Whoever imports, exports, removes, buys, sells, or disposes of any
person as a slave, or accepts, receives, or detains against his
will any person as a slave, shall be punished with imprisonment
for a term which may extend to seven years, and shall also be
liable to a fine.
Whoever habitually imports, exports, removes, buys, sells, traffics
or deals in slaves, shall be punished with transportation for
life, or with imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years,
and shall be liable to a fine.
Whoever unlawfully compels any person to labour against the will
of that person, shall be punished with imprisonment for a term
which may extend to one year, or with a fine, or with both.
"Very low indeed," Mr. S. Appadorai Iyer writes, [28] "is the social
position of these miserable beings. When a Cherumar meets a person
of superior caste; he must stand at a distance of thirty feet. If he
comes within this prohibited distance, his approach is said to cause
pollution, which is removed only by bathing in water. A Cherumar
cannot approach a Brahman village or temple, or tank. If he does so,
purification becomes necessary. Even while using the public road, if he
sees his lord and master, he has to leave the ordinary way and walk, it
may be in the mud, to avoid his displeasure by accidentally polluting
him. To avoid polluting the passer-by, he repeats the unpleasant
sound 'O, oh, O--'. [In some places, e.g., Palghat, one may often
see a Cheruman with a dirty piece of cloth spread on the roadside,
and yelling in a shrill voice 'Ambrane, Ambarane, give me some pice,
and throw them on the cloth.'] His position is intolerable in the
Native States of Cochin and Travancore, where Brahman influence is
in the ascendant; while in the Palghat taluk the Cherumars cannot,
even to this day, enter the bazaar." A melancholy picture has been
drawn of the Cherumans tramping along the marshes in mud, often wet
up to their waists, to avoid polluting their superiors. In 1904, a
Cheruman came within polluting distance of a Nayar, and was struck
with a stick. The Cheruman went off and fetched another, whereupon
the Nayar ran away. He was, however, pursued by the Cherumans. In
defending himself with a spade, the Nayar struck the foremost Cheruman
on the head, and killed him. [29] In another case, a Cheruman, who
was the servant of a Mappilla, was fetching grass for his master,
when he inadvertently approached some Tiyans, and thereby polluted
them. The indignant Tiyans gave not only the Cheruman, but his master
also, a sound beating by way of avenging the insult offered to them.
The status of the Pulayas of the Cochin State is thus described by
Mr. Anantha Krishna Iyer. "They abstain from eating food prepared
by the Velakkathalavans (barbers), Mannans (washermen), Panans,
Vettuvans, Parayans, Nayadis, Ulladans, Malayans, and Kadars. The
Pulayas in the southern parts of the State have to stand at a distance
of 90 feet from Brahmans and 64 feet from Nayars, and this distance
gradually diminishes towards the lower castes. They are polluted by
Pula Cherumas, Parayas, Nayadis, and Ulladans. [The Pula Cherumas are
said to eat beef, and sell the hides of cattle.] The Kanakka Cherumas
of the Chittur taluk pollute Era Cherumas and Konga Cherumas by touch,
and by approach within a distance of seven or eight feet, and are
themselves polluted by Pula Cherumas, Parayas, and Vettuvans, who have
to stand at the same distance. Pulayas and Vettuvans bathe when they
approach one another, for their status is a point of dispute as to
which is superior to the other. When defiled by the touch of a Nayadi,
a Cheruman has to bathe in seven tanks, and let a few drops of blood
flow from one of his fingers. A Brahman who enters the compound of a
Pulayan has to change his holy thread, and take panchagavyam (the five
products of the cow) so as to be purified from pollution. The Valluva
Pulayan of the Trichur taluk fasts for three days, if he happens to
touch a cow that has been delivered of a calf. He lives on toddy and
tender cocoanuts. He has also to fast three days after the delivery
of his wife." In ordinary conversation in Malabar, such expressions
as Tiya-pad or Cheruma-pad (that is, the distance at which a Tiyan
or Cheruman has to keep) are said to be commonly used. [30]
By Mr. T. K. Gopal Panikkar the Cherumans are described [31] as
"a very inferior race, who are regarded merely as agricultural
instruments in the hands of the landlords their masters, who supply
them with houses on their estates. Their daily maintenance is supplied
to them by their masters themselves. Every morning the master's agent
summons them to his house, and takes them away to work in the fields,
in ploughing, drawing water from wells, and in short doing the whole of
the cultivation. In the evening a certain quantity of paddy (unhusked
rice) is distributed to them as wages. Both theory and practice, in
the great majority of cases, are that they are fed at the master's
cost the whole year round, whether they work in the fields or not. But
it is very seldom that they can have a holiday, regard being had to
the nature of agriculture in Malabar. It is the Cheruma that should
plough the land, sow the seed, transplant the seedlings, regulate
the flow of water in the fields, uproot the weeds, and see that the
crops are not destroyed by animals, or stolen. When the crops ripen,
he has to keep watch at night. The sentry house consists of a small
oval-shaped portable roof, constructed of palmyra and cocoanut leaves,
supported by four posts, across which are tied bamboos, which form
the watchman's bed. Wives sometimes accompany their husbands in their
watches. When the harvest season approaches, the Cheruman's hands
are full. He has to cut the crops, carry them to the barn (kalam),
separate the corn from the stalk, and winnow it. The second crop
operations immediately follow, and the Cheruma has to go through all
these processes again. It is in the summer season that his work is
light, when he is set to prepare vegetable gardens, or some odd job is
found for him by his master. The old, infirm, and the children look
after their master's cattle. Receiving his daily pittance of paddy,
the Cheruman enters his hut, and reserves a portion of it for the
purchase of salt, chillies, toddy, tobacco, and dried fish. The other
portion is reserved for food. The Cheruman spends the greater part
of his wages on toddy. It is a very common sight in Malabar to see
a group of Cherumans, including women and children, sitting in front
of a toddy shop, the Cheruman transferring the unfinished portion of
the toddy to his wife, and the latter to the children. A Cheruman,
however, rarely gets intoxicated, or commits crime. No recess is
allowed to the Cherumans, except on national holidays and celebrated
temple festivals observed in honour of the goddess Bhagavati or Kali,
when they are quite free to indulge in drink. On these days, their hire
is given in advance. With this they get intoxicated, and go to the
poora-paramba or temple premises, where the festival is celebrated,
in batches of four, each one tying his hands to another's neck,
and reciting every two seconds the peculiar sound:
Lalle lalle lalle ho.
Lalle lalle lalle ho.
"On the European plantations in the Wynad the Cherumans are in great
request, and many are to be seen travelling nowadays without fear in
railway carriages on their way to the plantations. A few also work
in the gold mines of Mysore."
Like other servile classes, the Cherumans possess special privileges
on special occasions. For example, at the chal (furrow) ceremony in
Malabar "the master of the house, the cultivating agent, and Cherumans
assemble in the barn, a portion of the yard in front of the building
is painted with rice-water, and a lighted bell-lamp is placed near at
hand with some paddy and rice, and several cups made of the leaves
of the kanniram (Strychnos nux-vomica)--as many cups as there are
varieties of seed in the barn. Then, placing implicit faith in his
gods, and deceased ancestors, the master of the house opens the barn
door, followed by the Cheruman with a new painted basket containing the
leaf cups. The master then takes a handful of seed from a seed-basket,
and fills one of the cups, and the cultivating agent, head Cheruman,
and others who are interested in a good harvest, fill the cups till
the seeds are exhausted. The basket, with the cups, is next taken to
the decorated portion of the yard. A new ploughshare is fastened to a
new plough, and a pair of cattle are brought on to the scene. Plough,
cattle, and basket are all painted with rice-water. A procession
proceeds to the fields, on reaching which the head Cheruman lays
down the basket, and makes a mound of earth with the spade. To this a
little manure is added, and the master throws a handful of seed into
it. The cattle are then yoked, and one turn is ploughed by the head
Cheruman. Inside this at least seven furrows are made, and the plough
is dropped to the right. An offering is made to Ganapathi (the elephant
god), and the master throws some seed into a furrow. Next the head
Cheruman calls out 'May the gods on high and the deceased ancestors
bless the seed, which has been thrown broadcast, and the cattle which
are let loose; the mother and children of the house, the master, and
the slaves, may they also vouchsafe to us a good crop, good sunshine,
and good harvest.' A cocoanut is then cut on the ploughshare, and from
the cut portions several deductions are made. If the hinder part is
larger than the front one, the harvest will be moderate. If the cut
passes through the eyes of the nut, or if no water is left in the
cut portions, certain misfortune is foreboded. The cut fragments are
then taken with a little water inside them, and a leaf of the tulsi
plant (Ocimum sanctum) dropped in. If the leaf turns to the right,
a prosperous harvest is assured; whereas, if it turns to the left,
certain calamity will follow. This ceremonial concluded, there is
much shouting, and the names of all the gods may be heard called
out in a confused prayer. The party then breaks up, and the unused
seeds are divided among the workmen." [32] At the ceremony in Malabar,
when the transplantation of rice is completed, during which a goat is
sacrificed to Muni, the protector of cattle and field labourers, the
officiating priest is generally the cultivation agent of the family,
who is a Nayar, or sometimes a Cheruman.
In connection with the harvest ceremonial in Cochin, Mr. Anantha
Krishna Iyer writes as follows. "There are some curious customs
connected with the harvest, prevailing among the Pulayas of the
southern parts of the State. Before reaping, the Pulaya headman asks
his master whether he may begin to reap. With his permission, he
faces the east, and puts the sickle to the stalks. The first bundle
he reserves for the gods of his master, and the second for those of
his castemen. Before thrashing, the same headman takes a few bundles
of corn from the sheaf intended for their gods, and sprinkles toddy on
them. Another Pulayan does the same for the various reapers, and says,
as he does so 'Come, thrashing corn, increase.' This is called filling
the thrashing floor, and each man thrashes his own sheaves. When the
thrashing is over, the headman puts his master's sheaf in the centre of
the floor, and his own at a short distance outside, in order that the
two sets of gods may look kindly on them. The headman is privileged
to measure the corn sitting with his two assistants, saying 'Come,
paddy, increase,' as he counts. He also calls out 'Good paddy, one',
'bad paddy, two', and so on, until he counts ten. The eleventh is the
share for the reaper. He takes a handful, and places it in a basket,
half of which falls to him, his assistants and the watchman, while the
other half is given away in charity to the poor men that come to the
thrashing place. In the northern parts of the State, before reaping,
offerings of goats, fowls, and cocoanuts, are made to Mallan and
Muni. The Cheruma headman faces east, and applies his sickle to the
stalks, reserving the first stalk for the deities above mentioned. The
corn is thrashed and measured by one of them, and, as he does so, he
says 'Labham' (profit) for one, 'Chetham' (loss) for two, and counts
up to ten. The eleventh goes to the share of the reapers. Thus they
get one para for every ten paras of corn. The poor people that attend
are also given a handful of the grain. After reaping, the members of
the castes named in the table below receive a small portion of the
corn for their services rendered to the farmers in the course of the
months during which cultivation has been carried on:--
==============+====================================+===============
Caste. | Purpose for which paddy | Remuneration.
| is given. |
--------------+------------------------------------+---------------
Carpenters | For making and repairing | A big bundle
| ploughs, etc. | of corn.
Blacksmiths | For making sickles, knives, | Do.
| and other tools. |
Parayan | For lifting and placing the | Do.
| loads of stalks on the heads |
| of the Cherumans, who carry |
| them to the farmyard. |
Washerman or | For keeping off birds, insects, | Do.
Mannan. | etc., from the fields by magic. |
Vilkurup | For treating Cherumas during | Do.
| their illness, and for shampooing |
| them. |
Kaniyan or | For giving information of the | Do.
astrologer. | auspicious times for ploughing, |
| sowing, transplanting |
| and reaping, and also of the |
| time for giving rice, vegetables, |
| oil, etc., to the |
| Cherumas during the Onam |
| festival. |
==============+====================================+===============
"The Pulayans receive, in return for watching, a small portion of
the field near the watchman's rest-hut, which is left unreaped for
him. It fetches him a para of paddy.
"The Cherumas who are engaged in reaping get two bundles of corn each
for every field. For measuring the corn from the farmyard, a Cheruman
gets an edangazhy of paddy, in addition to his daily wage. Three paras
of paddy are set apart for the local village deity. During the month of
Karkadakam, the masters give every Cheruman a fowl, some oil, garlic,
mustard, anise seeds, pepper, and turmeric. They prepare a decoction
of seeds, and boil the flesh of the fowl in it, which they take for
three days, during which they are allowed to take rest. Three days'
wages are also given in advance."
In Travancore, a festival named Macam is held, of which the following
account has been published. [33] "The Macam (tenth constellation
Regulus, which follows Thiru Onam in August), is regarded by Hindus
as a day of great festivity. One must enjoy it even at the cost of
one's children, so runs an adage. The day is considered to be so
lucky that a girl born under the star Regulus is verily born with a
silver spoon in her mouth. It was on Macam, some say, that the Devas,
to free themselves from the curse they were put under by a certain
sage, had to churn the sea of milk to procure ambrosia. Be the cause
which led to the celebration what it may, the Hindus of the present
day have ever been enthusiastic in its observance; only some of the
rude customs connected with it have died out in the course of time,
or were put a stop to by Government. Sham fights were, and are still,
in some places a feature of the day. Such a sham fight used to be
carried on at Pallam until, about a hundred years ago, it was stopped
through the intervention of Colonel Munro, the British Resident in
Travancore. The place is still called Patanilam (battle field), and
the tank, on opposite sides of which the contending parties assembled,
Chorakulam (pool of blood). The steel swords and spears, of curious
and various shapes, and shields large enough to cover a man, are
even now preserved in the local temple. Many lives were lost in these
fights. It is not generally known, even to people in these parts, that
a sham fight takes place on Macam and the previous day every year at
a place called Wezhapra, between the Changanacherry and Ambalapuzha
taluks. Three banyan trees mark the place. People, especially Pulayas
and Pariahs, to the number of many thousands, collect round the outside
trees with steel swords, spears, and slings in their hands. A small
bund (embankment) separates the two parties. They have to perform
certain religious rites near the tree which stands in the middle,
and, in doing so, make some movements with their swords and spears
to the accompaniment of music. If those standing on one side of the
bund cross it, a regular fight is the result. In order to avoid such
things, without at the same time interfering with their liberty to
worship at the spot, the Government this year made all the necessary
arrangements. The Police were sent for the purpose. Everything went
off smoothly but for one untoward event. The people had been told not
to come armed with steel weapons, but with wooden ones. They had to
put them down, and were then allowed to go and worship."
Of conversion to Muhammadanism at the present time, a good example is
afforded by the Cherumans. "This caste," the Census Superintendent,
1881, writes, "numbered 99,009 in Malabar at the census of 1871, and,
in 1881, is returned as only 64,735. There are 40,000 fewer Cherumans
than there would have been but for some disturbing influence, and this
is very well known to be conversion to Muhammadanism. The honour of
Islam once conferred on the Cheruman, he moves at one spring several
places higher than that which he originally occupied." "Conversion
to Muhammadanism," Mr. Logan writes, "has had a marked effect in
freeing the slave caste in Malabar from their former burthens. By
conversion a Cheruman obtains a distinct rise in the social scale,
and, if he is in consequence bullied or beaten, the influence of the
whole Muhammadan community comes to his aid." It has been noted [34]
that Cheruman converts to Islam take part in the Moplah (Mappilla)
outbreaks, which from time to time disturb the peace of Malabar.
The home of the Cheruman is called a chala or hut, which has a thatched
roof of grass and palm-leaves resembling an immense bee-hive. A big
underground cell, with a ceiling of planks, forms the granary of
the occupants of these huts. The chief house furniture consists of
a pestle and mortar, and two or three earthenware pots.
The habitations of the Pulayas of Cochin are thus described by
Mr. Anantha Krishna Iyer. "Their huts are generally called madams,
which are put up on the banks of fields, in the middle of rice flats,
or on trees along their borders, so as to enable them to watch the
crops after the toils of the day. They are discouraged from erecting
better huts, under the idea that, if settled more comfortably, they
would be less inclined to move as cultivation required. The madams
are very poor huts, supported on four small posts, and thatched with
leaves. The sides are protected with the same kind of leaves. There
is only one room, and the floor, though slightly raised, is very
damp during the rainy months. These temporary buildings are removed
after the harvest, and put up in places where cultivation has to be
carried on. All the members of the family sleep together in the same
hut. Small temporary huts are sometimes erected, which are little
better than inverted baskets. These are placed in the rice field
while the crop is on the ground, and near the stacks while it is being
thrashed. In the northern parts of the State, the Pulaya huts are made
of mud walls, and provided with wooden doors. The roofs are of bamboo
framework thatched with palmyra palm leaves. The floor is raised,
and the huts are provided with pyals (raised platforms) on three
sides. They have also small compounds (grounds) around them. There
is only one room inside, which is the sleeping apartment of the newly
married youngsters. The others, I am told, sleep on the verandahs. The
utensils consist of a few earthen pots for cooking and keeping water,
and a few earthen dishes for taking food. In addition to these, I
found a wooden mortar, a few pestles, two pans, two winnowing pans,
a fish basket for each woman, a few cocoanut shells for keeping
salt and other things, a few baskets of their own making, in one of
which a few dirty cloths were placed, some mats of their own making,
a bamboo vessel for measuring corn, and a vessel for containing toddy."
"During the rainy season, the Cherumas in the field wear a few
green leaves, especially those of the plantain tree, tied round
their waists, and a small cone-shaped cap, made of plantain leaf,
is worn on the head. This practice, among the females, has fallen
into disuse in Malabar, though it is to some extent still found
in the Native States. The Cherumi is provided with one long piece
of thick cloth, which she wraps round her waist, and which does not
even reach the knees. She does not cover the chest." [35] The Cheruma
females have been described as wearing, when at work in the open,
a big oval-shaped handleless umbrella covered with palm leaves,
which they place on their back, and which covers the whole of their
person in the stooping attitude. The men use, during the rainy season,
a short-handled palm-leaf umbrella.
The women are profusely decorated with cheap jewelry of which the
following are examples:
1. Lobes of both ears widely dilated by rolled leaden ornaments. Brass,
and two glass bead necklets, string necklet with flat brass ornaments,
the size of a Venetian sequin, with device as in old Travancore gold
coins, with two brass cylinders pendent behind, and tassels of red
cotton. Three brass rings on right little finger; two on left ring
finger, one brass and two steel bangles on left wrist.
2. Several bead necklets, and a single necklet of many rows of
beads. Brass necklet like preceding, with steel prong and scoop,
for removing wax from the ears and picking teeth, tied to one of the
necklets. Attached to, and pendent from one necklet, three palm leaf
rolls with symbols and Malayalam inscription to act as a charm in
driving away devils. Three ornamental brass bangles on right forearm,
two on left. Iron bangle on left wrist. Thin brass ring in helix of
each ear. Seventy thin brass rings (alandoti) with heavy brass ornament
(adikaya) in dilated lobe of each ear.
3. In addition to glass bead necklets, a necklet with heavy
heart-shaped brass pendants. String round neck to ward off fever.
4. String necklet with five brass cylinders pendent; five brass
bangles on right wrist; six brass and two iron bangles on left wrist.
Right hand, one copper and five brass rings on middle finger; one
iron and three brass rings on little finger.
Left hand, one copper and five brass rings on middle finger; three
brass and two copper rings on ring finger; one brass ring on little
finger.