1861, but was adopted as a State School in 1863. The history of this
school is the history of its Principal, Dr. Sheldon. When quite young,
he became interested in the question of the education of the poor
of his native city, Oswego. With the help of friends the first free
school was started, but as no teacher could be found, he had to teach
himself. He was able, in 1853, to organize a city system of schools,
and became superintendent. Dissatisfaction with the teaching results
of his schools led him to consider the question of methods. On a visit
to Toronto, he saw in the National Museum a collection of educational
appliances used abroad, and especially at the Home and Colonial
Training School in London. He brought back all the apparatus that he
could, but both he and his teachers realized the need of training, and
finally some of them resigned half their salaries for one year, in
order that a training teacher might be brought over from the Home and
Colonial Training College. Miss M. E. M. Jones, an ardent disciple of
Pestalozzi, came in response to their request, and day by day, after
school hours, she met this enthusiastic little band of teachers, which
was the first Training Class. After she left, those she had taught were
able to carry it on, and the training of teachers was an established
fact in Oswego. The course was at first only for one year, but was
later extended to three and four when the school was taken over by the
State.
With the consent of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction,
the classical department has been dropped out of the Oswego School,
and more extended lines of English work have been taken up as elective
courses. The regular English course is taken for three years, and one
of these for the fourth.
This course includes advanced work in science, history, higher English,
psychology, pedagogy, drawing, and teaching under criticism, and
occupies two terms of twenty weeks each.
Those who show marked talent for primary and kindergarten work may,
after graduation, be invited by a vote of the Faculty to take an
additional year in special training for kindergarten and primary
teachers. At the end of this course diplomas are granted, indicating
fitness to take charge of kindergartens; and in addition, certificates
of special qualifications for primary work are given, signed by all the
members of the Faculty.
In order to meet the increasing demand for teachers who can undertake
training work in Normal Schools, a special course has been started,
which lasts for five months, and includes lectures in psychology,
pedagogy, kindergarten principles and methods; observation of the work
in the kindergarten; attendance upon the criticisms of the critics in
all the departments of the training work; making out criticisms on the
work in the different departments of the school of practice and actual
teaching under criticism; making out time-tables for the different
grades of schools; observation of work in the school of practice as
done by practice teachers, to gain an idea of arrangement, distribution
and grading of subject matter; observation of special lessons, followed
by criticisms of same. A course of professional reading is prescribed,
as well as the preparation of papers on various topics connected
with method and criticism. Occasional opportunities are provided, to
put into practice ideal and experimental lines of work, by teaching
classes; and instruction is given in making apparatus, charts, etc., to
illustrate the subjects taught in the common schools.
Teachers for this course are also selected by the Faculty, on the
ground of their superior moral, intellectual, physical and professional
qualifications, and of special fitness for the work; and on the
satisfactory completion of the same, receive certificates, signed by
all the members of the Faculty, indicating their fitness to act as
critics and teachers of methods in Normal and Training Schools.
Experience in teaching in the various grades of the public schools is
considered important before entering upon this work.
It is not in a strict sense a residential college, but students from
a distance are expected to live in a boarding-house attached to the
school.
Great stress is laid upon the elaboration of methods of teaching
of various subjects, and from the Oswego School have come many
improvements in ways of teaching. Perhaps the chief contribution to
methodology is that known as the “laboratory” method of teaching
history, which is said to have revolutionized the teaching of history
in American Schools. It is an adaptation of the seminary method
introduced by the German historian Ranke. In order to make this method
possible in the schools, specially prepared text-books were needed, and
these Dr. Sheldon’s daughter undertook to write. Two text-books have
been published: _Studies in General History_, and _Studies in American
History_, both of which have been extensively adopted in American
Schools. In these books there is presented to the pupil a carefully
chosen body of original historical material--typical extracts from the
laws, constitution, creeds and other records of the past--pictures of
monuments, temples, statues and relics, together with questions upon
this material that test and train the pupil’s powers of judgment and
reason. In connection also with the teaching of history the plan
is advocated, and carried out in connection with the Model School,
of allowing the children to compile the history of their own town,
collecting the information for themselves, and recording it in a
manuscript book kept for the purpose, which they can also illustrate by
original drawings of their own. I saw a delightful history of Oswego
compiled in this way, and in several other towns I found that school
children were undertaking similar work.
Most of the method-teaching is carried on by means of discussions on
topics given. I was able to attend one of these, and also to see some
of the teaching in the Practice School.
Perhaps what impressed me most about the school was the large amount
of liberty allowed to the students, and the absence of rules. Dr.
Sheldon told me that the experience of his lifetime had only confirmed
him in the belief, that the fullest freedom is necessary for the
right development of character, and that year by year he had given
his students an ever-increasing amount of liberty. The idea of
self-government and responsibility is inculcated, and rare are the
cases in which this freedom is abused.
_MASSACHUSETTS._
To Massachusetts belongs the honour of having led the way in the
establishment of Normal Schools. The Massachusetts Board of Education,
established in 1838, at once took up the question of the training of
teachers for the public schools. A member of the Board, the Hon.
Edmund Dwight, of Boston, offered $10,000 on condition that the
Legislature would appropriate an equal amount towards providing for
such training. His offer was accepted, and three Normal Schools were
opened, each of which was to continue for three years as an experiment.
The experiments proved completely successful. There are now six State
Normal Schools, which are under the direct control of the Board of
Education, and supported entirely by the State. Tuition is free to
all who undertake to teach in the State Schools. The arrangements for
boarding vary with each school.
The State appropriates $4,000 per annum to be divided among those
students of Normal Schools who stand in need of such aid.
Text-books and reference books are free.
[7] “The design of the State Normal Schools is strictly professional;
that is, to prepare in the best possible manner the pupils for the
work of organizing, governing and teaching the public schools of the
Commonwealth.
“To this end there must be the most thorough knowledge; first, of the
branches of learning required to be taught in the schools; second, of
the best methods of teaching those branches; and third, of right mental
training.
“The time of one course extends through a period of two years; of the
other, through a period of four years, and is divided into terms of
twenty weeks each, with daily sessions of not less than five hours,
five days each week.”
STUDIES.
_Two Years’ Course_:
Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, book-keeping.
Physics, astronomy, chemistry, physiology, botany, zoology,
mineralogy, geology, geography.
Language, reading, orthography, etymology, grammar, rhetoric,
literature, composition.
Penmanship, drawing, vocal music, gymnastics.
Psychology, science and art of education, school organization and
history of education.
Civil polity of Massachusetts and of the United States, history,
school laws of Massachusetts.
In accordance with a vote of the Board of Education, pupils are
encouraged to add a half-year to this course of study, provided six
months of their entire time be spent mainly in additional practice and
observation.
_Four Years’ Course_:
In addition to the studies named above, the four years’ course
includes advanced algebra and geometry, trigonometry and surveying.
Advanced chemistry, physics and botany.
Drawing, English literature, general history.
Latin and French required; German and Greek as the principal, and
visitors shall decide.
This course is intended to give pupils that broad culture indispensable
to the highest success in schools of any grade, but especially to fit
them for service as teachers in high schools. The studies are so
arranged that graduates from the shorter course may complete the four
years’ course in two additional years.
The following statistics and extract are from the Public Document of
the Board of Education for 1893.
NORMAL SCHOOLS.
+-------------------+----------------------------------+
| | STATISTICS FOR THE YEAR 1891-92. |
| +----------------+-----------------+
| | Number | Number |
| | of Students. | of Graduates. |
+-------------------+----------------+-----------------+
| Bridgewater | 262 | 67 |
| Framingham | 159 | 50 |
| Salem | 260 | 77 |
| Westfield | 147 | 33 |
| Worcester | 181 | 36 |
| Normal Art School | 215 | 24 |
| +----------------+-----------------+
| | 1,224 | 287 |
+-------------------+----------------+-----------------+
“There are now in the Commonwealth six State Normal Schools,
established for the purpose of training teachers to teach in the public
schools. The Normal Schools are now well provided with the means of
communicating professional instruction.
“As a knowledge of the principles and method of teaching seems to be
one thing, and skill in the application of principles quite another,
it is necessary that ample opportunity be given in the training
schools connected with the Normal Schools for practice in teaching
by the normal students as they study the principles. Such practice,
if systematically and intelligently conducted during the course
of instruction, will prepare the normal graduate to enter upon the
practice of his profession with the advantages of experience.
“If the standard for admission to the Normal Schools be raised, as the
Board of Education now contemplates, they will be relieved of a large
amount of academical work now required, and of many candidates whose
limited knowledge and capacity for acquiring it make them improper
subjects for professional training.
“The time has come when a professional training should be considered a
requisite for teaching in the public schools of the Commonwealth.”
Framingham, the first State Normal School in the United States, was
first located at Lexington, where it was opened July 3rd, 1839, with
three students. In 1852 the school was removed to Framingham. It admits
women students only, who reside in the boarding halls attached to the
school.
“The design of the school is to give:
1. “A review of the studies taught in the public schools.
2. “A careful study of the history of education and the school law of
Massachusetts.
3. “A study of Psychology, for the purpose of ascertaining true
principles and good methods.
4. “A practical application of these principles and methods in teaching.
5. “A high estimate of the importance and responsibility of the
teacher’s work, and an enthusiasm for it.”
WESTFIELD.
Another school was opened at Barre, September 4th, 1839, but was moved
to Westfield in 1844. It is intended for both men and women students,
but out of 147 students in 1892 only 7 were men.
There is a Normal Hall of Residence, erected and furnished by the
State, at which either men or women students can live.
The subjects taken are the same as those in the other Normal Schools of
the State, for the two or four years’ course. All studies are pursued
on the topical plan, and with special reference to the best ways of
teaching them. Every student frequently takes charge of a class, and
teaches topics, so that throughout the course he is under actual
training as teacher.
I had the opportunity of hearing a class in Didactics, conducted by
Principal Greenough on the topical method. I found that “topics”
simply meant the heads or divisions of subjects. The students had been
previously given topics to prepare, and they were called on two at a
time to go to the blackboard and write up and explain to the class
alternately the various points to be considered under each head. These
points were one by one discussed with the Principal and other students.
This topical method is adopted at many other schools and colleges. It
often happens that one or two students only are entrusted with topics
to prepare, which they are expected to be ready to explain to the rest
of the class, subject of course to the criticism of the teacher and
discussion by the class.
The students obtain the necessary practice in teaching, partly in the
above way by teaching each other, and partly by giving lessons in the
Model School under the critic teachers. Each student is also required
to teach for four weeks continuously, and to spend a good deal of time
in observing children, and the work of the teachers in the Model School.
The school is very well provided with apparatus. Almost every subject
taught has its special room with appropriate appliances for teaching.
I was especially struck by the apparatus for teaching geography. Large
wooden trays lined with zinc, and placed on supports so as to resemble
low tables, were used for modelling in wet sand. Special classes were
held to instruct the students in the art of sand-moulding.
WORCESTER.
Bridgewater Normal School was opened in 1840. It receives both men and
women students, the number for this year being 272, of which 58 are
men, and 214 women.
There are two Halls of Residence, at which students may reside.
Four courses are possible: 1. Two years’ course. 2. Three years’ or
intermediate course. 3. Four years’ course, and 4. Post-graduate course
for college graduates.
There appears to be especially good provision for the teaching of
science, the new buildings having ample laboratory accommodation.
Worcester is the youngest of the Normal Schools, having been opened
in 1874. It is open to both men and women, but the latter largely
preponderate.
In addition to the ordinary two and four year courses, college
graduates are allowed to take up a special elective course.
This school has certain special features which distinguish it and
require note.
The study of psychology is pursued in part by the original observation
of children. The students are asked to observe the conduct of children
in all circumstances, and to record what they see and hear as soon as
possible, in a simple and concise manner, without any comment by the
writer. They are advised to note the usual rather than the unusual
conduct of the children observed. For convenience of classification,
blanks of five colours are used: white for observations made by the
students themselves; red for those reported by others; yellow for
reminiscences of the student’s own childhood; green for records made
from books, and chocolate for a continued series of observations
made on the same child. The date, name of observer and post-office
address; the name, sex, nationality and age of child observed; and also
the length of time elapsing between the making and recording of the
observation, are all set forth on these papers.
The making of these observations is quite voluntary, but the students
become so interested in the work that an ever-increasing number of
reports are sent in. Some 16,000 have already been collected. These
are placed at the disposal of the Clark University, which has from time
to time made use of the material thus brought together. These records
are valuable in themselves, but still more valuable is the training in
observation of children afforded to the students in making them.
The students in this school have the opportunity before graduating
of serving an apprenticeship as teachers in the public schools of
Worcester.
The “apprentice” acts as assistant to the teacher of the city school;
takes part in the instruction, management and general care of the
pupils under the direction of the teacher; and is sometimes entrusted
with the sole charge of the school during the teacher’s absence for an
hour, a half day or a day. One student only at a time is assigned to
any teacher, but each apprentice serves in at least three grades of
schools.
The time taken for the apprenticeship comes just before the final
term in the Normal School, and amounts to half a school year. But
the apprentices spend one day of each week (Wednesday) at the Normal
School, where they are occupied in the following manner:
They consult with the teacher, and with one another, and make use of
books.
They make informal statements to the school of such facts of their
experience as it may profit the other pupils to know,--concerning ways
of teaching, cases of discipline and the like,--keeping in mind always
the private character of the daily life of the school-room, and under
special warning against revelations that might seem objectionable.
Each apprentice keeps a diary of the occupation and experience of every
day, and this record is inspected by the Faculty of the Normal School.
The Faculty of the Normal School have the right of visiting the
apprentices while at work, and of giving advice and suggestion. When
the six months are over, the teacher of the school makes a report on
the work of the student. The School Board approves the system, as those
students who have been apprentices are found afterwards to be the
most capable teachers in the Worcester public schools. Students are
not forced to undergo apprenticeship, but most choose to do so. After
it is over, they return to the Normal School for six months, before
graduating.
Forty minutes each day are assigned to “Platform Exercises,” which
consist in reading, speaking, drawing on the blackboard, etc., before
the assembled school. They are found to be very useful in helping the
students to overcome nervousness. Each student can choose her own time
and subject, but at least nine must be ready to take part each day. No
exercise is to be prepared for more than four minutes, but as questions
may be asked by the teachers or other students, and criticism is
sometimes offered, they often take longer.
A new and interesting feature of the school is the children’s class
which has just been started. Between twenty and thirty children between
three and five have been admitted. No charge is made for tuition, and
it is understood that the class can be taught in any way thought good
by the Principal. This class affords a good field for child-study and
experiment in methods of elementary teaching. It is in charge of an
experienced kindergartner.
I was attentively listening to a lecture on Psychology, given by
Principal Russell, when suddenly, to my amazement, the whole class
rose and left the room while he was still speaking. To my surprise,
he did not seem at all disturbed, and he then proceeded to explain,
that finding that most students were deficient in “time sense,” such a
necessary possession for a teacher, he had adopted the plan of making
the students keep their own time at lectures.
The Normal Art School, Boston, aims at training art teachers and
supervisors for the State. Two courses are offered--one of four years’
training in the scientific and artistic branches and their practical
application to industry, and one of two years’ training for the work of
teaching or supervising Art in the public schools.
The following is a comprehensive plan of the work of this second course:
_First Year_:
1. Elements of psychology.
2. Outline course of drawing for Primary and Grammar Schools.
3. Practice teaching.
_Second Year_:
1. History of education.
2. Principles and methods of teaching.
3. Outline course of drawing for High and Evening Schools.
4. Practice teaching.
5. Practical details of supervisor’s work.
6. Presentation of the subject of drawing by each pupil before a body
of assumed teachers.
_MICHIGAN._
The State of Michigan maintains only one Normal School, but, as we
shall see later, this State has other means of providing for the
training of its teachers.
This school is located at Ypsilante, and is not residential. It is
open to men and women, and tuition is free to those who undertake to
teach in the State Schools. Graduates from recognised High Schools,
approved by the Board of Education upon recommendation of the Faculty,
are admitted without examination, and are credited with advanced work
already done. Other candidates must pass an entrance examination.
The school offers three classes of courses:
1. Those covering three years of instruction leading to a certificate,
which is a license to teach in the schools of Michigan for a period of
five years; of these there are two, one especially for kindergartners,
and the other to prepare teachers for the rural schools and for the
lower High School grades.
2. Courses covering four years, leading to a diploma and a
life-certificate. Of these there are many to choose from, but all are
more or less distinctly literary, scientific or classical.
3. Advanced courses, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogics
and a life-certificate. One for graduates of any of the four year
courses, and can be completed in two years.
Any one holding an academic degree from the University of Michigan,
or from an incorporated college, may receive the degree of B.Pd. by
spending one half-year at the school, and attending professional
instruction for 250 hours, and teaching under supervision for 100 hours.
Any person holding the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogics of the Michigan
State Normal School may, upon application, receive the degree of Master
of Pedagogics upon the following conditions:
(_a_) He shall furnish evidence satisfactory to the Faculty that he has
been engaged in teaching or in school supervision continuously, and
with pronounced success, for five years since receiving the Bachelor’s
degree.
(_b_) He shall prepare and present a thesis acceptable to the said
Faculty, upon some subject connected with the history, science, or art
of education, the Faculty reserving the right to assign the subject of
such thesis.
The design of the School is professional--_i.e._, only those students
are admitted who intend to teach, but a large portion of the various
courses is devoted to academic work. The school is directly under the
control of the State Board of Education, which grants all certificates,
diplomas and degrees upon recommendation of the Faculty.
_ILLINOIS._
This State, which, like that of Michigan, is typical of the West, has
provided two Normal Schools, known under the somewhat imposing names
of the “Illinois State Normal University,” and the “Southern Illinois
State Normal University.” Neither of these, however, are purely
professional schools. The first of them has three departments--Normal,
Training and High School, while the second has also three--Normal, High
School and Preparatory.
Tuition is free in the Normal Department of both schools, to those who
intend to teach in the State.
The courses in the Normal Departments are usually for three years, but
may be extended to four, and at the completion of any course a diploma
is granted.
The work is very largely academic, and in the first year hardly any
really professional work is done.
One of the Counties of Illinois--Cook--possesses a Normal School
which, although not technically a State School, yet is so in reality,
or indeed something wider, for it attracts to itself students from
all parts of the States. This is known as the Cook County School, or
perhaps quite as often as Colonel Parker’s School.