,
are confined to a limit commencing west of the Mississippi. We speak
of the Saucs and Foxes as connected, in the gauntlet-like warfare they
have maintained, for they appear to have been intimate allies from the
earliest times. The Indian name of the one tribe signifies, Those who
went out of the land, (Osaukee,) and the other, Redearths, (Miskwakee,)
known by the _nom de guerre_, of Foxes.
While resident at Green Bay, they occupied also Lac du Flambeau, and
extended themselves to Lake Superior, and south-west of its shores, to
the Sauc and Little Sauc Rivers, above the Falls of St. Anthony. While
thus located, they appear to have fallen out with the Chippewas, their
cousins-german, and leagued with the Sioux, whom they have, of late,
so strenuously fought. With the aid of the latter, at first covertly
given, they maintained the possession of the rice lakes and midland
hunting grounds. But they were finally overthrown in a general defeat,
at these falls, by the combined Chippewa bands of Lake Superior.
The latter came down the St. Croix, by its Namakagon branch. They
were led by Wahb Ojeeg. Their spies reached the falls without having
encountered an enemy, but they unexpectedly found the Foxes, (whom
they call Ootaigahmees,) with their allies, encamped at the other end
of the portage. A partial action ensued. It was rendered general by
the arrival of the whole Chippewa force. It was a fierce and bloody
action. The Foxes made a resolute stand. But they were overpowered and
fled. And they have not since re-appeared in the region. Among the
slain several Sioux were found, and this is said to be the first actual
testimony of the Sioux being leagued with them, in the war against the
Chippewas. But this assertion is hardly reconcileable with the date of
the war in other places.
Wahb Ojeeg, or the White Fisher, who is noticed as the leader on this
occasion, is said to have led out seven other expeditions against the
Foxes and Sioux. He died at Chegoimegon, in Lake Superior, in 1793.
CHAPTER II.
_Ascent of the St. Croix above the falls.—Direct the burning
of illegal trading houses.—Snake River.—Its chief,
Pezhicki.—Notices of Snake River.—Its population and trade.—A
foreign trading company formerly located here.—Effects upon
the Indian intercourse of the present day.—Anecdote of the
former mode of using rum and tobacco.—Kettle Rapids.—Shell
River.—A hunting party of Chippewa boys.—Pokanokuning, or
Yellow River.—Its population and trade.—Notices of its natural
history.—Shells.—Prairie squirrel.—Widow of a murdered Indian,
called the Little Frenchman, declines having her son put to
school.—Reach the forks of the St. Croix.—Notice of the Namakagon
Branch.—The chief, Kabamappa.—Women’s Portage.—The Sturgeon
Dam.—Kabamappa’s village.—Upper St. Croix Lake._
We pursued our way as early on the morning (28th) as the clearing up
of the fog would permit. Soon after reaching the head of the series of
rapids, we observed a couple of buildings of logs, upon the left shore,
and landed to examine them. They proved to be deserted cabins which had
been occupied by traders, with their doors open, and containing nothing
of value. As these had been erected contrary to decisions of the Indian
office, made under the law of Congress regulating trading posts, and at
a point where the Sioux and Chippewas are thus improperly brought into
contact, we directed them to be burned. The remainder of the day was
diligently employed in the ascent. The following day being the Sabbath,
was devoted to rest. The water in the river appeared to be very low,
and was momently falling. We removed our place of encampment in the
evening, about ten miles. A Chippewa whom we met with his family, in a
canoe, informed us that Snake River was baishoo, a term denoting near
at hand.
The next morning, (30th,) after about three hours paddling, we reached
the mouth of the Kinábic, or Snake River. We found Pezhicki, (or the
Buffalo,) the principal chief of that place, and his band, encamped
on the small peninsula which is formed by the junction. They fired a
salute, and crowded down to the shore, to welcome us. This chief was
one of a delegation who visited Washington, some years ago. He came
back with a profusion of ornaments, and a sword and tassels. These were
of no real utility, and have long since disappeared. The visit had
the effect to shew him the strength and resources of the Americans.
With little force of character, he has been pacific, so far at least,
as relates to white men. He was present at the treaties of Prairie du
Chien, and Fond du Lac. He is not the war chief of the Snake River
band. We know not, that he encountered in his journey, any teacher or
preacher to inform him that there was a savior.
Official business occupied a part of the morning. We found not the
slightest evidence of any participation, or disposition to participate,
in the hostile schemes of the Saucs and Foxes. Pezhicki approved of the
requests made by the Chippewas of the Upper Mississippi, for having
their lines surveyed, and united strongly in the measure. He said that
the Sioux had manifested a disposition to claim the country above the
Standing Cedars, and that they had, and still continued to trespass on
it. He said, that they had this season, crossed through the Chippewa
hunting grounds on the St. Croix to go against the band at Rice Lake
on the Red Cedar Fork of the Chippewa River. He cheerfully promised to
assist the military canoes, in their ascent and immediately sent three
young men for that purpose.
Snake River is an important tributary of the St. Croix. It constitutes
an established post of trade, for which licences are granted by the
Indian department. Its Indian population is reported at three hundred
and one souls. Persons of the mixed cast, thirty-eight. This river is
connected, by an easy portage, with Rum River, a route much used by
Indians going to the Mille Lac and Sandy Lake borders. Masses of native
copper have been brought out of its bed by the Indians, who report
the existence of further indications of its presence. The North West
Company formerly held a post on this river, and it remained for several
years, a central place of trade for the Indians of the lower St. Croix.
The influence of this company over the Indians was every where visible,
and so far as this influence was connected with political feelings, it
was, as a matter of course, exerted in favor of the British government.
As not more than twenty years have elapsed, since the authority of the
American government began at all to be exercised in this quarter, and
a much shorter period must be assigned for any active influence from
its posts and agencies, it should not excite surprise that the elder
Indians should, as they do, feel an attachment for that government.
Nor is it strange, that ambitious and designing men among them, should
occasionally form combinations for open resistance, of the character of
that which has recently been witnessed among the Saucs and Foxes. Time,
and judicious counsels, will afford the surest corrective.
In looking back to the condition of the trade, as it existed here,
fifty years ago, some striking changes have supervened. A Mr. Harris,
who is still living at the age of about eighty-four, informed me, that
about the close of the American war, when he first came to this river,
rum was an article in high request among the Indians. When they had
purchased a keg of it, it was customary to pour it out into a large
kettle and place it over a fire. A hand of tobacco was then put in.
After being heated and stirred about for a time, the mixture was drank.
The distance from Snake River to Yellow River is about thirty-five
miles. We employed the 30th, from about eleven in the morning till
eight at night, and the 31st until eight o’clock in the morning, in
performing this distance. The water was very low, and it frequently
required the men to get out and wade. The Kettle Rapids, nine miles
in extent, are, however, the most formidable obstacle. The St. Croix
receives, in this distance, the Akeek or Kettle River, from the left,
and the Aissippi, or Shell River, from the right. The latter takes
its rise in a lake, which is noted for the number and large size of
its fresh water shells. Hence its name. We met a number of Indians,
on this day’s journey who evinced a friendly feeling. We encamped at
eight o’clock, with a party of Indian boys, who had come down the river
hunting. They were rejoiced on seeing us approach, and spent much of
their ammunition in saluting us, which a colder feeling of foresight,
might have induced them to reserve for the chase. And they offered us
some of the scanty products of their evening’s labour, thus evincing
the truth of the remark,
“Yet is he free; a morsel though his fare,
That morsel will he, unrepining, share;
A kind companion, and a liberal friend,
Not prone to hoard, nor cautious to expend,
Thence, often poor; but not that craven kind,
The low-born meanness of a stingy mind.”
One of the canoe-men lacerated his foot on the angular masses of
greenstone, which form a shore of angular pebbles, near Snake River.
And this rock appeared again distinctly, in place, on the Kettle
rapids. Masses of it, were frequently seen in the bed of the river
and incumbering its shores, below that point. They were observed to
decrease in size and frequency above these rapids, from which it may be
inferred, that the rapids themselves are situated near the limits of
the formation.
At Yellow River, we found a considerable assembly of Indians, who, as
they saw our approach for some distance, ranged themselves along the
shore, and fired a formal salute. I had visited this place, the same
month and nearly the same day, in 1831, and then entered the mouth of
the river to form my encampment. But on attempting again to reach the
same spot, the water was found so low, that it was impracticable, and
I came to the landing in front of a naked eminence, which, the Indians
call Pokonokuning, of Place or the Hip Bone,[22] a term by which the
river itself is (by them) designated.
This river is a post of trade, containing a population estimated at
three hundred and eighty-two souls. The lands are fertile, and afford
in connection with Ottawa Lake, and the adjacent country, a good
location for a mission and school. The river originates near the head
of Long River of the Red Cedar Fork of the Chippewa, to which there
is a canoe portage. It expands at unequal distances, beginning at its
source, into Lac Vaseux, Rice Lake, and Yellow Lake. Wild rice is one
of its productions, and is among the means of subsistence on which the
natives rely. Its natural history is further deserving of remark, as
yielding abundantly, univalve shells of a fine size. The purple winged
unio is found in abundance; and the natives make use of this species,
for spoons, by rubbing off the alatæ and rounding the margin—a process
by which they are rendered of no value as specimens of the species.
The copper-head snake is said to exist in the waters of this river.
Its banks afford much of the open grounds which are favorable to the
thirteen striped, or prairie squirrel, (S. tredecem, of Mitchill.)
The Indians exhibited to me the skin of this little animal, which is
peculiarly marked with alternations of stripes and spots.
We observed among the group of Indians at this place, the widow and
children of Waimit-Egozhains, a Chippewa, having an admixture of
white blood, who, with three others, was murdered by the Sioux while
descending the lower part of the St. Croix, in a canoe, in the fall of
1830. We directed the interpreter to say to her, that as providence
had removed her natural protector, and her means of subsistence must
be small, the elder of her boys, who was present, would be taken and
sent to school, and also taught the arts of an industrious life, if she
would direct him to embark in one of our canoes. She appeared to be
pleased but at the same time embarrassed. She consulted with a brother
who was one of the Indians present, and then replied that the boy was
not altogether useless in aiding her to get a support, as he could fish
and kill partridges. She did not feel willing thus suddenly to part
with him, but observed that she would send him out in the spring.
We were five hours and a half in going from Yellow River to the Forks
of the St. Croix. The distance is probably not over thirteen miles.
These data will show how slowly we proceeded, with every exertion,
against the obstacles of a very low state of water. And at this spot we
knew that we were to lose, at least, one half of the entire volume. The
loss is indeed greater, for the Namakágon, or right hand fork, which we
were here to leave, is decidedly the largest of the two.
The Namakágon Branch has its rise in a lake, which the Indians call
Mattedhair Lake, very near the source of the Mushkee or Mauvais River
of Lake Superior. Neither of these streams can, however, be ascended
to their sources. There is a portage across the intervening grounds,
interspersed with small lakes which is practicable for canoes and
packages of goods, carried after the northwest manner. The Namakágon
has another portage, at a lower point to Ottawa Lake, the source of
one of the navigable branches of the Chippewa River. This river, after
running about one hundred and seventy miles, joins the northwest branch
at the Forks of the St. Croix, and from this point, the joint volume,
increased by a number of tributaries is carried on, to swell the mass
of the Mississippi.
We found the chief Kabamappa, with others, encamped at the Forks. They
evinced the same feeling of welcome, and pleasure we had met from the
Chippewas on the lower part of the stream. Kabamappa said that nothing
had been very recently heard from the direction of Lac du Flambeau and
the borders of the Sauc disturbances. He readily communicated many
facts respecting the existing difficulties, and the means taken to
enlist the Indians in a general war. He said, that the confederacy, as
it is, had been reported to consist of nine tribes, whom he named.[23]
With respect to a permanent peace with the Sioux, he cordially
approved it. He had, he observed, given much of his thoughts and his
time to that object, and particularly so since our previous visit. It
was, primarily, through the influence of this chief that a general
peace-council had been held by the Sioux and Chippewas, during the fall
of 1831, on Snake River.
As to the state of the water his expression was, “iscutta! iscutta!”
indicating an exhausted state. He added, that though we had encountered
difficulties on the stream below, they would be multiplied on the
branch we were about to ascend. Even within sight of his lodge, he
pointed to shallows, where it would be impossible to ascend without
wading in the stream and carrying all the baggage. The river, he
said, was uncommonly low for the season, and was daily getting lower.
Under these circumstances, we had no time to lose. We employed the
remainder of the day in going about seven miles, and encamped after
dark at a place called the Women’s Portage. Just before encamping,
and when we were seeking a spot along the thick brushy shore, to
debark at, Kabamappa suddenly appeared standing on the bow of his
canoe, and pointing onwards, guided us to the spot of our encampment.
Daylight had completely disappeared and it was barely possible, in a
dark atmosphere, to discern contiguous objects. As the tall and gaunt
form of the chief glided by, with his spear-pole elevated in the
direction we were to go, it might have needed but little power of the
imagination, to transform him into a spirit of supernatural power.
Owing to the darkness we found it difficult to procure fire-wood for
the night. It was sought with torches. The chief joined us at our
evening meal. We were pleased with his urbanity.
A fog detained us at our encampment until after daylight, (1st Aug.)
We were enabled to proceed at five o’clock. Our first labor was
the ascent of a rapid, our _second_, our _third_, and our _fourth_
labors, were also rapids. In short, rapid succeeded to rapid, and with
such short intervals, that it would be impracticable from any notes
preserved of the route, to speak of this part of the stream, in any
other light than as a continued series of rapids. We often thought
ourselves above them but we as often found, in the language of our
canoe-men, “_encore un_.” About two o’clock in the afternoon we came to
still waters with sedgy shores, and at seven in the evening reached and
landed at Kabamappa’s village. The distance may be twenty-five miles
above the Women’s Portage. We encamped here.
The village is situated on a part of the river called Namai Kowagon,
or Sturgeon Dam. It occupies an eligible prairie bank, and exhibits in
the style of the lodges and gardens, considerable industry and regard
to comfort. It would seem to be no difficult effort to induce Indians,
who had proceeded thus far in fixed industry, to labor on their lands
more extensively and effectually. The lodges represent, on the ground
plan, oblongs enclosed with strong elm bark, sustained on a frame
work of saplings, tied on posts firmly set in the ground. They have a
moveable piece or door, at each end, and an opening in the centre of
the lodge, in the place of a chimney. Corn and potatoe fields, covered
the surrounding grounds. The corn was in tassel, but the wilting of
its blades, indicated, that they had been touched by a slight frost.
Its effects were particularly apparent in some vines near one of the
lodges. Although the lodges had been carefully closed, the chief said
during his absence, a wolf had broken into his lodge and committed
depredations. He observed, in speaking of game, that the red deer was
found on the adjoining plains. In order to hunt the moose an animal
formerly abundant in the region, he observed that it was necessary
to go to one of the remote forks of the Burntwood or Brulé River. He
represented the population of his village at eighty-eight souls, of
whom twenty-eight were men, This estimate was understood to include the
minor chief Blackbird and his followers, who are sometimes referred to
as a distinct band. We asked the chief, while sitting at the camp-fire
in the evening, whether he did not feel tired, having observed that
during the day, he had alone, with the aid only of his wife, poled up
his canoe and managed to keep ahead, so as to guide, our canoe with
seven men. He was evidently fatigued, but replied, smiling, no.
We parted with this chief, who has become respectable for his
influence in this part of the country, at four o’clock on the next
morning, (2d.) We had now got above all the strong rapids, and attained
very nearly the height of land. The river, above this point, receives
the Clearwater and Buffalo Rivers, as tributaries on the right bank. It
is finally traced to Lake St. Croix, a handsome sheet of clear water,
about six miles long. This lake has an island[24] which is the site of
a small village. Its head is perhaps ten or eleven leagues distant from
the Namai Kowagon.
CHAPTER III.
_Character of the St. Croix.—Its productiveness in wild
rice.—Population and trade.—Condition of the Indians, and their
prospect.—Portage to the Burntwood.—Marine sand formation.—Bass
lake.—Character of the Burntwood river.—Arrival at its discharge
into Fond du Lac of Lake Superior.—Indian friends.—Close of
the Narrative.—Brief general remarks on the condition of the
Chippewas.—Traits of character and government.—The institution of
the Totem.—Tale of the origin of White Fish._
On entering lake St. Croix we were favored with a fair wind, and made
use of our sails in passing it. As we approached its head, we found the
swell formidable, but were able, nevertheless, to keep the lake. We
debarked, on a marshy margin at its head, being the commencement of the
portage to the Brulé. As the river St. Croix has its origin here, a few
general remarks on its geographical features, may be subjoined.—This
stream is an important tributary to the Upper Mississippi, originating
on elevated grounds, and consequently, having a rapid mean descent.
Although not remarkable for its length, its waters spread in a lateral
line, an unusual distance. It has many tributaries, connecting it,
on the north, with Rum river, on the south, with Chippewa river,
and towards the east with the Mauvais and the Brulé rivers of Lake
Superior. The main channel may be estimated, by its windings, at two
hundred miles. The length of its Namakagon fork, is estimated to be
one hundred and seventy miles, while that of its northern branch does
not probably exceed sixty-five miles. Both branches, together with its
lower tributaries, and their numerous lakes, yield the northern rice
plant. The abundance of the plant, has led to the local term of the
Folle Avoine country, a name by which it is particularly known in the
transactions of the Fur Trade.
It has a comparatively mild climate, and rich soil, and in addition to
the small fur bearing animals, on the sale of which the Indians rely
for their woollens, arms, and ammunition; it affords the spontaneous
means of subsistence, more fully, perhaps, than most other parts of
the northwest regions. Its present aggregate population has been
estimated the present year, at eight hundred and ninety-five, say nine
hundred souls, numbering those only who are permanently located in
its valley.—What quantity of furs and peltries is annually got from
it, and what amount of Indian goods are required to pay for them,
are questions which might be ascertained, with general accuracy, by
consulting official records. But it is sufficient for the purposes of
moral enquiry, to remark, that both the supplies and the returns, are
less than they were in former years, and that there is a declension in
the trade, which must at length produce a migration of the Indians, or
induce them to become agriculturists. The fate that has overtaken other
tribes, enjoying a more southerly position, must inevitably overtake
these bands. And the period will probably arrive earlier, than it might
be anticipated. They occupy a portion of the Mississippi valley, which
is adapted for agriculture. Many parts of it, possess a rich soil,
and are well timbered. Other portions are prairie land, suited for
pasturage. Its most arid tracts abound in pine, and there is hardly a
stream, of its many tributaries which does not afford numerous eligible
seats for saw and grist mills. Hunting seems the only occupation, which
cannot be a permanent one. But,
“While thus the chase declines, and herds depart,
And heaven in prospect, dooms his favorite art,
No care of lands or flocks prepares his mind,
To mend his fortunes, and to save his kind.”
The portage from the St. Croix to the Burntwood, begins at the head
of (the Upper) lake St. Croix. It lies over an elevated sandy pine
ridge, which divides the two streams. The distance which the canoes and
packages require to be carried, is 3,350 yards, or nearly two miles. On
the left hand, in carrying from the St. Croix, there is a deep tamerac
valley, which is said to afford the head springs of both streams. On
the right, is seen, at some distance, a small lake, which is stated
to yield the black bass, and to have no outlet. Its existence in a
sand formation, indicates perhaps, coral rag, hardpan, or some firmer
material below. This sand is apparently of marine deposition, and
agrees, in this respect, with the extensive formations at the sources
of the Mississippi.
The goods after being carried this distance, are put down, on the
banks of a sandy bottomed brook of very clear cold water, overhung
with alders. Any other person, but one who had become familiar with
northwest portages, would be apt to say, on being ushered to this
secluded spot, “well, this is certainly an eligible spot to quench
one’s thirst at, but as for embarking on this rill, with a canoe and
baggage, the thing seems to be preposterous.” And so it certainly
appeared, on our arrival.—There was not an average depth of water of
more than two to four inches. But by going some distance below, and
damming the stream, it rose in a short time, high enough to float a
canoe, with a part of its lading. The men walking in the stream, then
led the canoes, cutting away the brush to veer them, and carrying such
parts of the lading as could not, from time to time, be embarked. We
did not begin the descent, till six o’clock, in the evening, and went
about a mile during the first hour and a half. It then became so dark,
that it was necessary to encamp. And to encamp in such a place, seemed
impossible. We could not, however, hesitate. There was no alternative,
we could neither advance nor recede, and we were surrounded with a
shaking bog. We slept on a kind of bog, which the men, call _têtes
des femmes_. Some rain fell during the night, but we were happily
relieved from the fear of inundation, by the showers passing off.
The next morning brought with it, a resumption of the toil of the
evening. Tho canoes were sent on entirely empty. All the baggage was
carried about a mile, at which distance the stream is perhaps doubled
in width, and more than doubled in depth. The next mile rendering the
going quite easy. At this point, say three miles from the portage, we
embarked all our baggage, and after this, found no want of water, till
we came to the rapids. These, commence about twenty-four miles below
the portage, and they extend with intervals of smooth water, “few
and far between,” to within three or four miles of the point of the
entrance of the river, into Lake Superior. The entire length of this
river may be estimated at one hundred miles, more than eighty miles of
this distance consists of rapids. It has been said that there are two
hundred and forty distinct rapids. At most of these, there is several
feet fall. At some of them eight to ten feet. Four of them require
portages of short extent. Six or seven hundred feet would not appear to
be an extravagant estimate for the entire fall. The river itself is a
perfect torrent; often on looking down its channel, there are wreaths
of foam constituting a brilliant vista, overhung with foliage. It would
never be used at all, for the purposes of the trade, were it not, that
there is much water on the rapids, so that experienced men can conduct
loaded canoes both up and down them. The river might appropriately
be called Rapid, or Mad River, or almost any thing else, but by its
popular name of _Brulé_. This is, in fact, rather a departure, than a
derivative from the Indian, Wisákoda, i. e. burnt-pines, or burnt-wood,
in allusion to a signal destruction of its pine forests, by fire. We
were two days, and part of an evening, in effecting the descent, and
regained our outward track, at the point of its discharge into the Fond
du Lac of lake Superior. We reached this point on the fourth of August,
late at night, having gone later than usual, from the fact of finding
ourselves below the rapids, and consequently knowing that we must be
near the lake. Our first certain indication of our proximity to it,
was, however, given by hearing the monotonous thump of an Indian drum.
We soon after came in sight of camp fires, with Indian forms passing
before them.—And we found ourselves, on landing, in the midst of former
Indian acquaintances. Among them were Mongazid (Loon’s Foot,) the
second Chief of Fond du Lac, and Chamees, (Pouncing Hawk,) a young man
who had first recommended himself to notice in 1820, by guiding a part
of Governor Cass’ expedition above the Knife Portage, and who evinced
the same disposition, during the forepart of the present summer, by
acting as a guide to the party, between Fond du Lac and Sandy Lake. We
were pleased on observing the military boat, used by Lieutenant Allen
on the lake, safely moored, with its sails and tackle, within the
mouth of the river, having been brought down, agreeably to promise, by
Mongazid, who had faithfully remained in charge of it.
The day following, being the Sabbath, was spent at this place. And the
narrative of our route from the Mississippi, may here be appropriately
closed. Some remarks arising from observations on the condition of the
Indians, among whom we have passed, it may be proper to add; but from
the little leisure we can command, they are necessarily few and brief.
The Chippewas are spread over a very large area in the north, divided
into local bands, and separated by extensive tracts which are, in great
part, sterile. They are not fixed in their habitations at any point,
during the whole of the year, being compelled to go in search of the
game, fish, and other spontaneous productions, on which they depend.
The space which each band periodically traverses, in this effort, is
extensive, and subjects them to casualties, which they would otherwise
escape. Their condition is still further imbittered by hostilities
with the Sioux tribes, who occupy the whole line of their western
frontier. They cover the entire north-western angle of the United
States, extending down the Mississippi valley on both banks, as low
as the Wadub, being the first stream above Sac river. At this point
their territorial line crosses from the west to the east banks of the
Mississippi, pursuing a southerly course, at the distance of about
forty miles from it, until it intersects the lands of the Winnebagoes,
north of the Wisconsin. This portion of the territory affords decidedly
the largest and best body of farming lands in their possession, and
will, probably, hereafter yield them, either by the proceeds of its
sale, or cultivation, a more sure reliance at a period when the land
becomes divested of game. The climate of this area is comparatively
mild, and the Indians who inhabit it, notwithstanding their partial
losses from wars, have evidently increased in population. They might
be concentrated here, could the agricultural be substituted for the
hunter life—a result which may be expected to follow, but cannot in
any reasonable estimate be expected to precede, their conversion to
christianity.
This tribe offer no prominent obstacles to the introduction of the
gospel. We have before adverted to the slender frame work of their
native religion, which seems to be made up, primarily of certain
superstitious ceremonies, winding themselves about the subject of
medicine. It appears to occupy that void in the barbaric mind, which
the soothsayers and magii of other lands, pressed forward, in the
absence of revelation, to fill. But we do not know that the ritual
has any striking features in common. The principal obstacle which
missionaries will have to contend with, is a want of the knowledge
of their language. And to surmount this is a labor which they cannot
too early begin nor too zealously persevere in. The language itself,
as we have before indicated, (vide Chap. X.) presents a copious
vocabulary, and is capable of being made the medium of religious
instruction. It has some defects which will require to be supplied, and
some redundancies which will demand curtailment, when it comes to be
written. But they offer very slight obstacles to oral communication.
It is obviously better suited to convey narrative than disquisitive
matter. And has been so long applied to corporeal objects, that it
requires caution and a familiar knowledge of its idioms, in the
conveyance of intellectual and still more of spiritual conceptions.
In mere externals, the Chippewas are not essentially different from
other tribes of the Algonquin stock in the western country. And the
points in which a difference holds, may be supposed to have been, for
the most part, the effects of a more ungenial climate. They are, to a
less extent than most of the tribes, cultivators of the soil, and more
exclusively hunters and warriors. Living in a portion of the continent,
remarkable for the number of its large and small lakes, they find a
common resource in fish, and along with this, enjoy the advantage of
reaping the wild rice.
Their government has been deemed a paradox, at the same time
exercising, and too feeble to exercise power. But it is not more
paradoxical than all patriarchal governments, which have their tie in
filial affection, and owe their weakness to versatility of opinion.
War and other public calamities bring them together, while prosperity
drives them apart. They rally on public danger, with wonderful
facility, and they disperse with equal quickness. All their efforts are
of the partizan, popular kind. And if these do not succeed they are
dispirited. There is nothing in their institutions and resources suited
for long continued, steady exertion.
The most striking trait in their moral history is the institution
of the Totem—a sign manual, by which the affiliation of families is
traced, agreeing, more exactly, perhaps, than has been supposed, with
the armorial bearings of the feudal ages. And this institution is kept
up, with a feeling of importance, which it is difficult to account for.
An Indian, as is well known, will tell his specific name with great
reluctance, but his generic or family name—in other words, his _Totem_,
he will declare without hesitation, and with an evident feeling of
pride.
None of our tribes have proceeded further than the first rude steps
in hieroglyphic writing. And it is a practice in which the Chippewas
are peculiarly expert. No part of their country can be visited without
bringing this trait into prominent notice. Every path has its blazed
and figured trees, conveying intelligence to all who pass, for all
can read and understand these signs. They are taught to the young
as carefully as our alphabet, with the distinction, however, that
hieroglyphic writing, is the prerogative of the males. These devices
are often traced on sheets of birch bark attached to poles. They are
traced on war-clubs, on canoe paddles, bows or gun stocks. They are
often drawn on skins, particularly those used as back dresses, by
warriors. They have also other hieroglyphic modes of communicating
information, by poles with knots of grass attached to them, or rings of
paint. and often by antlers, or animals’ heads suspended by the banks
of rivers.
The following tale is added as an example of the kind of imaginative
lore indicated by it.
ORIGIN OF THE WHITE-FISH.
In ancient times when the Indians were better than they now are,
when their laws were enforced by the chiefs, and when every crime
was promptly punished, there lived a noted hunter and a just man,
at a remote point on the north shore of Lake Superior. He had a
wife and two sons, who were usually left in the lodge, while he
went out in quest of the animals upon whose flesh they subsisted.
As game was then abundant, his exertions were well rewarded, and
he lived in the enjoyment of every blessing. But there was at
this time a venom preparing for his heart, which was not the less
poisonous, because it was for a time kept in secret. His two little
sons had observed the visits of a neighboring hunter, during the
absence of their father, and they ventured to remonstrate with
their mother on the propriety of receiving clandestine visits,
but she was in no temper to be reasoned with. She rebuked them
sharply, and finally, on their intimation of disclosing the
secret, threatened to kill them if they made any disclosure They
were frightened into silence. But observing the continuance of an
improper intercourse, kept up by stealth as it were, they resolved
at last to disclose the whole matter to their father. The result
was such as might be anticipated. The father being satisfied with
the infidelity of his wife, took up a war club at a moment when he
was not perceived, and with a single blow despatched the object of
his jealousy. He then buried her under the ashes of his fire, took
down his lodge, and removed to a distant position.
But the spirit of the woman haunted the children who were now
grown up to the estate of young men. She appeared to them in the
shadows of evening. She terrified them in dreams. She harassed
their imaginations wherever they went, so that their life was a
life of perpetual terrors. They resolved to leave the country, and
commenced a journey of many days towards the south. They at length
came to the Poiwateeg falls. (St. Mary’s.) But they had no sooner
come in sight of these falls, than they beheld the skull of the
woman (their mother) rolling along the beach after them. They were
in the utmost fear, and knew not what to do, to elude her, when one
of them observed a large crane sitting on a rock in the rapids.
They called out to the bird. “See, Grandfather, we are persecuted
by a spirit. Come and take us across the falls so that we may
escape her.”
This crane was a bird of extraordinary size and great age. And
when first descried by the two sons, sat in a state of stupor, in
the midst of the most violent eddies of the foaming water. When he
heard himself addressed, he stretched forth his neck, with great
deliberation, and then raising himself on his wings flew across to
their assistance. “Be careful” said the crane, “that you do not
touch the back part of my head. It is sore, and should you press
against it, I shall not be able to avoid throwing you both into
the rapids.” They were, however, attentive on this point, and were
both safely landed on the south side of the river. The crane then
resumed its former position in the rapids.
But the skull now cried out. “Come Grandfather and carry me over,
for I have lost my children, and am sorely distressed.” The aged
bird flew to her assistance, but carefully repeated his injunction,
that she must by no means touch the back part of his head, which
had been hurt, and was not yet healed. She promised to obey, but
she soon felt a curiosity to know, where the head of her carrier
had been hurt, and how so aged a bird could have acquired such
a bad wound. She thought it strange, and before they were half
way over the rapids, could not resist the inclination she felt
to touch the affected part. Instantly the crane threw her into
the rapids. The skull floated down from rock to rock, striking
violently against their hard edges, until it was battered to
fragments, and the sons were thus happily and effectually relieved
from their tormentor. But the brains of the woman, when the skull
was dashed against the rocks, fell into the water, in the form of
small white roes, which soon assumed the shape of a novel kind
of fish, possessing a whiteness of color peculiar to itself; and
these rapids have ever since been well stocked with this new and
delicious species of fish.
The sons meantime took up their permanent abode at these Falls,
becoming the progenitors of the present tribe, and in gratitude to
their deliverer adopted the Crane[25] as their Totem.
APPENDIX.
I. NATURAL HISTORY.
APPENDIX.
1. LIST OF SHELLS COLLECTED BY MR. SCHOOLCRAFT, IN THE WESTERN
AND NORTH-WESTERN TERRITORY.
BY WILLIAM COOPER.
HELIX.
1. HELIX ALBOLABRIS, _Say_. Near Lake Michigan.
2. HELIX ALTERNATA, _Say_. Banks of the Wabash, near and above the
Tippecanoe. Mr. Say remarks, that these two species, so common in the
Atlantic states, were not met with in Major Long’s second expedition,
until their arrival in the secondary country at the eastern extremity
of Lake Superior.
PLANORBIS.
3. PLANORBIS CAMPANULATUS, _Say_. Itasca (or La Biche) Lake, the source
of the Mississippi.
4. PLANORBIS TRIVOLVIS, _Say_. Lake Michigan. These two species were
also observed by Mr. Say, as far east as the Falls of Niagara.
LYMNEUS.
5. LYMNEUS UMBROSUS, _Say_. Am. Con. iv. pl. xxxi. fig. 1. Lake
Winnipec, Upper Mississippi, and Rainy Lake.
6. LYMNEUS REFLEXUS, _Say_. 1. c. pl. xxxi. fig. 2. Rainy Lake, Seine
River, and Lake Winnipec.
7. LYMNEUS STAGNALIS. Lake a la Crosse, Upper Mississippi.
PALUDINA.
8. PALUDINA PONDEROSA, _Say_. Wisconsin River.
9. PALUDINA VIVIPARA, _Say_. Am. Con. i. pl. x. The American specimens
of this shell are more depressed than the European, but appear to be
identical in species.
MELANIA.
10. MELANIA VIRGINICA, _Say_. Lake Michigan.
ANODONTA.
11. ANODONTA CATARACTA, _Say_. Chicago, Lake Michigan. This species,
Mr. Lea remarks, has a great geographical extension.
12. ANODONTA CORPULENTA, _Nobis_. Shell thin and fragile, though
less so than others of the genus; much inflated at the umbones,
margins somewhat compressed; valves connate over the hinge in perfect
specimens; surface dark brown, in old shells; in younger, of a pale
dingy green, and without rays, in all I have examined; beaks slightly
undulated at tip. The color within is generally of a livid coppery hue,
but sometimes, also, pure white.
Length of a middling sized specimen, four and a half inches, breadth,
six and a quarter. It is often eighteen inches in circumference, round
the border of the valves, with a diameter through the umbones of three
inches. Inhabits the Upper Mississippi, from Prairie du Chien to Lake
Pepin.
This fine shell, much the largest I have seen of the genus, was first
sent by Mr. Schoolcraft, to the Lyceum, several years ago. So far as I
am able to discover, it is undescribed, and a distinct and remarkable
species. It may be known by its length being greater in proportion to
its breadth than in the other American species, by the subrhomboidal
form of the posterior half, and, generally, by the color of the nacre,
though this is not to be relied on. It appears to belong to the genus
SYMPHYNOTA of Mr. Lea.
ALASMODONTA.
13. ALASMODONTA COMPLANATA, _Barnes_. SYMPHYNOTA COMPLANATA, _Lea_.
Shell Lake, River St. Croix, Upper Mississippi. Many species of shells
found in this lake grow to an extraordinary size. Some of the present
collected by Mr. Schoolcraft, measure nineteen inches in circumference.
14. ALASMODONTAB RUGOSA, _Barnes._ St. Croix River, and Lake Vaseux,
St. Mary’s River.
15. ALASMODONTA MARGINATA, _Say_. Lake Vaseux, St. Mary’s River: very
large.
16. ALASMODONTA EDENTULA? _Say._ ANODON AREOLATUS? _Swainson._ Lake
Vaseux. The specimens of this shell are too old and imperfect to be
safely determined.
UNIO.
17. UNIO TUBERCULATUS, _Barnes_. Painted Rock, Upper Mississippi.
18. UNIO PUSTULOSUS, _Lea_. Upper Mississippi, Prairie du Chien, to
Lake Pepin.
19. UNIO VERRUCOSUS, _Barnes_, _Lea_. St. Croix River of the Upper
Mississippi.
20. UNIO PLICATUS, _Le Sueur_, _Say_. Prairie du Chien, and River St.
Croix.
The specimens of U. PLICATUS sent from this locality by Mr. Schoolcraft
have the nacre beautifully tinged with violet, near the posterior
border of the shell, and are also much more ventricose them those found
in more eastern localities, as Pittsburgh, for example; at the same
time, I believe them to be of the same species. Similar variations
are observed in other species; the specimens from the south and west
generally exhibiting a greater development.
21. UNIO TRIGONUS, _Lea_. From the same locality as the last, and like
it unusually ventricose.
22. UNIO EBENUS, _Lea_. Upper Mississippi, between Prairie du Chien and
Lake Pepin.
23. UNIO GIBBOSUS, _Barnes_. St. Croix River, Upper Mississippi.
24. UNIO RECTUS, _Lamarck_. U. PRÆLONGUS, _Barnes_. Upper Mississippi,
from Prairie du Chien to Lake Pepin, and the River St. Croix. The
specimens collected by Mr. Schoolcraft, vary much in the color of the
nacre. Some have it entirely white, others, rose purple, and others
entirely of a very fine dark salmon color. This species inhabits the
St. Lawrence as far east as Montreal.
25. UNIO SILIQUOIDEUS, _Barnes_, and U. INFLATUS, _Barnes_. Upper
Mississippi, between Prairie du Chien and Lake Pepin. Large, ponderous,
and the epidermis finely rayed.
26. UNIO COMPLANATUS, _Lea_. U. PURPUREUS, _Say_. Lake Vaseux, St.
Mary’s River. Lake Vaseux is an expansion of the River St. Mary, a
tributary of the upper lakes. This shell does not appear to exist in
any of the streams flowing into the Mississippi.
27. UNIO CRASSUS, _Say_. Upper Mississippi, Prairie du Chien.
28. UNIO RADIATUS, _Barnes_. Lake Vaseux. The specimen is old and
imperfect, but I believe it to be the U. RADIATUS of our conchologists,
which is common in Lake Champlain and also inhabits the St. Lawrence.
29. UNIO OCCIDENS, _Lea_. U. VENTRICOSUS, _Say_, Am. Con. U.
VENTRICOSUS, _Barnes_? Wisconsin and St. Croix Rivers, and Shell Lake.
Epidermis variously colored, and marked with numerous rays.
30. UNIO VENTRICOSUS, _Barnes_. Upper Mississippi, from Prairie du
Chien to Lake Pepin and Shell Lake. The varieties of this, and the
preceding pass insensibly into each other. Those from Shell Lake are of
extraordinary size.
31. UNIO ALATUS, _Say_. SYMPHYNOTA ALATA, _Lea_. Upper Mississippi, and
Shell Lake. Found also in Lake Champlain, by the late Mr. Barnes.
32. UNIO GRACILIS, _Barnes_. SYMPHYNOTA GRACILIS, _Lea_. Upper
Mississippi, and Shell Lake. The specimens brought by Mr. Schoolcraft
are larger and more beautiful than I have seen from any other locality.
2. LOCALITIES OF MINERALS OBSERVED IN THE NORTHWEST IN 1831 AND 1832.
BY HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
CLASS I. _Bodies not metallic, containing an acid._
1. CALCAREOUS SPAR. Keweena Point, Lake Superior. Imbedded in small
globular masses, in the trap rock; also forming veins in the same
formation. Some of the masses break into rhombic forms, and possess
a certain but not perfect degree of transparency; others are opaque,
or discolored by the green carbonate of copper. Also in the trap rock
between Fond du Lac and Old Grand Portage, Lake Superior, in perfect,
transparent rhombs, exhibiting the property of double refraction. Also,
at the lead mines, in Iowa county, in the marly clay formation, often
exhibiting imperfect prisms, variously truncated.
2. CALCAREOUS TUFA. Mouth of the River Brulé, of Lake Superior. In
small, friable, broken masses, in the diluvial soil. Also, in the gorge
below the Falls of St. Anthony. In detached, vesicular masses, amidst
debris.
3. COMPACT CARBONATE OF LIME. In the calcareous cliffs of horizontal
formation, commencing at the Falls of St. Anthony. Carboniferous.
4. SEPTARIA. In the reddish clay soil, between Montreal River, and
Lapointe, Lake Superior.
5. GYPSUM. In the sandstone rock at the Point of Grand Sable West, Lake
Superior. In orbicular masses, firmly imbedded. Not abundant. Granular,
also imperfectly foliated.
6. CARBONATE OF MAGNESIA. Serpentine rock, at Presque Isle, Lake
Superior. Compact.
7. HYDRATE OF MAGNESIA? With the preceding.
CLASS II. _Earthy compounds, amorphous or crystalline._
8. COMMON QUARTZ. Huron Islands, Lake Superior, also the adjoining
coast. In very large veins or beds. White, opaque.
9. GRANULAR QUARTZ. Falls of Peckagama, Upper Mississippi. In situ.
10. SMOKY QUARTZ. In the trap rock Keweena Point, Lake Superior,
crystallized. In connection with amethystine quartz.
11. AMETHYST. With the preceding. Also, at the Pic Bay, and at
Gargontwa, north shore of Lake Superior, in the trap rock, in perfect
crystals of various intensity of color.
12. CHALCEDONY. Keweena Point, Lake Superior. In globular or orbicular
masses, in amygdaloid rock. Often, in detached masses along the shores.
13. CARNELIAN. With the preceding.
14. HORNSTONE. In detached masses, very hard, on the shores of Lake
Superior. Also, at Dodgeville, Iowa county, Mich. Ter. in fragments or
nodular masses in the clay soil.
15. JASPER. In the preceding locality. Common and striped, exceedingly
difficult of being acted on, by the wheel. Not observed in situ.
16. AGATE. Imbedded in the trap rocks of Lake Superior, and also
detached, forming a constituent of its detritus. Variously colored.
Often made up of alternate layers of chalcedony, carnelian, and
cacholong. Sometimes zoned, or in fortification points. Specimens not
taken from the rock are not capable of being scratched by quartz or
flint, and are incapable of being acted on by the file; consequently
_harder_ than any of the described species.
17. CYANITE. Specimens of this mineral, in flat, six-sided prisms
imbedded in a dark primitive rock, were brought out from Lac du
Flambeau outlet, where the rock is described as existing in situ. The
locality has not been visited, but there are facts brought to light
within the last two or three years, to justify the extension of the
primitive to that section of country.
18. PITCHSTONE. A detached mass of this mineral, very black and
lava-like, was picked up in the region of Lake Superior, where the
volcanic mineral, trachyte, is common among the rolled masses. Neither
of these substances have been observed in situ.
19. MICA. Huron Islands, Lake Superior. In granite.
20. SCHORL. Common. Outlet of Lac du Flambeau. Also, in a detached mass
of primitive rock at Green Bay.
21. FELDSPAR. Porcupine mountains, Lake Superior.
22. BASALT. Amorphous. Granite Point, Lake Superior.
23. STILBITE. Amygdaloid rock, Keweena Point, Lake Superior.
24. ZEOLITE. Mealy. With the preceding.
25. ZEOLITE. Radiated. Lake Superior. This mineral consists of fibres,
so delicate and firmly united as to appear almost compact, radiating
from a centre. Some of the masses produced by this radiation, measure
2.5 inches in diameter. They are of a uniform, pale, yellowish red.
This mineral has not been traced in situ, being found in detached
masses of rock, and sometimes as water-worn portions of radii. Its true
position would seem to be the trap rock.
26. ASBESTOS. Presque Isle, Lake Superior. In the serpentine formation.
27. HORNBLENDE. Very abundant as a constituent of the primitive rocks
on the Upper Mississippi, and in the basin of Lake Superior. Often in
distinct crystals.
28. DIALLAGE, GREEN. Lake Superior. In detached masses, connected with
primitive boulders. _Harder_ than the species.
29. SERPENTINE, COMMON. Presque Isle, Lake Superior.
30. SERPENTINE, PRECIOUS. With the preceding. Color a light pistachio
green, and takes a fine polish. Exists in veins in the common variety.
31. PSEUDOMORPHOUS SERPENTINE. With the preceding. This beautiful green
mineral constitutes a portion of the veins of the precious serpentine.
Its crystalline impressions are very distinct.
32. ARGILLITE. River St. Louis, northwest of Lake Superior. Nearly
vertical in its position.
CLASS III. _Combustibles._
33. PEAT. Marine sand formation composing the shore of Lake Superior,
between White-fish Point and Grand Marrais. Also, on the island of
Michilimackinac.
CLASS IV. _Ores and Metals._
34. NATIVE COPPER. West side of Keweena Point, Lake Superior. Imbedded
in a vein with carbonate of copper, and copper black, in the trap rock.
35. COPPER BLACK. With the preceding.
36. CARBONATE OF COPPER, GREEN. With the preceding.
These two minerals (35 and 36) characterize the trap rock of the
peninsula of Keweena, Lake Superior, from Montreal Bay, extending to,
and around its extremity, west, to Sand-hill Bay. The entire area may
be estimated to comprise a rocky, serrated coast of about seventy-five
miles in length, and not to exceed seven or eight miles in width. The
principal veins are at a point called _Roche Verd_, and along the coast
which we refer to as the Black Rocks. At the latter, native copper is
one of the constituents of the vein.
Green and blue carbonate of copper, was also observed in limited
quantity, in small rounded masses at one of the lead diggings near
Mineral Point, Iowa county.
38. CHROMATE OF IRON. Presque Isle, Lake Superior.
39. SULPHURET OF LEAD. Lead mines of Iowa county, Michigan Territory.
40. EARTHY CARBONATE OF LEAD. Brigham’s mine, Iowa county, Mich. Ter.
Also, in small masses, of a yellowish white, dirty color, and great
comparative weight, at several of the lead mines (diggings) in the more
westerly and southern parts of the county.
3. LOCALITIES OF PLANTS COLLECTED IN THE NORTH-WESTERN
EXPEDITIONS OF 1831 AND 1832.
BY DOUGLASS HOUGHTON, M. D.
SURGEON TO THE EXPEDITIONS.
The localities of the following plants are transcribed from a catalogue
kept during the progress of the expeditions, and embrace many plants
common to our country, which were collected barely for the purpose of
comparison. A more detailed account will be published at some future
day.
_Aster tenuifolius_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi.
“ _sericea_, Nuttall. River de Corbeau, Missouri Ter.
“ _loevis?_ Willdenow. St. Croix River, Northwest Ter.
“ _concolor_, Willdenow. Fox River, Northwest Ter.
“ (_N. Spec._) Sources of Yellow River, Northwest Ter.
_Andropogon furcatus_, Willdenow. do.
_Alopecurus geniculatus_, Linneus. Sault Ste Marie, M. T.
_Aira flexuosa._ Sault Ste Marie, M. T.
_Allium tricoccum_, Aiton. Ontonagon River of Lake Superior.
“ _cernuum_, Roth. River de Corbeau to the sources of the Miss.
“ (_N. Spec._) St. Louis River of Lake Superior.
_Amorpha canescens_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi.
_Artemesia canadensis_, Mx. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
“ _sericea_, Nuttall. Keweena Point, Lake Superior.
“ _gnaphaloides_, Nuttall. Fox River, Northwest Ter.
_Arabis hirsuta_, De Candolle. Upper Mississippi.
“ _lyrata_, Linn. Lake Superior to the source of the Miss.
_Arundo canadensis_, Mx. Lake Superior.
_Arenaria lateriflora_, Linn. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
_Alnus glauca_, Mx. St. Croix River to the sources of the Miss.
_Alliona albida_, Walter. Yellow River, Northwest Ter.
_Aronia sanguinea._ Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
_Alectoria jubata._ do.
_Aletris farinosa._ Prairies of Michigan Ter.
_Bidens beckii_, Torrey. St. Croix River to the sources of the Miss.
_Bunias maritima_, Willdenow. Lake Michigan.
_Baptisia coerulea_, Michaux. Fox River, Northwest Ter.
_Blitum capitatum._ Northwest Ter.
_Betula papyracea_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
_Betula glandulosa._ Savannah River, Northwest Ter.
_Bartramia fontana._ Lake Superior.
_Bromus canadensis_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi.
_Batschia canescens._ Plains of the Mississippi.
“ “ Var. (or _N. Spec._) Lake Superior.
_Carex paucifolia._ Sault Ste Marie. Mich. Ter.
“ _scirpoides_, Schkuhr. do.
“ _limosa_, Linn. do.
“ _curata_, Gmelin. do.
“ (apparently _N. Spec._ allied to _C. scabrata_.) Sources of the Miss.
“ _washingtoniana_, Dewy. Lake Superior.
“ _lacustris_, Willdenow. do.
“ _oedere_, Ehrhart. Leech Lake.
“ _logopodioides_, Schkuhr. Savannah River, Northwest Ter.
“ _rosea_, Var. Lake Superior.
“ _festucacea_, Schkuhr. St. Louis River of Lake Superior.
_Cyperus mariscoides_, Elliott. Upper Mississippi.
“ _alterniflorus_, Schwinitz. River St. Clair, Mich. Ter.
_Cnicus pitcheri_, Torrey. Lakes Michigan and Superior.
_Coreopsis palmata_, Nuttall. Prairies of the Upper Mississippi.
_Cardamine pratensis._ Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
_Calamagrostis coarctata_, Torrey. Lake Winnipec.
_Cetraria icelandica._ Lakes Superior and Michigan.
_Corydalis aurea_, Willdenow. Cass Lake, Upper Mississippi.
“ _glauca_, Persoon. Lake Superior.
_Cynoglossum amplexicaule_, Michaux. Sault Ste Marie.
_Cassia chamoecrista._ Upper Mississippi.
_Corylus americana_, Walter. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
“ _rostrata_, Willdenow. do.
_Cistus canadensis_, Willdenow. do.
_Cornus circinata_, L’Heritier. do.
_Cypripedium acaule_, Aiton. do.
_Cymbidium pulchellum_, Swartz. do.
_Corallorhiza multiflora_, Torrey. Lake Superior.
_Convallaria borealis_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Mississippi.
“ _trifolia_, Linn. Lake Superior.
_Cenchrus echinatus_, Linn. Upper Mississippi.
_Cerastium viscosum_, Linn. Lake Superior.
“ _oblongifolium_, Torrey. Michigan Ter.
_Campanula acuminata_, Michaux. St. Louis River of Lake Superior.
_Chrysosplenium oppositifolium._ Lake Superior to the Mississippi.
_Cinna arundinacea_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi.
_Drosera linearis_, Hooker. Lake Superior.
“ _rotundifolia._ Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
“ _americana_, Muhlenberg. do.
_Dracocephalum virginicum_, Willdenow. Red Cedar River, Northwest Territory.
_Delphinum virescens_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi.
_Danthonia spicata_, Willdenow. Mauvais River of Lake Superior.
_Dirca palustris_, Willdenow. Ontonagon River of Lake Superior.
_Equisetum limosum_, Torrey. Lake Superior.
“ _palustre_, Willdenow. do.
“ _variegatum_, Smith. Lake Michigan.
_Erigeron integrifolium_, Bigelow. Falls of Peckagama, Upper Miss.
“ _purpureum_, Willdenow. do.
“ (_N. Spec._) Sources of St. Croix River, Northwest Ter.
“ _heterophyllum_, Var. or (_N. Spec._) do.
_Eryngium aquaticum_, Jussieu. Galena, Ill.
_Euphorbia corollata_, Willdenow. Red Cedar River.
_Eriophorum virginicum_, Linn. Lake Superior.
“ _alpinum_, Linn. do.
“ _polystachyon_, Linn. do.
_Empetrum nigrum_, Michaux. do.
_Erysimum chiranthoides_, Linn. do.
_Eriocaulon pellucidum_, Michaux, do.
_Euchroma coccinea_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the Mississippi.
_Elymus striatus_, Willdenow. St. Croix River, Northwest Ter.
“ _virginicus_, Linn. do.
_Festuca nutans_, Willdenow. Lake Winnipec.
_Glycera fluitans_, Brown. Savannah River, Northwest Ter.
_Gyrophora papulosa._ Lake Superior.
_Gentiana crinita_, Willdenow. Lake Michigan.
_Geranium carolinianum_. Lake Superior to the Mississippi.
_Galium lanceolatum_, Torrey. Red Cedar River to the Mississippi.
_Gerardia pedicularis_, Fox River, Northwest Ter.
“ _maratima_, Rafinesque, Lake Michigan.
_Galeopsis tetrahit_, Var. Falls of St. Mary, Mich. Ter.
_Gnaphalium plantaginium_, Var. Source of the Mississippi.
_Goodyera pubescens_, Willdenow. Lake Superior.
_Hippophae canadensis_, Willdenow. do.
“ _argentea_, Pursh. do.
_Hedeoma glabra_, Persoon. Lake Michigan to the sources of the Miss.
_Hydropeltis purpurea_, Michaux. Northwest Ter.
_Hippuris vulgaris._ Yellow River to sources of the Mississippi.
_Hudsonia tomentosa_, Nuttall. Lake Superior.
_Hypericum canadense._ do.
“ _prolificum_, Willdenow. Lake Michigan.
_Hieracium fasciculatum_, Pursh. Pukwaewa Lake, Northwest Ter.
_Hierochloa borealis_, Roemer & Schultes. Lake Superior.
_Holcus lanatus._ Savannah River, Northwest Ter.
_Houstonia longifalia_, Willdenow. St. Louis River of Lake Superior.
_Heuchera americana_, Linn. do.
_Hypnum crista-castrensis._ Source of the Mississippi.
_Hordeum jubatum._ Upper Red Cedar Lake.
_Helianthus decapetalis._ Northwest Ter.
“ _gracilis_, Torrey. Upper Lake St. Croix, Northwest Ter.
_Hyssopus anisatus_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi.
_Hyssopus scrophularifolius_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi.
_Inula villosa_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi.
_Ilex canadensis_, Michaux. Lake Superior.
_Juncus nodosus._ St. Mary’s River.
“ _polycephalus_, Michaux. Lake Superior.
_Koeleria nitida_, Nuttall. Lake Winnipec.
_Lycopodium dendroideum_, Michaux. Lake Superior to the sources of the Mississippi.
“ _annotinum_, Willdenow. do.
_Lonicera hirsuta_, Eaton. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
“ _sempervirens_, Aiton. Lake Superior.
_Lechea minor._ Upper Mississippi.
_Linnea borealis_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
_Lathyrus palustris._ Lake Superior.
“ _decaphyllus_, Pursh. Leech Lake.
“ _maritimus_, Bigelow. Lake Superior.
_Lobelia kalmii_, Linneus. do.
“ _claytoniana_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi.
“ _puberula?_, Michaux. Yellow River, Northwest Ter.
_Liatris scariosa_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi.
“ _cylindrica_, Michaux. do.
_Lysimachia revoluta_, Nuttall. Lake Superior.
“ _thyrsifolia_, Michaux, do.
_Ledum latifolium_, Aiton. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
_Myrica gale_, Willdenow. Lake Superior.
_Malva_ (_N. Spec._) Upper Mississippi.
_Monarda punctata_, Linneus. Upper Mississippi.
“ _oblongata_, Aiton. do.
_Microstylis ophioglossoides_, Willdenow. Lac la Biche.
_Myriophyllum spicatum._ Lake Superior.
_Mitella cordifolia_, Lamarck. do.
_Menyanthes trifoliata_, Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
_Myosotis arvensis_, Sibthorp. St. Clair River, Mich. Ter.
_Nelumbium luteum_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi.
_Oenothere biennis_, Var. Bois Brulé River of Lake Superior.
“ _serrulata_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi.
_Psoralea argophylla_, Pursh. Falls of St. Anthony.
_Primula farinosa_, Var. _americana_, Torrey. Lakes Huron and Superior.
“ _mistasinica_, Michaux. Keweena Point Lake Superior.
_Pingwicula_ (N. Spec.) Presque Isle, Lake Superior.
_Parnassia americana_, Muhlenberg. Lake Michigan.
_Pedicularis gladiata_, Michaux. Fox River.
_Pinus nigra_, Lambert. Lake Superior.
“ _banksiana_, Lambert. Lake Superior.
_Populus tremuloides_, Michaux. Northwest Ter.
“ _loevigata_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi.
_Prunus depressa_, Pursh. Lakes Superior and Michigan.
_Petalostemon violaceum_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi.
_Petalostemon candidum_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi.
_Potentilla tridentata_, Aiton. Lake Superior.
“ _fruticosa_, Linneus. Lakes Superior and Michigan.
_Pyrola uniflora._ Mauvais River of Lake Superior.
_Polygonum amphibium_, Linneas. St. Croix River.
“ _cilinode_, Michaux. Lake Superior.
“ _articulatum_, Linneus. do.
“ _coccinium_, Willdenow. St. Croix River.
_Polygala polygama_, Walter. Northwest Ter.
_Phlox aristata_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi.
_Poa canadensis._ do.
_Pentstemon gracile_, Nuttall. Upper Red Cedar Lake.
“ _grandiflorum_, Nuttall. Falls of St. Anthony.
_Physalis lanceolata_, Var. (or _N. Spec._) Lac la Biche.
_Quercus coccinea_, Wangenheim. Upper Red Cedar Lake.
“ _obtusiloba_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi.
_Ranunculus filiformis_, Michaux. Falls of St. Mary, Mich. Ter.
“ _pusillus_, Pursh. Mich. Ter.
“ _prostratus_, Lamarck. Lake Superior to the Mississippi.
“ _lacustris_, Beck & Tracy. Upper Mississippi.
_Rudbeckia hirta_, Linneus. Upper Mississippi and Michigan Ter.
“ _digitata_, Aiton. Upper Mississippi.
_Rubus parviflorus_, Nuttall. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
“ _hispidus_, Linneus. Lake Superior.
“ _saxatilis_, Var. canadensis, Michaux. Lake Superior.
_Rosa gemella_, Willdenow. Lake Superior.
“ _rubifolia_, Brown. Michigan Ter.
_Ribes albinervum_, Michaux. Sources of the St. Croix River.
_Saururus cernuus_, Linneus. Upper Mississippi.
_Streptopus roseus_, Michaux. Lake Superior.
_Sisymbrium brachycarpum_, Richardson. Lake Superior.
“ _chiranthoides_, Linneus, do.
_Swertia deflexa_, Smith. Bois Brulé River of Lake Superior.
_Silphium terebinthinaceum_, Elliott. Michigan Territory to the Miss.
“ _gummiferum._ Fox River to the Mississippi.
_Stachys aspera_, Var. Michaux. Lake Superior.
_Sterocaulon paschale._ do.
_Struthiopteris pennsylvanica_, Willdenow. Lake Superior.
_Scirpus frigetur?_ Lake of the Isles, Northwest Ter.
“ _palustris_, Linneus. Lake Superior to the Mississippi.
_Salix prinoides_, Pursh. Mauvais River of Lake Superior.
“ _longifolia_, Muhlenberg. Upper Mississippi.
_Spiraea opulifolia_, Var. tomentella, De Candolle. Lake Superior.
_Sorbus americana_, Willdenow. Lake Huron to the head of Lake Superior.
_Smilax rotundifolia_, Linneus. Lake Superior to the Mississippi.
_Silene antirrhina_, Linneus. Lac la Biche.
_Saxifraga virginiensis_, Michaux. Lake Superior.
_Scutellaria ambigna_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi.
_Solidago virgaurea_, Var. _alpina_. Lake Superior.
_Stipa jencea_, Nuttall. Usawa R.
_Symphora racemosa_, Michaux. Source of the Miss. R.
_Senecio balsamitae_, Var. Falls of Peckagama, Upper Miss.
_Sagittaria heterophylla_, Pursh. Upper Miss.
_Tanacetum huronensis_, Nuttall. Lakes Michigan and Superior.
_Tussilago palmata_, Willdenow. Lake Michigan.
_Tofeldia pubens_, Michaux. Lake Superior.
_Triglochin maritimum_, Linneus. do.
_Thalyctrum corynellum_, De Candolle. St. Louis River.
_Triticum repens_, Linneus. Leech Lake.
_Troximon virginicum_, Pursh. Lake Winnipec.
_Talinum teretifolium_, Pursh. St. Croix River.
_Tradescantia virginica_, Upper Miss.
_Utricularia cornuta_, Michaux. Lake Superior.
“ _purpurea_, Walter. Lac Chetac, N. W. Ter.
_Uraspermum canadense_, Lake Superior to the Miss.
_Viola lanceolata_, Linneus. Sault Ste Marie.
“ _pedata_, Var, (or _N. Spec._) Lac la Biche, source of the Miss.
_Virburnum oxycoccus_, Pursh. Lake Superior.
“ _lentago_, do.
_Vernonia novoboracensis_, Willdenow. Upper Miss.
_Verbena bracteosa_, Michaux. do.
“ _stricta_, Ventenat. do.
_Zapania nodiflora_, Michaux. Galena, Illinois.
_Zigadenus chloranthus_, Richardson. Sandy shores of Lake Michigan.
_Zizania aquatica_, Pursh. Illinois to the sources of the Miss.
II. INDIAN LANGUAGE.
[The following observations are part of a course of lectures on the
grammatical structure of the Indian languages, delivered before the St.
Mary’s Committee of the Algic Society.—H. R. S.]
I. LECTURES ON THE CHIPPEWA SUBSTANTIVE.
LECTURE I.
_Observations on the Ojibwai Substantive. 1. The provision of the
language for indicating gender—Its general and comprehensive
character—The division of words into animate and inanimate
classes. 2. Number—its recondite forms, arising from the terminal
vowel in the word. 3. The grammatical forms which indicate
possession, and enable the speaker to distinguish the objective
person._
Most of the researches which have been directed to the Indian
languages, have resulted in elucidating the principles governing the
use of the verb, which has been proved to be full and varied in its
inflections. Either, less attention has been paid to the other parts
of speech, or results less suited to create high expectations of
their flexibility and powers, have been attained. The Indian verb has
thus been made to stand out, as it were in bold relief as a shield
to defects in the substantive and its accessories, and as, in fact,
compensating, by its multiform appendages of prefix and suffix—by
its tensal, its pronominal, its substantive, its adjective, and its
adverbial terminations; for barrenness and rigidity in all other parts
of speech. Influenced by this reflection, I shall defer, in the present
inquiry, the remarks I intend offering on the verb, until I have
considered the substantive, and its more important adjuncts.
Palpable objects, to which the idea of sense strongly attaches, and
the actions or condition, which determine the relation of one object
to another, are perhaps, the first points to demand attention in the
invention of languages. And they have certainly imprinted themselves
very strongly, with all their materiality, and with all their local,
and exclusive, and personal peculiarities upon the Indian. The noun and
the verb not only thus constitute the principal elements of speech, as
in all languages; but they continue to perform their first offices,
with less direct aid from the auxiliary parts of speech, than would
appear to be reconcileable with a clear expression of the circumstances
of time and place, number and person, quality and quantity, action and
repose, and the other accidents, on which their definite employment
depends. But to enable the substantives and attributives to perform
these complex offices, they are provided with inflections, and undergo
changes and modifications, by which words and phrases become very
concrete in their meaning, and are lengthened out to appear formidable
to the eye. Hence the polysyllabic, and the descriptive character of
the language, so composite in its aspect and in its forms.
To utter succinctly, and in as few words as possible the prominent
ideas resting upon the mind of the speaker, appear to have been
the paramount object with the inventors of the language. Hence
concentration became a leading feature. And the pronoun, the adjective,
the adverb and the preposition, however they may be disjunctively
employed in certain cases, are chiefly useful as furnishing materials
to the speaker, to be worked up into the complicated texture of the
verb and the substantive. Nothing, in fact, can be more unlike,
than the language, viewed in its original, elementary state,—in a
vocabulary, for instance, of its primitive words, so far as such a
vocabulary can now be formed, and the same language as heard under its
oral, amalgamated form. Its transpositions may be likened to a picture,
in which the copal, the carmine and the white lead, are no longer
recognized as distinct substances, but each of which has contributed
its share towards the effect. It is the painter only who possesses the
principle, by which one element has been curtailed, another augmented,
and all, however seemingly discordant, made to coalesce.
Such a language may be expected to abound in derivatives and
compounds; to afford rules for giving verbs substantive, and
substantives verbal qualities; to concentrate the meaning of words upon
a few syllables, or upon a single letter, or alphabetical sign; and to
supply modes of contraction and augmentation, and, if I may so say,
_short cuts_, and _by paths_ to meanings, which are equally novel and
interesting. To arrive at its primitives, we must pursue an intricate
thread, where analogy is often the only guide. We must divest words of
those accumulated syllables, or particles, which, like the molecules
of material matter, are clustered around the primitives. It is only
after a process of this kind, that the _principle of combination_—that
secret wire, which moves the whole machinery can be searched for, with
a reasonable prospect of success. The labor of analysis is one of
the most interesting and important, which the subject presents. And
it is a labor which it will be expedient to keep constantly in view,
until we have separately considered the several parts of speech, and
the grammatical laws by which the language is held together; and thus
established principles and provided materials wherewith we may the more
successfully labor.
1. In a general survey of the language as it is spoken, and as it
must be written, there is perhaps no feature which obtrudes itself
so constantly to view, as the principle which separates all words,
of whatever denomination, into animates and inanimates, as they are
applied to objects in the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdom.
This principle has been grafted upon most words, and carries its
distinctions throughout the syntax. It is the gender of the language;
but a gender of so unbounded a scope, as to merge in it the common
distinctions of a masculine and feminine, and to give a two-fold
character to the parts of speech. The concords which it requires,
and the double inflections it provides, will be mentioned in their
appropriate places. It will be sufficient here to observe, that animate
nouns require animate verbs for their nominatives, animate adjectives
to express their qualities, and animate demonstrative pronouns to
mark the distinctions of person. Thus, if we say, I see a man; I see
a house, the termination of the verb must be changed. What was in the
first instance wâb imâ, is altered to wâb indân. Wâb, is here the
infinitive, but the root of this verb is still more remote. If the
question occur, Is it a good man, or a good house, the adjective,
which, in the inanimate form is onishish-í, is, in the animate
onishish-in´. If the question be put, Is it this man, or this house,
the pronoun this, which is mâ bum, in the animate, is changed to mâ
ndun, in the inanimate.
Nouns animate embrace the tribes of quadrupeds, birds, fishes,
insects, reptiles, crustaceæ, the sun and moon and stars, thunder and
lightning, for these are personified; and whatever either possesses
animal life, or is endowed, by the peculiar opinions and superstitions
of the Indians, with it. In the vegetable kingdom, their number is
comparatively limited, being chiefly confined to trees, and those only
while they are referred to, as whole bodies, and to the various species
of fruits, and seeds, and esculents. It is at the option of the speaker
to employ nouns, either as animates or inanimates: but it is a choice
seldom resorted to, except in conformity with stated exceptions. These
conventional exceptions are not numerous, and the more prominent of
them, may be recited. The cause of the exceptions it is not always
easy to perceive. It may, however, generally be traced to a particular
respect paid to certain inanimate bodies, either from their real
or fancied properties,—the uses to which they are applied, or the
ceremonies to which they are dedicated. A stone, which is the altar of
sacrifice to their Manitoes; a bow, formerly so necessary in the chase;
a feather, the honored sign of martial prowess; a kettle, so valuable
in the household; a pipe, by which friendships are sealed and treaties
ratified; a drum, used in their sacred and festive dances; a medal, the
mask of authority; vermillion, the appropriate paint of the warrior;
wampum, by which messages are conveyed, and covenants remembered. These
are among the objects, in themselves inanimates, which require the
application of animate verbs, pronouns, and adjectives, and are thereby
transferred to the animate class.
It is to be remarked, however, that the names for animals, are only
employed as animates, while the objects are referred to, as whole and
complete species. But the gender must be changed, when it becomes
necessary to speak of separate numbers. Man, woman, father, mother, are
separate nouns, so long as the individuals are meant; but hand, foot,
head, eye, ear, tongue, are inanimates. Buck, is an animate noun, while
his entire carcass is referred to, whether living or dead; but neck,
back, heart, windpipe, take the inanimate form. In like manner, eagle,
swan, dove, are distinguished as animates, but beak, wing, tail, are
arranged with inanimates. So oak, pine, ash, are animate; branch, leaf,
root, inanimates.
Reciprocal exceptions, however, exist to this rule,—the reasons for
which, as in the former instance, may generally be sought, either
in peculiar opinions of the Indians, or in the peculiar qualities
or uses of the objects. Thus the talons of the eagle, and the claws
of the bear, and of other animals, which furnish ornaments for the
neck, are invariably spoken of, under the animate form. The hoofs and
horns of all quadrupeds, which are applied to various economical and
mystic purposes; the castorum of the beaver, and the nails of man,
are similarly situated. The vegetable creation also furnishes some
exceptions of this nature; such are the names for the outer bark of all
trees, (except the birch,) and the branches, the roots, and the resin
of the spruce, and its congeners.
In a language, which considers all nature as separated into two
classes of bodies, characterized by the presence or absence of life;
neuter nouns, will scarcely be looked for, although such may exist
without my knowledge. Neuters are found amongst the verbs and the
adjectives, but it is doubtful whether they render the nouns to which
they are applied, neuters, in the sense we attach to that term. The
subject in all its bearings, is interesting, and a full and minute
description of it, would probably elicit new light respecting some
doubtful points in the language, and contribute something towards a
curious collateral topic—the history of Indian opinions. I have stated
the principle broadly, without filling up the subject of exceptions,
as fully as it is in my power, and without following its bearings
upon points, which will more properly come under discussion, at other
stages of the inquiry. A sufficient outline, it is believed, has been
given, and having thus met, at the threshold, a principle deeply laid
at the foundation of the language, and one which will be perpetually
recurring, I shall proceed to enumerate some other prominent features
of the substantive.
2. No language is perhaps so defective, as to be totally without
number. But there, are, probably, few which furnish so many modes of
indicating it, as the Ojibwai. There are as many modes of forming
the plural, as there are vowel sounds, yet there is no distinction
between a limited and unlimited plural; although there is, in the
pronoun, an _inclusive_ and an _exclusive_ plural. Whether we say man
or men, two men or twenty men, the singular, inin´i, and the plural
inin´iwug, remains the same. But if we say we, or us, or our men, (who
are present,) or we, or us, or our Indians, (in general,) the plural
we, and us, and our—for they are rendered by the same form—admit of
a change to indicate whether the objective person be _included_ or
_excluded_. This principle, of which full examples will be given under
the appropriate head, forms a single and anomalous instance of the use
of particular plurals. And it carries its distinctions, by means of the
pronouns, separable and inseparable, into the verbs and substantives,
creating the necessity of double conjugations and double declensions,
in the plural forms of the first person. Thus, the term for Our Father,
which, in the inclusive form, is Kôsinân, is, in the exclusive, Nôsinân.
The particular plural, which is thus, by the transforming power of the
language, carried from the pronoun into the texture of the verb and
substantive, is not limited to any fixed number of persons or objects,
but arises from the operations of the verb. The general plural is
variously made. But the plural, making inflections take upon themselves
an additional power or sign, by which substantives are distinguished
into animate and inanimate. Without this additional power, all nouns
plural, would end in the vowels a, e, i, o, u. But to mark the gender
the letter g, is added to animates, and the letter n, to inanimates,
making the plurals of the first class, terminate in âg, eeg, ig, ôg,
ug, and of the second class in ân, een, in, ôn, un. Ten modes of
forming the plural are thus provided, five of which are animate, and
five inanimate plurals. A strong and clear line of distinction is thus
drawn between the two classes of words, so unerring indeed, in its
application, that it is only necessary to inquire how the plural is
formed, to determine whether it belong to one, or the other class. The
distinctions which we have endeavored to convey, will perhaps, be more
clearly perceived, by adding examples of the use of each of the plurals.
Animate Plural.
a. Ojibwâi, a Chippewa. Ojibwaig, Chippewas.
e. Ojee, a Fly. Ojeeg, Flies.
i. Kosénân, Our father, (in.) Kosenân-ig, Our fathers, (in.)
o. Ahmô, a Bee. Ahm-ôg, Bees.
u. Ais, a Shell. Ais-ug, Shells.
Inanimate Plural.
a. Ishkôdai, Fire. Ishkôdain, Fires.
e. Waddôp, Alder. Waddôp-een, Alders.
i. Adetaig, Fruit. Adetaig-in, Fruits.
o. Nôdin, Wind. Nôdin-ôn, Winds.
u. Meen, Berry, Meen-un, Berries.
Where a noun terminates with a vowel in the singular, the addition
of the g, or n, shows at once, both the plural and the gender. In
other instances, as in peenai, a partridge—seebi, a river—it requires
a consonant to precede the plural vowel, in conformity with a rule
previously stated. Thus, peenai, is rendered peenai-wug—and seebi,
seebi-wun. Where the noun singular terminates in the broad, instead
of the long sound of a, as in ôgimâ, a chief ishpatinâ, a hill, the
plural is ogim-ag, ishpatinân. But these are mere modifications of two
of the above forms, and are by no means entitled to be considered as
additional plurals.
Comparatively few substantives, are without number. The following may
be enumerated.
Missun´, Fire wood.
Pinggwi, Ashes.
Méjim, Food.
Kôn, Snow.
Mishk´wi, Blood.
Ukkukkuzhas, Coals.
Ussáimâ, Tobacco.
Naigow, Sand.
Ahioun, Mist.
Kimmiwun, Rain.
Ossâkumig, Moss.
Unitshimin, Peas.
Others may be found, and indeed, a few others are known. But it
is less an object, in this lecture to pursue exceptions into their
minutest ramifications, than to sketch broad rules, applicable, if not
to every word, to at least a majority of words in the language.
There is, however, one exception from the general use of number, so
peculiar in itself, that not to point it out, would be an unpardonable
remissness, in giving the outlines of a language, in which it is an
object, neither to extenuate faults, nor to overrate beauties. This
exception consists in the want of number in the _third person_ of
the declensions of animate nouns, and the conjugation of animate
verbs. Not, that such words are destitute of number, in their simple
forms, or when used under circumstances requiring no change of these
simple forms—no prefixes and no inflections. But it will be seen, at
a glance, how very limited such an application of words must be, in a
transpositive language.
Thus mang and kâg (loon and porcupine) take the plural inflection wug,
becoming mang wug and kag wug (loons and porcupines.) So, in their
pronominal declension—
My loon Ni mang oom
Thy loon Ki mang oom
My porcupine Ni gâg oom
Thy porcupine Ki gâg oom
My loons Ni mang oom ug
Thy loons Ki mang oom ug
My porcupines Ni gâg oom ug
Thy porcupines Ki gâg oom ug
But his loon, or loons, (o mang oom un) his porcupine or porcupines,
(o gâg oom un) are without number. The rule applies equally to the
class of words, in which the pronouns are inseparable. Thus, my father
and thy father, nôs and kôs, become my fathers and thy fathers, by
the numerical inflection ug, forming nôsug and kôsug. But ôsun, his
father or fathers is vague, and does not indicate whether there be
one father or twenty fathers. The inflection un, merely denotes the
_object_. The rule also applies equally to sentences, in which the
noun is governed by, or governs the verb. Whether we say, I saw a
bear—ningi wâbumâ mukwah, or a bear saw me—mukwah ningi wâbumig, the
noun, itself, undergoes no change, and its number is definite. But ogi
wâbum-ân muk-wun, he saw bear, is indefinite, although both the verb
and the noun have changed their endings. And if the narrator does not
subsequently determine the number, the hearer is either left in doubt,
or must resolve it by a question. In fine, the whole acts of the third
person are thus rendered questionable. This want of precision, which
would seem to be fraught with so much confusion, appears to be obviated
in practice, by the employment of adjectives, by numerical inflections
in the relative words of the sentence, by the use of the indefinite
article, paizhik, or by demonstrative pronouns. Thus, paizhik mukw_un_
ogi wâbum_ân_, conveys with certainty the information—he saw _a_ bear.
But in this sentence both the noun and the verb retain the objective
inflections, as in the former instances. These inflections are not
uniformly un, but sometimes een, as in ogeen, his mother, and sometimes
ôn, as in odakeek-ôn, his kettle, in all which instances, however, the
number is left indeterminate. It may hence be observed, and it is a
remark which we shall presently have occasion to corroborate, that the
plural inflection to inanimate nouns, (which have no objective form,)
forms the objective inflection to animate nouns, which have no number
in the third person.
3. This leads us to the consideration of the mode of forming
possessives, the existence of which, when it shall have been indicated
by full examples, will present to the mind of the inquirer, one of
those tautologies in grammatical forms, which, without imparting
additional precision, serve to clothe the language with accumulated
verbiage. The strong tendency to combination and amalgamation,
existing in the language, renders it difficult, in fact to discuss
the principles of it, in that elementary form which, could be wished.
In the analysis of words and forms we are constantly led from the
central point of discussion. To recur, however, from these collateral
unravelings, to the main thread of inquiry, at as short and frequent
intervals as possible, and thus to preserve the chain of conclusions
and proofs, is so important that without keeping the object distinctly
in view, I should despair of conveying any clear impressions of those
grammatical features, which impart to the language its peculiar
character.