THE CHOSEN CITY
Medina, city of exile and despairing beginnings, destined to achieve
glory by difficult ways, only to be eclipsed finally by its mightier
neighbour and mistress, became, rather by chance than by design, the
scene of Mahomet's struggles for temporal power and his ruthless wielding
of the sword for God and Islam. The city lies north-east of Mecca, on the
opposite side of the mountain spur that skirts the eastern boundary.
Always weakly peopled, it remained from immemorial time an arena of
strife, for it was on the borderland, the boundary of several tribes, and
was far enough north for the outer waves of Syrian disturbances to fling
their varying tides upon its shores--a meagre city, always fiercely at
civil warfare, impotent, unfertile.
In the dark days of Judaea's humiliation at the hands of Titus, two
Jewish tribes, the Kainukua and the Koreitza, outcast and desolate, even
as they had been warned in their time of dominion, lighted upon Medina in
desperate search for a dwelling-place and a respite from persecution, and
forthwith took possession of the little hill-girt town. They settled
there, driving out or conciliating the former inhabitants, until in the
fourth century their tenuous prosperity was disturbed by the inroads of
two Bedouin tribes, the Beni Aus and the Beni Khazraj. The desert was
wide, and these tribes were familiar with its manifold opportunities and
devious ways. Against such a foe, who swooped down suddenly upon the
city, plundered and then escaped into the limitless unknown, the Jews had
no chance of reprisal.
Before long the Beni Aus and Khazraj had subjugated the Jewish
communities, and their dominion in Medina was only weakened by their
devastating quarrels among themselves. The city therefore offered a
peculiar opening for the teaching of Islam within it. Its religious life
indeed was varied and chaotic. Jews, Arabian idolaters, immigrants from
Christian Syria, torn by schisms, thronged its public places, and this
confusion of faiths sharpened the religious and debating instincts of its
people. The ground was thus broken up for the reception of the new creed
of one God and of his messenger, who had already divided Mecca into
believers and heretics, and who was spoken of in the city with that awe
that attaches itself to distant marvels.
Intercourse with Mecca was chiefly carried on at the time of the yearly
Pilgrimage; the Greater Pilgrimage, only undertaken during Dzul Hijj,
corresponding then to our March, and in Dzul Hijj, 620, came a band of
strangers over the hills, along the toilsome caravan route to the Kaaba,
the goal of their intentions, the shrine of all their prayers. They
performed all the necessary ceremonies at Mecca, and were proceeding to
Mina, a small valley just east of Mecca, for the completion of their
sacred duties, when they were accosted by Mahomet.
The Prophet was despondent and sceptical of his power to persuade, though
his belief in Allah's might never wavered. He had failed so far to
produce any decisive impression upon the Meccan people, but might there
not be another town in Arabia which would receive his message? The little
band of pilgrims seemed to him sent in answer to his self-distrust, and
his failure at Taif as eclipsed by this sudden success. The caravan
returned to its native city, and there remained little for Mahomet to do
except to wait for the arrival of next year's pilgrims, and to keep
shining and ambient the flame of his religious fervour. He remained in
Mecca virtually on sufferance, and rapidly recognised the uselessness of
attempting any further conversions. His hopes were now definitely set on
Medina, and to this end he seems to devoted himself more than ever to the
perusal and interpretation of the Jewish scriptures.
The portion of the Kuran written at this time contains little else than
Bible stories told and retold to the point of weariness. Lot, of course,
is the characteristic figure; but we also have the life stories of
Abraham, Moses, Jonah, Joseph, and many others. The style has suffered a
marked diminution in poetic qualities. It has become reiterative and even
laboured. He continues his practice of alluding to current events, which
at Medina he was to pursue to the extent of making the Kuran a kind of
spasmodic history of his time, as well as an elementary text-book of law
and morality. In one of the suras--"The Cow"--Mahomet makes first mention
of that comfortable doctrine of "cancelling," by which later verses of
the Kuran cancel all previous revelations dealing with the same subject
if these prove contradictory: "Whatever verses we cancel or cause thee to
forget, we bring a better or its like; knowest thou not that God hath
power over all things?"
There is not much record in the Kuran of the influence of Christian
thought upon Islam. We have a few stories of Elizabeth and Mary, and
scattered allusions to the despised "Prophet of the Jews." But the great
body of Christian thought, its central dogmas of Incarnation and
Redemption, passed Mahomet entirely by, for his mind was practical and
not speculative, and indeed to himself no less than to his followers the
fundamentals of Christianity were of necessity too philosophic to be
realised with any intensity of belief. The Christian virtues of meekness
and resignation, too, might be respected in the abstract--passages in the
Kuran and tradition assure us they were--but they were so utterly
antagonistic to the fierce, free nature of the Arab that they never
entered into his religious life. Mahomet revered the Founder of
Christianity, and placed Him with John in the second Heaven of his
Immortals, but though He is secure among the teachers of the world, He
can never compete with the omnipotence and glory of the Prophet.
During the period of Mahomet's life immediately preceding his departure
to Medina, we have his personal appearance described in detail by Ali. He
is a man of medium stature, with a magnificent head and a thick, flowing
beard. His eyes were black and ardent, his jaw firm but not prominent. He
looked an upstanding man of open countenance, benignant and powerful,
bearing between his shoulders the sign of his divine mission. He had
great patience, says Ali, and "in nowise despised the poor for their
poverty, nor honoured the rich for their possessions. Nor if any took him
by the hand to salute him was he the first to relinquish his grasp."
He lived openly among his disciples, holding frequent converse with them,
mending his own clothes and even shoes, a frugal liver and a fervent
preacher of the flaming faith within him. He became at this time
betrothed to Ayesha, the splendid woman, now just a merry child, who was
to keep her reigning place in his affections until the end of his life.
Daughter of Abu Bekr, she united in herself for Mahomet both policy and
attractiveness, for by this betrothal he became of blood-kin with Abu
Bekr, and thereby strengthened his friend's allegiance. The union marks
the inauguration of his policy of marriage alliances by which he bound
the supporters of his Faith more closely to him, either through his own
marriage with their daughters, or the bestowal of his offspring upon
them.
Ayesha was lovely and imperious, with a luxurious but shrewd nature,
and her counsel was always sought by Mahomet. Other women appeared
frequently like comets in his sky, flamed for a little into brightness
and disappeared into conjugal obscurity, but Ayesha's star remained fixed,
even if it was transitorily eclipsed by the brilliance of a new-comer.
Sexual relations held for Mahomet towards the end of his life a peculiar
potency, born of his intense energetic nature. He sought the society of
woman because of the mental clarity that for him followed any expression
of emotion. He was one of those men who must express--the artist, in fact;
but an artist who used the medium of action, not that of literature,
painting, or music. "Poète, il ne connut que la poésie d'action," and like
Napoleon, his introspection was completely overshadowed by his consuming
energy. Therefore emotion was to him unconsciously the means by which this
immortal energy of mind could be conserved, and he used it unsparingly.
Ayesha has revealed for us the most intimate details of Mahomet's life,
and it is due to her that later traditions are enabled to represent him
as a man among men. He appears to us fierce and subtle, by turns
impetuous and calculating, a man who never missed an opportunity, and
gauged exactly the efforts needed to compass any intention. To him "every
fortress had its key, and every man his price." He was as keen a
politician us he was a religious reformer, but before all he paid homage
to the sword, prime artificer in his career of conquest. But in those
confidently intimate traditions handed down to us from his immediate
entourage, and especially from Ayesha, we find him alternately passionate
and gentle, wearing his power with conscious authority, mild in his
treatment of the poor, terrible to his enemies, autocratic, intolerant,
with a strange magnetism that bound men to him. The mystery enveloping
great men even in their lifetime, among primitive races, creeps
down in these documents to hide much of his personality from us, but his
works proclaim his energy and tireless organising powers, even if the
mythical, allegoric element predominates in the earlier traditions. The
man who undertook and achieved the gigantic task of organising a new
social and political as well as religious order may be justly credited
with calling forth and centering in himself the vivid imaginations of
that most credulous age.
The year 620-621 passed chiefly in expectation of the Greater Pilgrimage,
when the disciples from Medina were to come to report progress and to
confirm their faith. The momentous time arrived, and Mahomet went almost
fearfully to meet the nucleus of his future kingdom in Acaba, a valley
near Mina. But his fears were groundless, for the little party had been
faithful to their leader, and had also increased their numbers.
They met in secret, and we may picture them a little diffident in so
strange a place, ever expectant of the swift descent of the Kureisch and
their own annihilation. Withal they were enthusiastic and confident of
their leader. One is irresistibly reminded, in reading of this meeting,
of that little outcast band from Judea which ultimately prevailed over
Cæsar Imperator through its mighty quality of faith. The accredited words
of the first pledge given at Acaba are traditionally extant; they combine
curiously religious, moral, and social covenants, and assert even at that
early stage the headship of the Prophet over his servants:
"We will not worship any but God; we will not steal, neither will we
commit adultery nor kill our children; we will not slander in any wise,
nor will we disobey the Prophet in anything that is right."
The converts then departed to their native city, for Mahomet did not deem
the time yet ripe enough for migration thither. He possessed the
difficult art of waiting until the effectual time should arrive, and
there is no doubt that by now he had formed definite plans to set up his
rule in Medina when there should be sufficient supporters there to
guarantee his success. Musab, a Meccan convert of some learning, was
deputed to accompany the Medinan citizens to their city and give
instruction therein to all who were willing to study the Muslim creed.
For yet another year Mahomet was to possess his soul in patience, but it
was with feelings of far greater confidence that he awaited the passing
of time. More than ever he became sure of the guiding hand of Allah, that
pointed indisputably to the stranger city as the goal of his strivings.
This city held a goodly proportion of Jews, therefore the connection
between his faith and that of Judaism must be continually emphasised.
We have seen how large a space Jewish legend and history fill in the
contemporary suras of the Kuran, and Mahomet's friendship with Israel
increased noticeably during his last two years at Mecca. He paid them the
honour of taking Jerusalem as his Kibla, or Holy Place, to which all
Believers turn in prayer, and the starting-place for his immortal
Midnight Journey was the Sacred City encompassing the Temple of the Lord.
No account of this journey appears except in the traditions crystallized
by Al Bokharil, but there is one short mention of it in the Kuran, Sura
xviii.
"Glory be to him who carried his servant by night from the sacred temple
of Mecca to the temple that is more remote, i.e. Jerusalem."
The vision, however, looms so large in his followers' minds, and
exercised so profound an influence over their regard for Mahomet, that it
throws some light, upon the measure of his ascendancy during his last
years at Mecca, and establishes beyond dispute the inspired character of
his Prophetship in the imaginations of the few Believers. There have been
solemn and wordy disputes by theologians as to whether he made the
journey in the flesh, or whether his spirit alone crossed the dread
portals dividing our night from the celestial day.
He was lying in the Kaaba, so runs the legend, when the Angel of the Lord
appeared to him, and after having purged his heart of all sin, carried
him to the Temple at Jerusalem. He penetrated its sacred enclosure and
saw the beast Borak, "greater than ass, smaller than mule," and was told
to mount. The Faithful still show the spot at Jerusalem where his steed's
hoof marked the ground as he spurned it with flying feet. With Gabriel by
his side, mounted on a beast mighty in strength, Mahomet scaled the
appalling spaces and came at last to the outer Heaven, before the gate
that guards the celestial realms. The angel knocked upon the brazen doors
and a voice within cried:
"Who art thou, and who is with thee?"
"I am Gabriel," came the answer, "and this is Mahomet."
And behold, the brazen gates that may not be unclosed for mortal man were
flung wide, and Mahomet entered alone with the angel. He penetrated to
the first Heaven and saw Adam, who interrogated him in the same words,
and received the same reply. And all the heavenly hierarchies, even unto
the seventh Heaven, John and Jesus, Joseph, Enoch, Aaron, Moses, Abraham,
acknowledged Mahomet in the same words, until the two came to "the tree
called Sedrat," beyond which no man may pass and live, whose fruits are
shining serpents, and whose leaves are great beasts, round which flow
four rivers, the Nile and the Euphrates guarding it without, and within
these the celestial streams that water Paradise, too wondrous for a name.
Awed but undaunted, Mahomet passed alone beyond the sacred tree, for even
the Angel could not bear any longer so fierce a glory, and came to
Al-M'amur, even the Hall of Heavenly Audience, where are seventy thousand
angels. He mounted the steps of the throne between their serried ranks,
until at the touch of Allah's awful hand he stopped and felt its icy
coldness penetrate to his heart. He was given milk, wine, or honey to
drink, and he chose milk.
"Hadst thou chosen honey, O Mahomet," said Allah, "all thy people would be
saved, now only a part shall find perfection."
And Mahomet was troubled.
"Bid my people pray to Me fifty times a day."
At the resistless mandate Mahomet turned and retraced his steps to the
seventh Heaven, where dwelt Abraham.
"The people of the earth will be in nowise constrained to pray fifty
times a day. Return thou and beg that the number be lessened."
So Mahomet returned again and again at Abraham's command, until he had
reduced the number to five, which the father of his people considered
was sufficient burden for his feeble subjects to bear. Wherefore the five
periods set apart for prayer in the Muslim faith are proportionately
sacred, and with this divine mandate the vision ceased.
With his hopes now set on founding an earthly dominion with the help of
Allah, he had perforce to consider the political situation, and to mature
his policy for dealing with it as soon as events proved favourable. The
achievements of the Persians on the Greek frontier had already attracted
his attention in 616; there is an allusion to the battle and the Greek
defeat in the Kuran, and a vague prophecy of their ultimate success, for
Mahomet was in sympathy with the Greek Empire, seeing that, from the
point of view of Arabia, it was the less formidable enemy.
But really the events of such outlying territories only troubled him in
regard to Medina, for his whole thoughts were centred now upon the chosen
city of his dreams. His followers became less aggressive in Mecca when
they knew that the Prophet had the nucleus of a new colony in another
city. Persecution within Mecca therefore died down considerably, and the
period is one of pause upon either side, the Kureisch watching to see
what the next move was to be, Mahomet carefully and secretly maturing his
plans.
During this year there fell a drought upon Mecca, followed by a famine,
which the devout attributed directly to divine anger at the rejection of
the Prophet's heavenly message, and which Mahomet interpreted as the
punishment of God, and this doubtless added to the sum of reasons which
impelled him to relinquish his native town.
From this time until the Hegira, or Flight from the City, events in the
world of action move but slowly for Mahomet. He was careful not to excite
undue suspicion among the Kureisch, and we can imagine him silent and
preoccupied, fulfilling his duties among them, visiting the Kaaba, and
mingling somewhat coldly with their daily life. Still keeping his purpose
immutable, he sought to strengthen the faith of his followers for the
trials he knew must come. The Kuran thus became more important as the
mouthpiece of his exhortations. The suras of this time resound with words
of encouragement and confidence. He is about to become the leader of a
perilous venture in honour of God. The reflex of the expectancy in the
hearts of the Muslim may be traced in his messages to them. Their whole
world, as it were, waited breathless, quiet, and tense for the record of
the year's achievements in Medina, and for the time appointed by God.
But how far their leader's actions were the result of painstaking
calculations, an insight into the qualities and energies of men, a
prevision startling in its range and accuracy, they never suspected; but,
serene in their confidence, they held their magnificent faith in the
divine guidance and in the inspiration of their Prophet.