stripping the ears must be dry and quite ripe. Once it is ready to strip
every effort is made to take the crop off as quickly as possible, as it
does not improve standing, for some of the grain is likely to be shaken
out by winds. The more modern wheats, however, hold the grain
wonderfully against wind or hail. Varieties of wheat are sown so they
will mature at different times, which extends the harvesting period, as
one crop will be ready to harvest before the other is quite ripe, and
there is thus a useful rotation. At harvesting time work usually starts
in the paddock about 8 a.m., as the wheat does not strip well until the
hot sun gets on it, as it toughens during the night. The work goes on
until 7 or 7.30 p.m., with a break of two hours at mid-day, and spells
of twenty minutes in the morning and afternoon. Where labour is employed
one man drives the harvester, but his horses are looked after, fed,
groomed, and harnessed for him. This saves time, and enables the crop to
be taken off the more quickly. Of course, the farmer in a small way will
do his own work, requiring only a little assistance at harvest time,
someone to sew up and stack the bags. As there is always a rush at
harvest time, the bags of grain are often left lying in the paddocks in
small heaps until the crop is all off, when they are carted to the
railway or mill. Some farmers do their own carting, but the majority pay
the regular carriers to do this work, the cost varying according to
distance, but is generally done for 24 cents per ton per mile. About
12-1/2 bags of wheat go to the ton.
[Illustration: AUSTRALIAN WHEAT FOR EXPORT FROM FARM TO WHARF.]
At present in Australia wheat is all handled in bags which contain about
3 bushels of grain. The price of empty bags varies from $1.50 to $2.00
per doz. Very few second-hand bags are used. The different State
Governments in Australia are now considering the wisdom of introducing
the American system of handling wheat in bulk. The Governments of New
South Wales and of Western Australia have definitely announced their
intention of establishing that system, while it is being favourably
considered in Victoria. Once the system was introduced in any of the
States it would probably be only a short time before it was adopted
throughout the Commonwealth. At present, however, bags are in
universal use, the grain being thus carried both for local and export
trade.
The settler finds no difficulty in selling his wheat, as grain merchants
and millers compete for it. Often sales are made before the crop is
ripe. The large wheat merchants and shippers have their agents in every
town, and these men visit the farms, inspect the grain, and make an
offer according to the ruling market price. The local millers are also
competing for what grain they want for local consumption. The grower is
paid on delivery at the mill or the nearest railway station. If he
prefers to do so he can store it with the buying firms, giving them the
right to purchase when he is prepared to sell, or he can store on the
farm. The export values of wheat per bushel for the last six years, have
been:--
1909 $1.00
1910 1.00
1911 0.84
1912 0.95
1913 0.84
1914 0.82
Wheat is bought and sold on what is known as the f.a.q. (fair average
quality) system. Samples of wheat are taken from the various districts
by the different Chambers of Commerce, and each State fixes its own
f.a.q. standard. These samples are mixed together, and by careful
testing on a patent scale it is ascertained what an Imperial bushel of
weight actually weighs. The idea is to ascertain as equitably as
possible what a fair average sample of the season's wheat should weigh.
The standard varies a little in different years; it may be 61, 62, 64,
or as low as 58 lbs. to the bushel. Whatever it is fixed at for the
season that is the basis upon which all sales are made. If the market
price for wheat, for instance, is $1.20 per bushel, it is for wheat up
to the f.a.q. standard. Say the latter has been fixed at 62 lbs., the
wheat must show that weight. Agents have what is called a chrondrometer
for the purpose of testing the wheat. If it is below the f.a.q.
standard, a lower price is given. This system has been devised to suit
the export trade. Samples of the standard wheat are sent to markets
abroad, and all cargoes are sold on that basis. When they arrive at the
market abroad they must test up to the f.a.q. standard. This system has
been in force in Australia for nearly half a century.
It must be understood that this standard f.a.q. weight has nothing to do
with the quantity for which the grower is paid. He is always paid on the
Imperial bushel basis, 60 lbs. Whatever the standard may be, every 60
lbs. of wheat is a bushel. The f.a.q. weight is a standard for quality,
not quantity.
There is always a market for Australian wheat, and the price is always
equal to what wheat is bringing in the world's main markets. Australian
wheat has a character of its own, and a character that is improving.
British millers want it on account of the large amount of flour it
produces, and the colour and bloom it gives to their product. The grain
is usually bright and clear in texture and rich in gluten, having fine
milling qualities. Of late years Australian wheats have been
considerably improved in strength, and this factor is continuing, and
they undoubtedly promise to more than equal any wheat produced,
possessing not only colour and bloom, but also strength, and giving the
miller what he wants to produce an ideal article.
[Illustration: FARMERS IN AUSTRALIA ARE NOT HARASSED BY HIGH RAIL
FREIGHTS.]
COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT.
The cost of production of wheat is a most important matter to the
grower. As already stated, the comparatively low yields in Australia are
amply compensated for by the low cost of producing wheat.
In regard to the work on the farm, the following figures are
approximately the prices for different classes of work when it is done
by contract:--Ploughing new ground, $1.68 per acre; old or fallowed
ground, $1.45 per acre; harrowing, 18 cents to 24 cents per acre;
cultivating, $0.50 per acre; drilling, 36 cents per acre; harvesting
with stripper-harvester, 72 cents per acre; cutting with binder, 84
cents per acre; stooking, 24 cents per acre; carting and stacking hay,
$1.35 per acre.
Superphosphate is the main fertiliser used. Australian wheat soils are
naturally strong in nitrogen and potash, but in many cases are deficient
in available phosphoric acid. Superphosphate costs about $1.20 per cwt.,
and may be reckoned at 48 cents to 60 cents per acre. Seed wheat runs
from 96 cents to $1.20 per bushel; sowing 45 lbs. to the acre represents
72 cents to 84 cents per acre.
It is reckoned that if the same work is done by weekly-paid labour the
cost is reduced by fully 30 per cent. all round.
[Illustration: HARVESTING SCENE, DARLING DOWNS, QUEENSLAND]
In common practice it is considered that it costs $4.80 to $6.00 per
acre to put in and take off an acre of wheat. The following figures are
reliable estimates of the actual cost of production by official experts,
and also actual figures supplied by working farmers.
In the following estimate of the cost of producing wheat it is assumed
that the land is fallowed, and the estimate is based on a yield of 20
bushels per acre:--
Ploughing once at $1.45 per acre $1.45
Harrowing three times at 18 cents per acre 0.54
Cultivating once at $0.60 per acre 0.60
Drilling at 36 cents per acre 0.36
Seed, 45 lbs., at 80 cents per bushel 0.72
Pickling seed 0.06
Superphosphate, 1/2 cwt. at $1.20 0.60
Harvesting with harvester at 72 cents per acre 0.72
Seven bags at $1.60 per dozen 0.84
-----
$4.89
[Illustration: THE STRIPPER AT WORK.]
If the land is not fallowed and the seed sown immediately after
ploughing, the cost is correspondingly less. The above figures are the
cost if the work is done on contract. If it is done by weekly hired
labour the work comes out about 30 per cent. cheaper, as will be seen by
the following figures:--
Ploughing: Wages, one man at $6.00 per week; man's rations, $2.40
per week; feed for four horses for week, $9.60; total, $18.00. One
man with four horses in a three-furrow plough will do 22 acres in
six days at a cost of less than $0.84 per acre. Drilling: Man's
wages, $6.00; rations, $2.40; horsefeed, three horses, $7.20;
total, $7.80. He will drill 90 acres in six days at that cost, or
less than $0.18 per acre. Other operations cost similarly less, but
in all cases wear and depreciation of plant and interest on capital
invested in plant should be allowed for.
These figures, however, concern cases where labour is employed. The
following figures show the outlay where a man is doing the work himself.
He could plough, cultivate, and sow 250 acres, which would take him
twenty-two weeks. The first year he has to purchase his seed wheat and
feed for his horses:--
190 bushels seed wheat at $0.80 per bushel $153.60
10 tons chaff at $19.20 per ton 192.00
-------
$345.60
Approximately $1.38 per acre.
At harvest time he would first reap portion of his crop to secure a
supply of horse feed for the following year, say, 10 acres:--
Reaping and haymaking, 2 men's wages for
three days at $1.92, food $0.48 per day $14.40
Twine (for binding the sheaves) 6.00
Harvesting the wheat crop: One man's wages
$1.92, food $0.48 per day for forty days 96.00
One hundred dozen bags at $1.68 per dozen 168.00
Horsefeed, 5 tons chaff at $19.20 per ton 96.00
Cartage, 1000 bags wheat at $0.18 per bag 180.00
-------
$560.40
This is reckoning the crop as averaging 15 bushels per acre, when the
returns would be:--
15 tons of chaff (a low estimate) at $19.20
per ton $288.00
1200 bags of wheat, 3600 bushels at $0.80 per
bushel 2880.00
--------
$3168.00
Less expenditure ($345.60, $560.40) 906.00
--------
Balance $2262.00
To be thoroughly correct we should allow for:--
Interest on plant, costing, say, $1920.00 at
5 per cent. $96.00
Depreciation of plant, 10 per cent. 192.00
Rent on 250 acres at $1.20 per acre 300.00
-------
Total $588.00
And in addition allow for the value of the farmer's own labour:--
Twenty-two weeks putting in crop at $12.00
per week $264.00
Ten weeks harvesting at $14.40 per week .. 144.00
-------
$408.00
We still have a satisfactory result, viz.:--
Returns $3168.00
Outlay $570.00
Interest, &c. 588.00
Farmer's labour 408.00
------- 1902.00
--------
Net clear return $1266.00
From this it can be seen that very handsome returns can be obtained
where the farmer is working his land properly, and growing a good
portion, if not all, of his crop on fallowed land. Then his average
would be nearer 25 bushels than 15, and his net return nearly as much
again. In the above example, after making full allowance for all
legitimate charges, the cost of producing a 15-bushel crop from 250
acres comes out at about $7.44 per acre.
SHARE FARMING.
One of the most prominent and, in a sense, unique features of
wheatgrowing in Australia is the share-farming system. In New South
Wales, for instance, something like one-sixth of the wheat crop is put
in on shares. Under this system the landowner and the worker with
limited means co-operate to their mutual benefit. One provides the land
and the other the labour, and, under certain conditions, they share the
produce. Since it was introduced many years ago, share farming has
become popular because it has proved a boon to both parties and to the
different States, while providing an exceptionally safe means of giving
men the opportunity to ultimately acquire farms of their own.
[Illustration: WHEAT AT COUNTRY RAILWAY SIDING.]
The conditions upon which land is worked on shares differs slightly in
different districts, but usually they are somewhat on the following
lines. The landowner provides the land ready for the plough, fenced and
cleared; the seed wheat, and bluestone for pickling same; bags and twine
for his share of the crop. The share farmer usually provides machinery
and horses to work the land, put in and take off the crop, all labour
and bags and twine for his share of the crop. In the majority of cases
the landowner and the share farmer each take half the proceeds, or "bag
for bag," each reserving the right to dispose of his share when and
where he deems fit. In some cases the agreement is more liberal to the
share farmer, and a fixed amount--perhaps 16 to 18 bushels--is agreed
upon, which is shared equally, any balance being taken by the farmer.
This is sometimes adopted as an incentive to good farming, and in cases
as an inducement to attract the share farmer into new districts some
distance from the railway. There have been cases where farmers have
secured very good crops, 30 to 36 bushels to the acre, which meant that
they received 22 and 28 bushels per acre for their share, while the
landowner only received 8 bushels. These are exceptional conditions. As
stated, the usual practice is to share equally. The following are sample
specimens of the different agreements worked under:--
The landowner finds the land, all seed, and half manure; the farmer
finds plant, labour, and half manure. Each takes half the crop.
The landowner provides land, all seed and all manure; the farmer
plant and labour, and takes one-third of the crop, the landowner
taking two-thirds.
The landowner provides land only, and takes one-third of the crop;
the farmer provides plant, labour, seed, and manure, taking
two-thirds of the crop.
The landowner provides all stock, land, and half manure; the farmer
provides labour, seed, and half manure, and the crop is divided
equally.
The landowner provides land, seed, and manure; the farmer does all
the work, and the crop is equally divided.
[Illustration: A NICE MIXED FARM.]
It will thus be seen that some minor differences occur in the
agreements. The first of the above list is most common. There are cases,
however, where a progressive owner is anxious to get his land under
wheat, and has financed the farmer, finding everything but labour. The
landowner has provided a working plant, for which the farmer pays him
from the proceeds of the crops, the payments extending over a term of
seasons. Under this system men have started without any capital, and in
a few years possessed a plant worth several hundred pounds, together
with a snug banking account to their credit. Of course, in such cases
the landowner knows his man, and knows he is honest, experienced, and
capable. Usually the men have worked on the place as farm hands.
Under any conditions it is essential that the share farmer must have
certain qualifications. It could not be expected that the landowner
would consent to allow him to work valuable land otherwise. Practical
experience of wheatgrowing is required, together with a good personal
character. Local experience is also usually required, and in any case it
would be the wisest course for any man to secure in his own interests
such experience before endeavouring to start farming on shares. In
Australia the man who is in earnest, and determined to go on the land,
will find no difficulty in obtaining such experience. There is a good
demand for willing farm workers at a rate of wages that will allow a
thrifty man to put something by, while he is gaining a practical
experience and a knowledge of local conditions. Once he has those he
will not find it difficult to obtain the chance to start working on
shares.
The share farmer has to find his own dwelling, and support himself and
family. In some cases the owner erects the dwellings under special
terms, but usually, as the farmer hopes to only be engaged for a few
seasons share farming, the building is of a cheap nature, as the climate
is temperate.
A man with $1440.00 or $1920.00 can purchase horses and obtain a plant,
financing himself for a couple of years without depending too much on
credit. Men have started with less and succeeded, as examples given
later will show. It is not necessary to purchase a complete plant, and,
as already stated, the more expensive implements can be purchased on
terms. A man can handle 200 to 300 acres, and at the ruling prices for
wheat of recent years, taking the average obtained by good farmers, the
returns will run from $9.60 to $14.00 per acre and more for his share.
In addition, after ploughing and sowing is completed, a team of horses
will earn good money at contract work in the district, carrying on the
roads and so on, until harvest time. In this way a farmer in three or
four years, perhaps less, will be in the position to take up land on his
own account on a private or Government subdivision, and start in to
build a permanent and comfortable home for himself and his family.
While share farming he has proved his capability and obtained the
confidence that comes with experience, together with a valuable
knowledge of local conditions, which is a great help in selecting land
for purchase.
It will be seen that share farming affords exceptional opportunities for
the energetic man with a small capital. He can start without sinking
all his capital in rent or purchase money, and perhaps burdening himself
with a heavy debt. In his own interests he has that to farm well, and
indeed in most cases the terms of the agreement require conditions
essential to good farming. Farmers are usually required to plough to a
specified depth, and at times to prepare an area of fallow land for the
succeeding crop. He is allowed to graze his horses on the property, or
given the use of a paddock at a low rental.
[Illustration: THIS CROP YIELDED OVER 30 BUSHELS TO THE ACRE.]
One of the advantages of share farming, making towards amicable working,
is that the interests of the landowner and the farmer are the same. Both
are anxious to secure the greatest possible return from the land, and
there is a direct community of interest. The landowner may be more
concerned about maintaining the fertility of the soil, and securing good
farming, but this is also to the interest of the farmer, and certainly
affords him a valuable lesson for the future when he is working his own
property. While the system beyond question is equitable and fair, and
gives the farmer an excellent chance to achieve success that would not
be the case where he was working on wages, or an ordinary tenant,
admittedly it is also advantageous to the landowner. He secures a good
return from his land, and avoids the anxiety and trouble often
associated with the employment of labour on a large scale, while he has
not to embark a large sum of money in working plant.
In connection with a system such as this the evidence of an unbiassed,
independent outside body is, perhaps, more convincing than anything
else. It is available.
In 1910 Australia was visited by the Scottish Agricultural Commission, a
body of practical men from Scotland, who investigated rural conditions
in the Commonwealth. The Commission toured the Commonwealth, visiting
different wheat districts, and came into direct touch with local
conditions. They paid great attention to the share farming, as its
possibilities could not fail to impress them, and in their report on
"Australia: Its Land, Conditions, and Prospects," they had the following
to say:--
"After a year or two the newcomer finds himself ready for a start
on his own account. If he possessed a few hundred pounds when he
landed, he will now seek to become his own landlord in one or other
of the ways open to him. If, however, he has yet too little money
for that, he will be well advised to take no risks, but to be
content meantime either with renting a farm or with farming on the
share system. A man who is intelligent and industrious, who has had
sufficient experience of farming in Australia, but who has not
enough money to buy land, cannot do better than turn his attention
to farming on shares.
"He can take up wheatfarming ... and if he has a good reputation,
he will find no difficulty in getting on shares the kind of farm he
wants."
HOW THE SETTLER IS ASSISTED.
The different Australian States fully recognise the great value to the
community of the farmer, and special steps are taken to assist him in
different ways.
Financial assistance is rendered through agricultural banks in West
Australia and Queensland, the Credit Foncier in Victoria, and State
Banks in New South Wales and South Australia. Through these Government
institutions advances are made to settlers. Full particulars in this
regard are furnished in another booklet, obtainable by intending
settlers.
[Illustration: FARMERS ON THE WAY TO A COUNTRY SHOW.]
In Australia all the railways are State-owned, and the endeavour is to
carry farm produce and farming implements, fertilisers, &c., at the
lowest possible rate compatible with the railways covering working
expenses and depreciation of stock. Special rates are made for long
distances. The rates vary in the different States, but it can be
confidently said that they prove no hindrance to successful
wheatgrowing. As all the wheat grown in Australia has to be carried to
the seaboard on the railways, the particulars of success achieved, as
already given, proves that. The Commonwealth Statistician furnishes the
following particulars of State railway rates for agricultural produce in
the different States, which serve as a guide to the settler:--
+------------------+-------------------------------------+
| |Charge per Ton in |
| |truckloads for a haul of |
| State. +-----------+------------+------------+
| | 50 miles. | 100 miles. | 200 miles. |
+------------------+-----------+------------+------------+
| | $ | $ | $ |
|New South Wales | 1.20 | 1.80 | 2.28 |
|Victoria | 1.32 | 2.04 | 2.52 |
|Queensland | 1.10 | 2.10 | 2.64 |
|South Australia | 1.48 | 2.10 | 3.10 |
|Western Australia | 1.50 | 2.14 | 2.90 |
|Tasmania | 1.62 | 2.32 | 3.12 |
+------------------+-----------+------------+------------+
|Average | 1.36 | 2.08 | 2.76 |
+------------------+-----------+------------+------------+
+------------------+-------------------------------------+
| |Charge per Ton in |
| |truckloads for a haul of |
| State. +-----------+------------+------------
| | 300 miles. | 400 miles. | 500 miles.|
+------------------+------------+------------+-----------+
| | $ | $ | $ |
|New South Wales | 2.52 | 2.72 | 2.88 |
|Victoria | 2.96 | 3.36 | 3.76 |
|Queensland | 2.88 | 3.12 | 3.36 |
|South Australia | 4.10 | 5.10 | 6.10 |
|Western Australia | 4.08 | 5.28 | 5.76 |
|Tasmania | ... | ... | ... |
+------------------+------------+------------+-----------+
|Average | 3.10 | 3.90 | 4.38 |
+------------------+------------+------------+-----------+
The following table shows the rates on low-class freight, which includes
ordinary articles of merchandise, such as are particularly identified or
connected with the primary industries:--
+------------------+-----------+------------+------------+
| | Charge per Ton for haul of |
| State. +-----------+------------+------------+
| | 50 miles. | 100 miles. | 200 miles. |
+------------------+-----------+------------+------------+
| | $ | $ | $ |
|New South Wales | 0.60 | 0.86 | 1.36 |
|Victoria | 1.02 | 1.60 | 2.40 |
|Queensland | 1.10 | 2.10 | 3.60 |
|South Australia | 1.00 | 1.84 | 3.26 |
|Western Australia | 1.20 | 2.00 | 3.40 |
|Tasmania | 1.20 | 1.62 | 2.04 |
+------------------+-----------+------------+------------+
|Average | 1.00 | 1.64 | 2.86 |
+------------------+-----------+------------+------------+
+------------------+------------+------------+------------+
| | Charge per Ton for haul of |
| State. +------------+------------+------------+
| | 300 miles. | 400 miles. | 500 miles. |
+------------------+------------+------------+------------+
| | $ | $ | $ |
|New South Wales | 1.86 | 2.36 | 2.86 |
|Victoria | 2.84 | 3.24 | 3.64 |
|Queensland | 4.40 | 5.60 | 5.60 |
|South Australia | 4.26 | 5.26 | 6.26 |
|Western Australia | 4.40 | 5.60 | 6.60 |
|Tasmania | ... | ... | ... |
+------------------+------------+------------+------------+
|Average | 3.62 | 4.42 | 5.48 |
+------------------+------------+------------+------------+
The railways being publicly owned, there is always a demand for a
reduction of rates when they show any undue profit over working
expenses. The object of railway administration is to assist the
producer.