with her gross tonnage. The engines, boiler, and coal bunkers, and the
space devoted to passengers, leave but little room for general cargo.
Thus the gross tonnage of the Teutonic is 9,686, and her net tonnage
4,244, considerably less than half; while the Cufic, a freight boat
of the same line, with a gross tonnage of 4,639, has a net tonnage of
3,055. The fast steamships therefore constitute the ocean express. They
carry the mails, specie, and freights of a perishable nature, like
meats and provisions, or of a character that requires speedy delivery.
The mail is placed in a capacious compartment about 50 feet long, 15
feet wide, and 7 feet high. It is located on the lower orlop deck,
forward of the forehatch, and is capable of holding about 1,000 bags of
mail. The bags for the different countries are separated in transit,
and on arrival at Queenstown the mails are landed, provided there
is time to catch the 12.30 A.M. special train, which is made up to
connect with the mail-boat leaving Kingstown early the same morning for
Holyhead. Should this connection be missed, only the Irish and Scotch
mails are landed at Queenstown. The other mails are landed at Liverpool.
To the steamship Trave belongs the honor of having carried the largest
European mail ever shipped from the port of New York, being 1,002 bags,
in December, 1889. The largest European mail ever received at the port
of New York was 1,062 bags, brought by the Servia in December, 1890.
The system of sorting the mails on board ship, which was recently
inaugurated by the United States and German governments, is a success.
It is in operation on eight vessels of the North German Lloyd line and
the four express ships of the Hamburg-American line. This system is
termed the “sea post-office,” and is similar to a post-office on land.
The space required on board ship for the manipulation of the mails is
equal to about three or four state-rooms. For each vessel the United
States provides one official, and Germany supplies another. The latter
has an assistant.
All disbursements are made at present by the German Government, but
at the end of the year the two governments divide the expenses. On
the eastern trip all mails, except the newspaper mail, are landed
at Southampton. Only the German mail, and that for countries beyond
Germany, is sorted. The British mail is put ashore unsorted, in the
same manner that it is on the British steamship lines. The sorting of
the mail during the passage enables the packages for each country to
be forwarded direct from the nearest landing-point to their ultimate
destination without delay. The saving of time at New York City alone is
from 4 to 6 hours, and for Pittsburg and for points west and south of
that place, where an immediate reply is required, a saving of from 24
to 48 hours is effected. The day cannot be far distant when all foreign
mails will be sorted at sea; the system indeed has been in operation
for many years on the P. & O. ships sailing to India and Australia.
In these days of heavy gold shipments, the specie-room on the steamship
is a very important institution. It is located in an out-of-the-way
place amidships, under the saloon. Few of the passengers know of its
existence, or of the valuable treasure that is carried across the
ocean with them. The room varies slightly on different ships, but is
usually about 16 feet long, by 10 feet wide, and 8 feet high. It is
constructed of steel plates one-quarter of an inch thick, and strongly
riveted together. The floor, the ceiling, and the walls are all of
steel plates. There is a heavy door, also made of steel. It is provided
with two English “Chubb” locks, a variety of combination lock that is
said to be burglar-proof. The gold and silver is usually in bars, but
occasionally a quantity of coin in bags is shipped. This was the case
when the heavy shipments of gold were made last spring. The Majestic
is credited with carrying the largest quantity, her strong box having
$4,500,000 intrusted to it for safe keeping.
[Illustration: The Specie-room of a Passenger Steamship.]
The fast steamships are provided with enormous refrigerators for
carrying dressed beef and mutton. The temperature is kept at about 30
degrees. Fruits, vegetables, butter, cheese, and bacon are shipped in
large quantities in summer, and apples, oranges, oysters, and hops
are sent over in the winter. Space is always reserved for the various
European express companies.
Next to the ocean greyhound comes a class of steamships requiring from
7 to 8 days to cross the Atlantic, and having accommodation for from
800 to 1,000 passengers of all classes, and from 2,000 to 5,000 tons
of freight. Both passenger and freight rates are slightly less than
on the greyhounds, a preference being given to the latter at certain
times, according to the condition of the market. The slower ships are
patronized by people to whom the saving of a few dollars is an object,
and by some who enjoy the ocean trip too much to be in a hurry about
landing, and by others who imagine all sorts of dreadful things are
going to happen to the racers. The class of freight carried varies
but little from the faster ships, except that the mails, specie, and
express goods are usually lacking. Cotton, tobacco, and merchandise,
including manufactured goods and machinery, form the bulk of the
general cargo.
The next grade of steamship is the new type, called the freighter.
It is the result of the tendency to build express ships, and its
object is to accommodate the freight which is crowded out by the speed
requirements. These ships combine enormous freight capacity with a high
rate of speed and minimum coal consumption. They have reduced the time
of freighters between New York and Liverpool from 16 to 10 days without
materially increasing the rate of freight. They carry heavy goods of
all kinds to the amount of 5,000 tons, and from 600 to 800 head of
cattle. To this class belong the four new White Star ships, the Tauric,
the Nomadic—both of which have twin screws—the Runic, and the Cufic;
also the Europe and America, of the National line.
The Nomadic has the record of carrying the largest amount of freight
in one trip. In August, 1891, she carried 9,591 tons, including coal
necessary for the voyage. The America, of the National line, left the
port of New York, March 17, 1891, with 8,577 tons, including her coal,
which was the largest cargo on record at that time, and until surpassed
by the Nomadic. The England, also of the National line, carried 1,022
head of cattle from this port on September 18, 1889. This is the
largest cargo of cattle ever carried by any ship.
Just previous to the heavy duty on tin-plate going into effect on July
1, 1891, the Cufic brought the largest cargo of tin-plate on record,
being 76,529 boxes.
A type of ship which was at one time considered a first-class passenger
vessel has been gradually forced from the trade by faster ships more
luxuriously fitted, and is now engaged in carrying general freight. To
this class belong the entire fleet of the National line, some of which,
like the Spain, were at one time favorite passenger boats.
Another class of freight steamship is that wanderer of the seas, the
“tramp.” Belonging to no regular line, identified with no particular
class of cargo, having no regularity as to time of departure or ports
of destination, and with a hold that takes anything from cotton to
guano, from guano to bananas, and from bananas to petroleum, this nomad
of the deep is a peculiar institution.
What more appropriate name than “tramp” can you suggest?
She is often a ship of considerable size, and is usually chartered for
cargoes of a heavy character, but will take anything that offers. She
usually has engines of low power, and her coal consumption is small.
She requires from 15 to 20 days to cross the Atlantic.
In the summer of 1891 men who go down to the sea in ships were startled
by seeing something new. A type of vessel of which much is promised,
even to a revolution of the entire ocean freight business of the world,
successfully made the trip from the head of Lake Superior to Liverpool,
and returned to this country. This is the “whaleback” Charles W.
Wetmore.
Built at West Superior, Mich., this original craft, having more the
appearance of a large barge than an ocean steamship, has taken 87,000
bushels of grain, from the heart of the grain-producing region, through
the lakes and the rapids of the St. Lawrence River, to the ocean and
across to Liverpool.
The vessel is shaped like a huge cigar, pointed at both ends; her
deck is arched and without any obstructions, save for a small turret
forward, and a deck-house aft. The latter contains the cabin,
wheel-house, and quarters for the captain, officers, and engineers.
When loaded, the hatches, which are huge iron plates, are bolted down
and form a smooth deck surface, over which the waves have full play,
saving Jack Tar the trouble of using the holy-stone or swab. The crew
is quartered in the turret forward. The machinery, which is located
directly aft, consists of a compound engine of 800 horse-power, with a
26-inch high-pressure cylinder.
[Illustration: The “Whaleback” Steamship for Grain and other Freight.]
The hull is made of steel, and is 265 feet in length, 38 feet in
breadth, and the depth of hold is 24 feet. Four feet above the keel
is an inner skin for additional safety, and between this skin and the
hull are nine compartments, which are buoyant air-chambers when the
ship is loaded, and serve to hold water ballast when she has a light
cargo. A railing made of wire rope extends the length of the hull on
each side, and is intended as a protection for the men when they have
occasion to visit their shipmates in the after part of the vessel.
The hold is one large compartment, with a bulkhead forward, where the
men’s quarters are, and one aft, where the machinery is located, and
also the firemen’s quarters.
The Wetmore draws 17 feet of water, and her capacity is said to be
100,000 bushels of grain, or 3,000 tons of other cargo.
The advantages claimed for the whaleback are her low cost of
construction, which is one-third less than that of an English tramp
steamship of the same capacity; her elongated, elliptical form,
which offers less resistance to the wind and waves, so that she can
be propelled with less power than the ordinary steamship; her small
consumption of coal, but from twelve to thirteen tons a day, or about
half that of an ordinary steamship, being used; and a crew of twenty
men navigating the Wetmore, as against a crew of thirty men required to
man another ship.
It is also stated that the Wetmore can be discharged more quickly of
grain or other cargo, and that there is less rolling and tossing at
sea than in the ordinary type of steamships. But it must be remembered
that as yet the Wetmore is only an experiment. Her transatlantic trip
was taken in August, when the sea was most tranquil. How she will
behave in midwinter, when her arched back will be coated with ice, and
her deck-works perhaps washed away, is not quite clear. Her lack of
life-boats and other life-saving appliances is also noticeable.
This type of vessel in some modified form will no doubt be a great
success as a carrier of grain, coal, oil, molasses, and other bulky
freights; but the Wetmore must be furnished with hoisting machinery
or other devices in order to facilitate the quick loading of heavy
materials, before she becomes what may be regarded as a complete
success.
To the three classes of steamships last mentioned, the carrying of
grain is a large item. But there are at all seasons of the year vessels
engaged almost exclusively in carrying grain.
About 2,000 vessels loaded with grain sailed from the port of New
York during 1890. The number was even greater in 1891, owing to the
abundance and quality of the grain crop of the United States, the small
crops abroad, and the action of the Russian Government in prohibiting
the export of rye from its territory.
The sailing vessel is rapidly disappearing from the grain-carrying
trade. Ten years ago there were 1,782 sailing ships engaged in the
grain trade, now there are only about thirty cargoes in a year from
New York. The total amount of grain and breadstuffs exported from
the United States in 1890 was valued at $141,602,847. Of this New
York shipped 32-1/4 per cent., and yet fears are entertained that
New York will lose her grain business, owing to the heavy port and
storage charges compared with those of other seaports. In 1890, New
York handled $45,649,765 worth of grain. Corn led in the amount
shipped, there being a total of 24,374,745 bushels. Wheat came next
with 12,607,484 bushels, and there were 9,192,203 bushels of oats
and 1,389,419 bushels of rye. There were 3,693,598 barrels of wheat
flour shipped from New York out of a total for the United States of
11,319,456 barrels. Barley, buckwheat, and rice were exported in
smaller quantities, and cornmeal, oatmeal, and other preparations, not
included in the above figures, were sent to foreign ports.
Ships are specially fitted up for carrying grain. The hold is divided
into compartments by a longitudinal bulkhead in addition to the
ordinary bulkheads. This is done to prevent the cargo from shifting.
The hold is ceiled in order to prevent any waste of grain which is
shipped in bulk in the lower hold; shifting planks are placed on each
side of the keelson and fitted to side stanchions between the beams,
and care is taken to secure the planks so that they will hold their
places even in a rough sea. The British Board of Trade requires that
the hatches of the lower hold shall be supplied with a feeder or hopper
capable of holding a sufficient quantity of grain to fill the hold
completely as the grain settles; these feeders extend above the lower
deck. The space between decks is filled with grain in bags. Care is
taken in loading to stow these bags so that the space between decks
will be entirely filled. These requirements have been adopted by
ship-owners and shippers generally.
With the exception of the American line from Philadelphia, United
States vessels cut but a small figure in grain traffic. Their four
vessels are the only American steamships engaged in the business. In
one year Great Britain carried 616 shiploads of grain, or an aggregate
of nearly 25,000,000 bushels; Germany carried 167 shiploads, or nearly
4,000,000 bushels; Belgium carried 70 shiploads; France, 33; Denmark,
21; Italy, 15; Spain, 8; Austria, 10; Portugal, 9; and Norway, 6.
The handling of all this grain, by the time it arrives by canal-boat
or by railway from the West, to the time that the ship sails from the
harbor, requires a large number of elevators and many men.
There are 31 floating elevators in the port of New York, which are
towed alongside of grain ships in order to fill in bulk. The grain is
simply pumped from the capacious bins of the elevator to the hold of
the ship.
The large stationary grain elevators are used as much for storage as
for loading vessels. The number of stationary elevators in the port
of New York is 22, and the total storage capacity of this port is
26,000,000 bushels.
Some idea of the quantity of grain stored in one of these elevators may
be gained from the fact that when the elevators of the New York Central
Railroad Company, at Sixtieth Street and the North River, were burned,
the loss on the grain alone amounted to at least $75,000. The elevators
had a total capacity of 2,300,000 bushels, and contained only 100,000
bushels at the time of the fire. Only one elevator was rebuilt.
The transfer capacity at the port of New York, or the rate at which
grain ships can be loaded, is 458,000 bushels per hour.
Another type of vessel is the fruit steamship. There are about 90 in
the tropical fruit trade between the United States, West Indies, and
Central America. Bananas form the great bulk of the trade; cocoa-nuts,
oranges, pineapples, and other fruits make up the balance of the
cargoes. The principal fruit ports in the United States, besides
New York, are Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New Orleans. The
steamships are built expressly for the fruit trade, and are all, or
nearly so, under the Norwegian and English flags, the Norwegian ships
predominating. The hull is of steel lined with wood; the space between
the steel plates (or outer skin of the vessel) and the wood is filled
in with charcoal, which makes the ship a huge floating refrigerator.
The vessels are provided with all the latest improvements in motive
power, including triple-expansion engines and steam steering-gear. Some
of the best ships devoted exclusively to the fruit trade have twin
screws, and have accommodation for from 10 to 12 saloon passengers.
Their average speed is from 11 to 13 knots. Many of the ships have
their engines and boilers further aft than is the case in ordinary
freighters.
[Illustration: Unloading a Banana Steamship.]
Fruit steamships have three decks, all open, with a space of about two
inches between each of the deck planks. This arrangement assures a free
circulation of air at all times, and thus the fruit is preserved from
heating and decay. These ships carry from 15,000 to 25,000 bunches of
bananas, each bunch averaging in weight from 60 to 80 pounds, but some
bunches have been found to weigh over 200 pounds. The fruit is “stowed”
by an experienced stevedore, who devotes himself exclusively to the
fruit trade. The bunches are placed on end along the decks, until
all the space is filled; then a second and a third tier of bunches
are laid flat, one over the other, in a manner that allows plenty of
ventilation. Great care is taken to prevent the fruit from contact
with salt-water, which causes the black spots frequently seen on
bananas. After the vessels discharge the fruit they return in ballast
for another cargo. The bulk of the crop is shipped during the five
months from February to August. At the expiration of the season about
one-third of the fruit vessels return to tropical ports and continue in
the trade between there and the United States fruit ports during the
winter. The other ships return to Europe with a grain cargo, and are
chartered for general freight until the next fruit season.
Besides these vessels already mentioned, there are also three or four
regular steamship lines which are largely engaged in the tropical fruit
trade. The principal lines are the Atlas line, the Pacific Mail, the
Anchor line, and the Honduras & Central American line. The vessels
of the Atlas line are fitted with the most modern appliances for the
preservation of the fruit. All these lines have excellent passenger
accommodation, and carry a general cargo as well.
The total receipts of bananas at all United States ports in 1890 was
13,284,756 bunches, New York alone receiving 5,433,295 bunches of
the fruit. The principal ports of shipments were Jamaica, 2,108,975
bunches; Baracoa, 1,478,596 bunches; Port Limon, 547,976 bunches;
Honduras, 205,290 bunches; and other ports, 125,000 bunches.
The Mediterranean fruit trade requires a large fleet of steamships
during the autumn and winter months. Oranges, lemons, limes, Malaga
grapes, raisins, currants, and nuts form the bulk of the cargoes.
Sicily alone sends us 1,000,000 boxes of oranges a year, and half
as many boxes of lemons. Spanish grapes, to the amount of 600,000
barrels annually, and dried fruits in vast quantities from the various
Mediterranean ports, make up an enormous import trade. There are no
steamships specially devoted to this business, as the season lasts
only a portion of the year. The vessels employed are steamships which
are well ventilated, and having a good rate of speed, as they all, or
nearly so, carry passengers and a general cargo.
The Florio line, the Mediterranean fleet of the Anchor line, and the
Mediterranean and New York Steamship Company, handle nearly all of this
class of trade.
The tank steamship, for carrying oil in bulk, is an American invention.
Ship-builders declared for years that no vessel with a shifting cargo,
like oil in bulk, would live through a gale, but an enterprising Yankee
demonstrated the fact that petroleum could be pumped from the pipe
line directly into the hold of a steamship and transported across the
ocean in safety. The cost of barrelling the oil is saved, and there is
also considerable economy in loading.
[Illustration: Cross-section of a Tank Steamship, showing the Expansion
Tank.]
The tank steamship can always be distinguished by her odd appearance,
the funnel being placed a little forward of the mizzen-mast. She has
two decks; the hold is divided into from 7 to 9 compartments or tanks
for oil; each tank has a capacity of about 4,000 barrels. An empty
space of about two feet, called a safety well, is forward of the
boilers and engines, separating them from the cargo hold. This empty
space, which has a bulkhead on each side, is sometimes filled with
water. The depth of the tanks or hold is about 24 feet. On the top of
these tanks are expansion tanks, about 5 feet square, reaching to the
upper deck, and provided with hatches. The tanks are filled quite full,
but sufficient space is left unfilled in the expansion tanks to allow
for the expansion of the oil, which is one per cent. in volume for
every 20 degrees Fahrenheit.
The tanks are filled by means of a very powerful pump, situated at
varying distances, from a few yards to one-eighth of a mile from the
ship. The greatest care is taken in loading the vessel. A man with a
flag is stationed on the ship’s deck, and another man with a flag is
placed at the tank. The signal to start and to stop pumping is passed
from one to the other. The largest vessel can be filled in about twelve
hours. The balance of space between decks is used for storing coal,
the ship’s fuel. When the cargo is discharged in Europe the tanks are
filled with water ballast for the return trip.
[Illustration: Loading a Tank Steamship with Oil, by Force Pumps.]
Some of these steamships have been very lucky in picking up disabled
passenger steamships, which, of course, means a substantial salvage.
There are now about 70 of these tank steamships in the trade, the
majority of which are employed by the Standard Oil Company and their
connections, and new ones are being constantly added to meet the
increasing trade. They are all under foreign flag—English, German, and
Dutch—but the Standard Oil Company owns a large interest in them.
These steamships are all supplied with triple expansion engines, and
are capable of maintaining a speed of from 8 to 11 knots per hour on
the small coal consumption of about 25 tons for each 24 hours. The
Bayonne is the fastest; she made the trip from England to New York in
11 days, averaging 11.10 knots per hour. They average from 2,000 to
3,000 tons gross, and carry from 3,000 to 4,000 tons of cargo. Aft
of the engine-room is the cabin and officers’ quarters, which are
comfortable in every particular. The crew is located in the forecastle,
as is usual on all vessels. The crew number about 30, all told.
Another type of steamship, which is an outcome of the tank idea, is the
molasses ship. These have been used with success in carrying molasses
in bulk between Havana and New York. The Circassian Prince is a notable
instance of this type. The traffic in molasses is not very great at
present, but when the trade increases tank steamships will, no doubt,
be largely employed.
The loading of an ocean steamship is a sight well worth a visit to one
of the city piers to witness. With the exception of the North German
Lloyd, the Hamburg-American, the Netherlands, and the Thingvalla lines,
whose piers are in Hoboken, and the Red Star Line, and some of the
Inman vessels, in Jersey City, the great transatlantic steamships dock
along the North River, from Canal Street up to Twenty-fourth Street.
The length of the steamships, some of them being nearly 600 feet,
make very long piers necessary. These piers on a sailing day present
an animated scene. A long line of trucks, loaded with all sorts of
merchandise, moves slowly down the pier, each truck delivering its
packages opposite the particular hatchway down which they are to be
lowered. The big ships load at four different hatchways at the same
time. Steam-hoisting apparatus at each, and separate gangs of men,
all, however, under the direction of one stevedore, load and stow the
immense cargo in an incredibly short space of time.