1347 Attempt of Pedro to secure the succession to his daughter

Constanza in preference to his brother James, in defiance of

the Salic law as established by James I. League of nobles and

cities in a union in favor of James. The Sardinians backed by

the Genoese and Pisans seize the occasion to revolt. A second

union formed in Valencia under the infante Ferdinand. At the

cortes of Saragossa Pedro is compelled to promise to hold

annual meetings of the estates, to select his advisers with

their approval, and to recognise James as his heir. Death of

James. Pedro wins over the Catalans and at the

1348 battle of Epila defeats the union. He annuls the

“Privilege of Union” of 1287, but enlarges the powers of the

justiciar. Leonora and her son Juan take refuge in Castile,

where both are subsequently murdered by Pedro the Cruel.

1349 James of Majorca attempts to recover the Balearic Islands,

but fails and dies soon after. Pedro defeats the Sardinian

rebels, and allies himself with Venice against Genoa.

1350 The era of Spain ceases to be used in Aragon.

1352 The Venetian and Catalonian fleets defeated by the

Genoese, who renew their encouragement of the Sardinians. The

Genoese fleet defeated in the Thracian Bosphorus by the fleets

of Catalonia and Venice.

1354 The Sardinian estates are convoked by Pedro at Cagliari,

but fail to pacify the belligerents.

1356 War with Castile. The king of Aragon supports Henry of

Trastamara and the other Castilian rebels.

1363 A peace concluded with Castile in accordance with which

Pedro of Aragon murders his own brother Ferdinand. War with

Castile renewed.

1368 The justice of Arborea defeats the Aragonese in Sardinia

and maintains himself till the Genoese come to his aid (1373).

After his death the struggle is continued with less vigour by

his son, and when the latter is put to death by his own people

the war is prosecuted by his sister Leonora with whom Pedro

effects an agreement in 1386.

1377 Death of Frederick king of Sicily. Pedro claims the

throne, but is eventually satisfied with the marriage of the

heiress Maria with his grandson Martin.

1387 =Juan I.= Trial of the king’s stepmother Sybilla for

witchcraft. Some of her friends executed.

1392 Aragonese troops under the king’s brother Martin sent to

Sicily to quell a revolt against Queen Maria and her husband,

Martin’s son, the younger Martin.

1395 =Martin= succeeds to Aragon. The count de Foix, husband of

the late king’s eldest daughter, invades the kingdom to assert

her rights, but finds no supporters. Martin, having pacified

Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, returns to Spain. Pope Boniface

IX,

1397 in revenge for the recognition by Aragon of the anti-pope

Benedict XIII (Pedro de Luna), confers Sardinia and Sicily on

the count de Molinets.

1401 Death of Maria of Sicily. She is succeeded by her husband,

the younger Martin, who,

1402 the following year, marries Blanche, heiress of Navarre.

1409 Martin of Sicily suppresses the rebellion in Sardinia. He

dies without issue. Blanche becomes regent of Sicily.

1410 =Interregnum=, consequent on the death of Martin of

Aragon without direct heirs. During two years the country is

distracted by the conflicts of rival claimants to the throne

till, at the instance of the justiciar Juan de Cerda, a

commission is selected from the cortes of the three provinces

of Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia which names the infante

Ferdinand, regent of Castile, and he receives the crowns of

Aragon and Sicily as

1412 =Ferdinand (I) the Just.= He subdues a rebellion of the

count of Urgel and maintains tranquillity in the kingdom till

his death in

1416 when he is succeeded by his son =Alfonso (V) the

Magnanimous=.

1417 Reduction of Corsica attempted by Alfonso without much

success.

1420 Joanna, queen of Naples, adopts Alfonso on condition of

his defending her dominions against the duke of Anjou, which he

does with success.

1423 Joanna quarrels with Alfonso and adopts Louis of Anjou in

his place.

1425 Death of Charles III of Navarre. He is succeeded by

Blanche and her husband Juan, brother of Alfonso of Aragon.

1432 Juan appointed regent of Aragon. Alfonso sets out to

recover Naples.

1435 Joanna of Naples dies, bequeathing her kingdom to René

of Anjou. Alfonso besieges Gaeta, but is defeated in a naval

battle. Himself, the king of Navarre, and his brother Henry

become the prisoners of the duke of Milan, who immediately

releases them. Don Pedro of Aragon takes Gaeta. In the next few

years Alfonso makes himself master of the kingdom of Naples.

1442 The office of justiciar declared tenable for life. Blanche

of Navarre dies. Juan retains the title of king of Navarre,

while her son, Charles of Viana, becomes ruler.

1443 Ferdinand, Alfonso’s illegitimate son, recognised as heir

of Naples by Pope Eugenius IV.

1447 Juan of Navarre marries Juana Henriquez and subsequently

appoints her co-regent of Navarre. She quarrels with Charles of

Viana.

1452 Battle of Aybar. Juan defeats and captures Charles.

Reconciliation of Juan and Charles. Birth of Juan’s younger

son, Ferdinand the Catholic.

1458 Death of Alfonso V. Aragon, Sicily, and Sardinia pass to

the king of Navarre, =Juan II=. Charles of Viana refuses to

supplant Ferdinand of Naples.

1461 Charles imprisoned by his father. The Catalans revolt in

his favour and compel his recognition as Juan’s heir. Death of

Charles.

1462 The Catalans declare a republic and besiege the queen and

Ferdinand in Gerona. Roussillon and Cerdagne pledged to Louis

XI of France, who comes to the help of Juan; whereupon the

rebels offer the Catalan crown first to Henry IV of Castile and

then to Pedro, constable of Portugal.

1466 Pedro dies. The Catalans offer the crown to René of Anjou

who

1467 sends his son John of Calabria to Barcelona.

1468 Ferdinand declared king of Sicily and associated with his

father in the government of Aragon.

1469 Marriage of Ferdinand with Isabella of Castile.

1470 Death of John of Calabria. Catalonia is gradually reduced.

1472 Barcelona submits.

1473 The inhabitants of Roussillon revolt against the French

and massacre them. Roussillon occupied by Juan. The French

besiege him in Perpignan, which is relieved by Ferdinand. By a

treaty with Louis the king of Aragon promises to pay within the

year the sum for which Roussillon was pledged.

1474 The French invade Roussillon.

1475 Perpignan surrenders to the French. The inhabitants

compelled to emigrate.

1479 Death of Juan II. =Ferdinand (II) the Catholic= inherits

his dominions which are henceforth united with those of Castile.

ANDORRA (805-1882 A.D.)

805 The valley of Andorra appears in history as a neutral

country, Charlemagne founding the free state and placing it

under the lordship of Urgel.

1170 Suzerainty of Andorra ceded by the counts of Urgel to the

counts of Castelbo. The heiress of Castelbo marries the count

de Foix.

1278 Suzerainty of Andorra divided between the counts de Foix

and the bishops of Urgel.

1512 On the extinction of the house of Foix by the death of

Count Gaston at the battle of Ravenna, the suzerainty of

Andorra passes to Henry d’Albret, titular heir of Navarre,

1553 and on the accession of the latter’s grandson to the

throne of France as Henry IV, becomes the prerogative of the

French crown.

1790 Independence of Andorra recognised. The republic

voluntarily returns to the French allegiance.

1866 The general council, hitherto composed of the aristocracy,

becomes elective.

1882 A permanent delegate appointed to represent French

authority in Andorra.

SPAIN AFTER THE UNION OF CASTILE AND ARAGON (1479-1902, A.D.)

1480 Cortes of Toledo. Recall of illegal grants by which in

Henry IV’s reign the public revenues had been alienated in

pensions and annuities. The nobles forbidden to erect castles

or assume the insignia of royalty. Duelling prohibited.

1481 The Inquisition issues an edict requiring the accusation

of heretics. _Autos da fé_ in Andalusia. Epidemic of plague.

Emigration of Jews.

1482 Alhama after being captured from the Moors by the marquis

of Cadiz is besieged by the king of Granada and relieved by

Ferdinand. Zahara seized and its inhabitants enslaved by Abul

Hassan, king of Granada. Bull of Pope Sixtus IV promising the

appointment of Castilians to church dignities in their country.

Loja unsuccessfully besieged by Ferdinand.

1483 Thomas de Torquemada inquisitor-general in Castile and

Aragon to reconstitute the holy office. An insurrection makes

Abu Abdallah (Boabdil) king of Granada. Ferdinand’s ambassadors

assist in negotiating a peace between Ferrara and Venice. The

pope declares a crusade against Granada. Rout in the Axarquia;

a small Spanish force is destroyed by the troops of Abul

Hassan. Boabdil invades the Christian territory. He is defeated

and taken at the Jenil, released and becomes a tributary of

Ferdinand. Ferdinand and Isabella begin a series of successful

campaigns against Granada and capture one fortress after

another.

1484 Inquisition revived in Aragon. Columbus arrives in Spain.

1485 _Ordenanças Reales_, a code of Castilian laws,

promulgated. _Autos da fé_ in Saragossa. Murder of the

inquisitor, Arbues, by Jewish converts. Sanguinary punishment

of all implicated.

1486 Catalan peasantry, called vassals _de remenza_, released

from serfdom under the obligation of an annual payment.

1487 Velez Malaga, Malaga, and other cities capitulate to

Ferdinand. He enslaves the Malagans.

1488 Alliance between Spain and Maximilian, king of the Romans,

against France.

1489 Baza besieged and taken. Almeria submits.

1491 Law to prevent the export of the precious metals. Siege

and capitulation of Granada. Boabdil confined to a narrow

district in the Alpujarras. The Granadans guaranteed the

preservation of their religion and their liberty.

1492 Expulsion of the Jews from Spain. Columbus persuades

Isabella to grant him assistance. He is made admiral, viceroy,

and governor-general of all territories he may discover. An

expedition is fitted out and he starts on the 3rd of August

with three vessels. Treaty with France. Charles VIII engages to

restore Roussillon and Cerdagne to Aragon.

1493 Return of Columbus reporting the discovery of Hispaniola.

Pope Alexander VI issues a bull confirming the sovereigns of

Spain in possession of all their discoveries, past and future,

in the west. A second bull divides the area for Portuguese and

Spanish discoveries by a line drawn one hundred leagues west

of the Azores. Second expedition of Columbus with seventeen

vessels.

1494 Agreement with Portugal at Tordesillas by which the

boundary of the Portuguese area of discovery is removed 370

leagues west of Cape Verd Islands. The pope confers the epithet

of “Catholic” on Ferdinand and Isabella.

1495 League of Venice between Spain, Austria, Rome, Milan, and

Venice for the expulsion of the French from Italy.

1496 Spanish troops under Gonsalvo de Cordova, the Great

Captain, restore Ferdinand II of Naples to his throne and expel

the French. Juana, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, marries

Philip, son of the emperor Maximilian. Militia ordinance

requiring one-twelfth of the male population between the ages

of twenty and forty-five to enlist for the military and police

service of Spain. Santo Domingo founded. Columbus returns from

his second voyage.

1497 Death of Juan, only son of Ferdinand and Isabella.

1498 Third voyage of Columbus. He lands on the South American

continent. The Santa Hermandad, having restored order in Spain,

reduced to the position of an ordinary police.

1499 Ximenes de Cisneros, archbishop of Toledo, sets about

the conversion of the Moors of Granada. He burns their books.

Insurrection in Granada. Many Moors quit Spain. The remainder

forcibly converted.

1500 Francisco Bobadilla sent out to investigate affairs in

Hispaniola. He imprisons Columbus and sends him home in irons.

Revolt of the Moors in the Alpujarras severely repressed.

Treaty with France for the partition of Naples. Gonsalvo de

Cordova recovers St. George in Cephalonia which the Turks had

wrested from Venice. A navigation act prohibits the exportation

of goods in foreign ships when Spanish are procurable, and

forbids the sale of ships to foreigners. Columbus restored to

his honours.

_Sixteenth Century_

The Moors of Ronda revolt and

1501 destroy a Spanish force under Alonso de Aguilar.

On Ferdinand’s approach they submit and are granted the

alternative of exile or baptism. Gonsalvo de Cordova conquers

Calabria.

1502 Expulsion from Spain of all unconverted Moors. Nicholas

de Ovando sent to replace Bobadilla. Tarentum occupied by the

Great Captain after a long siege. Fourth voyage of Columbus.

The French declare war against the Spaniards and conquer all

Calabria.

1503 Treaty of peace with France signed at Lyons. Battle of

Cerignola. Gonsalvo defeats the French and occupies Naples.

The French invade Roussillon, but are forced to retreat by

Ferdinand, who takes several frontier fortresses. Gonsalvo

defeats the French at the Garigliano.

1504 Peace of Lyons. The French abandon Naples to Spain. Death

of Isabella. =Philip I= and =Juana la Loca= or =the Mad=

proclaimed her successors in Castile. Ferdinand assumes the

administration in accordance with Isabella’s will and on the

ground of Juana’s mental incapacity. Columbus returns from his

last voyage.

1506 Death of Columbus. Ferdinand resigns the government of

Castile to Philip, who excites discontent by his extravagance

and his Flemish favourites. The proceeding of the Inquisition

excite disturbances in Andalusia. Death of Philip. Ferdinand

receives the homage of the Neapolitans.

1507 Ferdinand resumes the government of Castile. Ximenes

appointed inquisitor-general of Castile.

1508 Ferdinand joins the league of Cambray formed by the French

king and the emperor against Venice and retakes five Neapolitan

cities pledged to Venice.

1509 An expedition led to Africa by Ximenes conquers Oran.

1511 Holy League between Pope Julius II, Ferdinand, and Venice

to drive the French from Italy. Conquest of Cuba.

1512 Battle of Ravenna. The allies defeated by the French

under Gaston de Foix. Gaston slain; the French retreat from

Italy. Venice makes peace with France. Ferdinand demands a free

passage through Navarre for the invasion of France. Alliance

between France and Navarre. Pamplona taken by the Spaniards.

Jean d’Albret, king of Navarre, fails to recover it.

1513 Navarre submits to Ferdinand. Florida discovered by Ponce

de Leon. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean.

1515 Navarre formally incorporated with Castile.

1516 Ferdinand dies. Ximenes regent of Castile, and the

archbishop of Saragossa regent of Aragon. =Charles I=

(afterwards the emperor Charles V) proclaimed king in Castile.

French invasion of Navarre repulsed. The Inquisition is

established in Oran, the Canaries, and the New World. Las

Casas obtains the sending of a commission to inquire into the

ill-treatment of the Indians in Hispaniola. It effects little.

Peace of Noyon. France abandons her claims to Naples.

1517 Charles lands in Spain and dismisses Ximenes.

1518 The Castilian cortes acknowledge Charles as joint ruler

with his mother. Aragon and Catalonia delay to do this. The

favour shown his Flemish favourites and their exactions disgust

the Spaniards.

1519 Ferdinand Cortes begins the conquest of Mexico. Several

leading Castilian cities form a confederation to defend their

privileges. Death of the emperor Maximilian. Charles elected

emperor of Germany.

1520 The citizens of Valencia revolt against the oppressions

of the nobles and are authorised by Charles to continue in

arms. They form an association called the Germandada (Germania)

or brotherhood. Luther burns the papal bull excommunicating

him. The Castilian cortes with difficulty induced to grant a

subsidy. Charles, having appointed Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht

his viceroy, leaves Spain without redressing the grievances

submitted to him. Several of the cities of Castile, under the

leadership of Juan de Padilla, revolt against their deputies,

appoint their own magistrates, levy troops, and league together

as the “holy junta.” Padilla goes to Juana at Tordesillas.

The junta acts in her name. The royalists rescue Juana. The

Germandada in Valencia carries on a successful and desolating

war against the nobles.

1521 Battle of Villalar. Padilla defeated, taken, and executed.

Valencia taken and the leaders of the Germandada executed.

Charles opens the Diet of Worms. Treaty of Charles with the

pope for the expulsion of the French from the Milanese. The

junta breaks up; Toledo holds out for a time under Padilla’s

widow. Its fall signalises the end of the freedom of the

Castilian cities. Conquest of Mexico completed by Cortes.

Navarre occupied by the French. They invade Castile. The

Castilians recover Navarre. The populace of Majorca, having

revolted against the nobles, are subdued after a long struggle.

Treaty with Henry VIII of England. Charles agrees to invade

France from Spain. The emperor’s troops drive the French from

Milan. Death of Leo X.

1522 Adrian of Utrecht elected pope as Adrian VI. The French

fail in an attempt to recover the Milanese. League between

Charles, the pope, Venice, and other Italian cities against

France.

1523 The cortes grant supplies before presenting their

petitions. Adrian VI dies. Clement VII pope. Ferdinand Cortes

empowered to conquer all New Spain.

1524 The council of the Indies formed for the administration

of the Spanish colonies. The Moors of Valencia request

permission to exercise their own worship. On being refused many

emigrate, and others revolt and are not finally subdued till

1526. Expulsion of the French from the Milanese. Francis I of

France attempts to recover it and is defeated and taken by the

imperial troops at the

1525 battle of Pavia.

1526 The Moors of Granada permitted to purchase freedom from

the worst penalties of the Inquisition. Treaty of Madrid.

Francis resigns his claims in Italy, Flanders, and Artois and

concludes a perpetual league with Charles. Holy League of

Cognac between the pope, France, England, Venice, and Sforza,

duke of Milan, to restore Sforza to the Milanese. The pope and

the French attack Naples.

1527 Charles’ troops ravage the papal territories and take

Rome. Sack of Rome. Clement taken prisoner. The cortes refuse a

grant to Charles.

1528 The French besiege Naples, but are driven by disease to

retreat.

1529 Battle of Landriano. Spaniards defeat the French. Francis

Pizarro commissioned to conquer and govern Peru. Treaty of

Cambray called “The Ladies’ Peace.” Francis I agrees to ransom

his sons and resign his pretensions to Flanders, Artois, and

all places in Italy. Charles goes to Italy, makes peace with

Venice, and with the dukes of Milan and Ferrara.

1530 Charles receives the iron crown of Lombardy and is crowned

emperor by the pope. Florence taken. Charles makes Alessandro

de’ Medici its absolute ruler. He summons the Diet of Augsburg

to settle religious questions and prepare for war with the

Turks.

1531 Ferdinand, brother of Charles, elected king of the Romans.

1533 Pizarro establishes his authority in the capital of Peru.

1535 Expedition to Tunis in conjunction with Portugal, Genoa,

the pope, and the knights of Malta. The usurper Barbarossa

is expelled and the king Mulei Hassan restored as a vassal

of Spain. Ten thousand Christian slaves released. Francis I

invades Savoy. Its duke appeals to Charles. Death of the duke

of Milan. Charles takes possession of the duchy. Colony of

Buenos Ayres founded by Pedro de Mendoza.

1536 Francis occupies Piedmont. Provence invaded by Charles,

who finds it already desolated by the French, and retreats in

disorder.

1537 French invasion of the Netherlands. Truce with France.

1538 It is extended for ten years (Truce of Nice). Mutiny

amongst Charles’ troops in Milan, Sicily, and Africa. Their

generals borrow money to pacify them. Cortes of Toledo. The

deputies protest against the extravagance of Charles’ foreign

wars, and the nobles claim their privilege of exemption from

taxation. Charles dismisses the estates. This was the last

occasion on which nobles and prelates were summoned. The cortes

was henceforth reduced to a meeting of the deputies of eighteen

cities.

1539 Revolt of the citizens of Ghent.

1540 Charles marches to Ghent and represses the rebellion with

great severity. Order of Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola in

1534, is confirmed by the pope.

1541 The ambassadors of France murdered by Charles’ governor

of the Milanese. Francis I demands reparation and prepares for

war. Expedition led by Charles against the pirates of Algiers.

Great part of the fleet destroyed in a storm. The army returns,

having accomplished nothing. Conquest of Chili begun and

Santiago founded by Pedro de Valdivia.

1542 Perpignan besieged by the French and successfully defended

by the duke of Alva.

1543 Alliance with Henry VIII. War between Charles and Francis

in the Netherlands.

1544 Battle of Cerisole in Piedmont. The imperialists are

defeated by the French. Charles invades France in conjunction

with Henry VIII. Peace of Crespy. Charles renounces all claim

to Burgundy and Francis to Naples, Flanders, and Artois.

1545 The pope grants Charles half the ecclesiastical revenues

of Spain.

1547 Battle of Mühlberg. Charles defeats the Smalkaldic League.

1551 League between Henry II of France and the Protestant

princes of Germany.

1552 Charles compelled to fly from Innsbruck. The French seize

Toul, Verdun, and Metz. By the Peace of Passau, Charles grants

religious liberty to the German Protestants. Charles besieges

Metz but fails to take it.

1554 Charles cedes Naples to his son Philip. Philip marries

Mary, queen of England.

1555 Philip invested with the sovereignty of the Netherlands.

1556 Philip invested with the sovereignty of Spain as =Philip

II=. His possessions embrace Spain, Naples, Sicily, Milan,

Franche-Comté, the Netherlands, Tunis, the Barbary coast,

Canaries, Cape Verd Islands, Philippines, Spice Islands, West

Indian colonies and territories in Mexico and Peru. Truce of

Vaucelles arranges five years’ peace with France. Charles

resigns the empire to his brother Ferdinand and retires to San

Yuste. Pope Paul IV persuades Henry II of France to break the

truce of Vaucelles and excommunicates Charles and Philip. Alva

invades the papal states.

1557 Philip visits England and persuades Mary to declare war on

France. St. Quentin captured by Spaniards and English. Peace

with Paul IV.

1558 Spanish victory of Gravelines. Death of Charles V. Death

of Mary of England.

1559 Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis between Spain and England and

France. Philip marries Elizabeth of France. Margaret of Parma

regent of the Netherlands. Philip assembles a force to recover

Tripoli for the Knights of Malta.

1560 It captures Los Gelves in the Gulf of Khabes. A Turkish

fleet routs the Spaniards, and takes sixty-five vessels.

1561 A new fleet, collected to oppose the Turks, dispersed and

partly destroyed by a storm. Turks ravage the Spanish coast.

1563 The Castilian cortes protest in vain against the

Inquisition. The Moriscos forbidden to carry arms.

1564 The pirate stronghold of Peñon de los Velez in Fez

captured.

1565 Siege of Malta by the Turks. The Spanish fleet relieves

Malta.

1566 The Flemish nobles band together under the name of the

“Gueux” to resist the Inquisition. Tumult and wrecking of

Catholic churches. The rebellion suppressed.

1567 The prince of Orange goes over to the Protestants. The

duke of Alva succeeds Margaret of Parma as regent of the

Netherlands and institutes a reign of terror. The Spanish

Moriscos forbidden their distinctive costume, language, and

customs.

1568 The Aragonese cortes wring from Philip an act limiting

ecclesiastical interference in civil causes. Death of Philip’s

only son Don Carlos. The “Gueux” defeated at Jemmingen. Revolt

of the Moriscos in the Alpujarras. They devastate Granada and

are defeated by the governor, Mondejar, in the

1569 pass of Alfajarali; massacre of the rebels. The English

seize the Spanish treasure ships. Don John of Austria, son of

Charles V, commissioned to end the Morisco war.

1570 He takes Golera. Moriscos expelled from Andalusia.

1571 League of Spain, Rome, and Venice against the Turks.

Battle of Lepanto. The allies under Don John crush the naval

power of the Turks.

1572 Briel and Mons captured by the Gueux. The states of

Holland declare the prince of Orange stadholder of Holland,

Friesland, and Zealand. Successes of Alva.

1573 The supplies furnished by the Castilian cortes declared a

tribute legally due to the sovereign. Defeat of Alva’s fleet.

Alva recalled. Tunis captured by Don John. He adds to the

fortifications.

1574 The Turks recover Tunis and massacre the garrison.

1576 “Spanish fury” or sack of Antwerp by the Spaniards. By

the pacification of Ghent, the seventeen provinces of the

Netherlands agree to unite to defend their liberties and expel

the Spaniards. Don John sent to govern the Netherlands.

1577 By the Perpetual Edict Philip recognises the Pacification

of Ghent. The southern provinces of the Netherlands withdraw

from the union.

1578 Battle of Gembloux. Don John and Alessandro Farnese

defeat the revolted Netherlanders. Death of Don John. Death of

Sebastian, king of Portugal. Philip claims the throne.

1579 Union of Utrecht between the seven northern provinces of

the Netherlands.

1580 Death of Henry of Portugal. Portugal conquered and reduced

to a province of Spain. Spaniards join a papal invasion of

Ireland and are massacred at Smerwick.

1581 The Netherlands declare their independence.

1584 Farnese takes Ghent.

1585 The Catholic party in France, headed by the Guises, forms

a league with Philip for the extirpation of heresy in France

and the Low Countries. Farnese reduces Antwerp. England sends

help to the United Provinces.

1587 Drake burns the shipping at Cadiz.

1588 The Spanish Armada sails, is defeated by the English, and

dispersed by storms.

1589 Farnese repulsed from Bergen-op-Zoom. An expedition from

England under the Portuguese claimant Don Antonio invades

Portugal, pillages Corunna, and retreats. Perez arraigned for

the murder of Escovedo. He escapes to Aragon and appeals to its

_fueros_ (privileges). His prosecution abandoned.

1590 Increase of the excise on food, termed “the millions.”

Battle of Ivry; Henry IV of France defeats the league and its

Spanish auxiliaries. Philip claims the French throne for his

daughter by Elizabeth of Valois. A Spanish force under Farnese

is sent to the relief of Paris, but quarrels with the league.

1591 Perez arrested by the Inquisition. The mob rise against

it. Perez escapes to France. Philip punishes the rioters who

had attacked the Inquisition. Its power increases. Part of

_fueros_ of Aragon abolished.

1592 Farnese relieves Rouen, is deserted by the league, and

escapes from Henry IV with heavy loss.

1594 Groningen, the last stronghold of the Spaniards in the

United Provinces, taken by the stadholder.

1596 Cadiz sacked by Essex.

1597 The stadholder defeats the Spaniards at Turnhout. Philip

repudiates his debts.

1598 Peace of Vervins with Henry IV. Death of Philip. The

Netherlands pass to his daughter Isabella, and the rest of his

possessions to his son =Philip III=.

1599 A second armada sails for England and is beaten back by a

storm.

_Seventeenth Century_

1601 Increase of “the millions.” An expedition sent to assist

Tyrone in Ireland fails.

1602 Persia joins Spain in a war against Turkey. Plundering of

the coast and islands in the Mediterranean.

1604 Peace with England. The “archdukes” (Isabella and her

husband Albert) capture Ostend after a three years’ siege.

1605 First part of _Don Quixote_ published.

1607 Spanish fleet destroyed in a fight with the Dutch off

Gibraltar. Eight months’ truce with the United Provinces. Spain

and the “archdukes” resign their claims to the provinces.

1609 Twelve years’ truce with the United Provinces. The

Moriscos expelled from Spain with the loss of all property save

what they could carry with them. With them Spain loses her most

industrious inhabitants. Henry IV of France organises a league

against Spain in conjunction with the Italian states, England,

the German Protestants, and the United Provinces.

1610 Murder of Henry IV.

1612 Philip’s daughter Anne married to Louis XIII and his son

Philip to Elizabeth de Bourbon. The princesses renounce their

respective claims to the kingdoms of Spain and France.

1615 The duke of Savoy invades Lombardy and is defeated by

Hinojosa, viceroy of Milan. The war continued to 1617, when

peace was signed at Pavia. Second part of _Don Quixote_

published.

1617 Alsace ceded to Spain by Ferdinand of Austria.

1618 Battle of Gravosa. The duke of Osuna, viceroy of Naples,

defeats the Venetian fleet. Fall of Lerma, Philip’s favourite.

The war with Venice continues till the recall of Osuna.

1620 Battle of the White Hill. Spanish troops aid the

imperialists to defeat the elector palatine. The Spaniards

under Spinola overrun the Palatinate and expel the elector.

1621 =Philip IV= succeeds his father. Olivares becomes

all-powerful. The cortes of Castile calls attention to the

extravagance of the administration, the appalling misery in the

country, and the ruinous system of taxation. Attempts to curb

official corruption. Expiration of the truce with the United

Provinces. Spinola sent to conquer the Netherlands. He takes

Juliers.

1622 Negotiation with England for the marriage of the infanta

Maria to Prince Charles. James I asks for a Spanish army to

assist the elector palatine. Charles arrives in Madrid.

1623 Enormous subsidy demanded by Olivares. The cities resist.

Increase of taxation. Marriage-treaty signed. Charles leaves

Spain.

1624 Franco-Dutch alliance. The French drive the Spanish

garrisons from the Valtelline. Spain allied with Tuscany,

Parma, Modena, and Genoa.

1625 Spinola takes Breda. Genoa threatened by the French and

saved by Spain.

1626 Peace of Monçon between France and Spain. The Valtelline

relinquished to the Grisons.

1628 Spanish treasure fleet captured by the Dutch.

1629 Peace with England. France and Spain support rival

candidates to the duchy of Mantua. French successes. Spinola

sent to Lombardy.

1630 He lays siege to Casale. Death of Spinola. The Buccaneers

seize the island of Tortuga and make it the headquarters of

their pirate bands.

1631 Treaty of Cherasco with France.

1632 Frederick Henry of Orange expels the Spaniards from the

United Provinces. The archduchess Isabella resigns in favour of

Philip IV. Orange captures Maestricht. Philip makes a treaty

with the duke of Orléans, in rebellion against France.

1633 A Spanish army sent to aid the emperor.

1634 Battle of Nördlingen. The Spaniards under the cardinal

infante, brother of Philip, aid in defeating the Protestant

Swedes and Germans. Treves attacked and the elector carried

off by the Spaniards. France declares war on Spain and forms

an alliance with the United Provinces. Joint invasion of the

Spanish-Netherlands repelled by the cardinal infante. The

Milanese invaded by the French.

1636 The French expelled from the Milanese.

1637 Leucate unsuccessfully besieged by the Spaniards. Breda

captured by Orange.

1638 The French under Condé invade Spain and are totally

defeated before Fuenterrabia. The Spaniards take Bremi and

Vercelli and ravage Piedmont.

1639 Alsace falling to France on the death of Bernard

of Saxe-Weimar, the communication between Italy and the

Netherlands is interrupted. Salsas in Roussillon taken by Condé

and recovered by the Spaniards. The Spanish fleet takes refuge

in the Downs under the neutral flag of England but is attacked

and destroyed by Van Tromp. Spaniards expelled from Piedmont.

1640 Troops billeted on the Catalans and levies demanded from

them. Revolt in consequence. The insurgents seize Barcelona.

Revolution in Portugal. João of Braganza assumes the crown.

He enters into relations with France, Holland, and the rebels

in Catalonia. Los Velez sent to subdue the Catalans. He takes

Cambrils and Tarragona, but is repulsed before Barcelona.

1641 Discovery of a plot of the duke of Medina Sidonia and

the marquis de Ayamonte in concert with the king of Portugal

to erect Andalusia into a separate sovereignty. The revolted

Catalans swear fealty to France.

1642 French troops sent to aid the Catalans invade Aragon, take

Perpignan and occupy Roussillon. Indecisive battle of Lerida.

1643 Disgrace of Olivares. Luis de Haro succeeds him. The

Spaniards invade Champagne and are severely defeated at Rocroi.

The Spaniards victorious at Lerida.

1646 Failure of a plot to deliver Barcelona to Philip.

1647 The Neapolitans revolt under Masaniello who is

assassinated. Don John of Austria sent to quiet the city. Fresh

revolt. The duke of Guise aims at the crown but is captured and

the insurrection suppressed.

1648 Lerida successfully resists the French. The French defeat

the Spaniards at Lens. On the termination of the Thirty Years’

War by the Peace of Westphalia, Spain concludes peace with the

United Provinces, acknowledging their independence and leaving

them their conquests in Brabant and Flanders, with Maestricht

and Breda and their acquisitions in America and the Indies.

1651 Battle of Iviza. Don John of Austria destroys the French

fleet and besieges Barcelona.

1652 Barcelona capitulates. Catalonia returns to her allegiance

to Spain. The Great Condé goes over to the Spaniards and leads

their armies in the Spanish Netherlands against France.

1654 Spaniards defeated before Arras. The buccaneers sack New

Segovia in Honduras and Maracaibo and Gibraltar on the Gulf of

Venezuela.

1655 Jamaica captured by the English.

1656 Valenciennes, besieged by Turenne, is relieved by Don John

and Condé.

1657 Oliver Cromwell sends troops to aid Turenne. The English

exiles join the Spaniards.

1658 Battle of the Dunes. The Spaniards defeated. Dunkirk,

Furnes, Gravelines and Oudenarde surrender to the French.

1659 Battle of Elvas. The Portuguese defeat De Haro.

Devastating war on the frontiers. The treaty of the Pyrenees

ends the French war. Louis XIV is to marry the infanta Maria

Theresa, who renounces her claims to the Spanish crown. Spain

abandons Roussillon, Cerdagne, Artois, and several border

fortresses. Burgundy, Charolois, and Franche-Comté restored to

Spain. France abandons the Portuguese.

1661 Don John invades Portugal. Death of De Haro.

1662 Don John occupies Alemtejo and

1663 takes Evora. Spaniards defeated at Amegial.

1664 Portuguese capture Valencia de Alcantara and defeat the

Spaniards at Villaviciosa. Don John disgraced.

1665 Battle of Montes-Claros won by the Portuguese. They invade

Andalusia. Revolt in Valencia and other provinces. Philip dies

and is succeeded by his son =Charles II=, a child of four

years, under the regency of his mother Maria Anna of Austria.

The Jesuit Nithard becomes supreme.

1666 Louis XIV lays claim to Franche-Comté, Hainault, Brabant,

Artois, etc., in right of his wife.

1667 He invades the Netherlands, and takes several fortresses.

1668 Treaty with Portugal. Spain recognises the house of

Braganza. Franche-Comté conquered by France. England,

Sweden, and the Dutch form a triple alliance to preserve the

Netherlands to Spain. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen).

Spain abandons to Louis his Flemish conquests. Louis restores

Franche-Comté.

1669 Disputes between the regent and Don John. Aragon and

Catalonia declare for Don John. Nithard dismissed. The queen

forced to share the government with Don John.

1671 Panama sacked by the buccaneers.

1672 Louis XIV invades Holland. Spain joins Germany in sending

troops to Holland.

1674 Louis reconquers Franche-Comté. Indecisive battle of

Seneffe between the allies and the French. Spanish victory in

Roussillon. The victorious troops proceed to the siege of the

revolted city of Messina. The French relieve Messina.

1675 Indecisive action off Messina between the French and the

Spaniards and Dutch under De Ruyter. De Ruyter is killed. The

French defeat the allied fleet off Palermo and rout a Spanish

army in Sicily.

1677 Valenciennes and Cambray taken by the French. The Prince

of Orange (William III of England) defeated at Mont-Cassel.

Catalonia invaded by the French. Charles II declared of age.

Don John contrives the disgrace of the queen-mother and her

favourite Valenzuela. He suppresses the Council of the Indies,

and introduces a few reforms.

1678 Cerdagne occupied and Ghent and Ypres taken by the French.

They evacuate Sicily. Peace of Nimeguen. Spain surrenders

Franche-Comté and fourteen fortresses of the Netherlands.

1679 Death of Don John.

1680 Eighty-five persons suffer at an _auto-da-fé_. Raiding

expedition of buccaneers on the isthmus of Darien and the coast

of Peru.

1683 The French renew the war.

1684 They are repulsed before Gerona and take Luxemburg. Truce

with France. Plague in Andalusia.

1685 Oropesa replaces Medina-Celi as prime minister. Cadiz

blockaded by France to enforce payment for goods confiscated

from French merchants. Earthquakes in various places.

1686 League of Augsburg between Spain, the empire, England and

Sweden against France.

1689 Revolt in Catalonia. Villa-Hermosa defeats the rebel army

under Antonio de Soler. French invasion of Catalonia repulsed.

1690 Battle of Fleurus. The French defeat the allies.

1691 Melgar succeeds Oropesa. Attempt to reform the finances.

Mons and Namur taken by the French. Barcelona bombarded by

Noailles. Urgel taken by Noailles.

1693 The allies defeated at Neerwinden and Marsaglia. Charles

appoints the elector of Bavaria hereditary governor of the

Netherlands.

1694 Noailles takes Gerona.

1695 German mercenaries arrive in Catalonia, but are defeated

at Llobregat.

1697 Cartagena de las Indias sacked by the French and

buccaneers. Peace of Ryswick. Spain recovers Luxemburg, Mons,

Courtrai, and the towns lost in Catalonia. Charles’ declining

health draws the attention of Europe to the question of his

successor.

1698 Secret treaty between France, England, and Holland for the

partition of the Spanish dominions. Spain, the Netherlands,

Sardinia and the colonies to go to the prince of Bavaria;

Naples, Sicily, Finale, and Guipuzcoa to the dauphin; Lombardy

to the archduke Charles, second son of the emperor Leopold

I. Charles appoints as his heir the prince of Bavaria, who

dies immediately afterwards. French intrigues rouse Spanish

opposition to the archduke.

1700 Second partition treaty between France, England, and

Holland for the division of the Spanish dominions. Spain, the

Netherlands, Sardinia, and the colonies to go to the archduke

Charles. To the dauphin, Naples, Sicily, Finale, Guipuzcoa,

and the Milanese. Charles appoints as his heir, Philip, duke

of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV. Death of Charles II. Anjou

succeeds as =Philip V=.

_Eighteenth Century_

1701 Philip arrives in Spain. The emperor protests against

his accession. The nobles alienated by attempts at financial

reform. Philip marries Maria Louisa of Savoy. The princess

Orsini obtains supreme influence over Philip and Maria.

_Fueros_ restored to Catalonia.

1702 Philip goes to Naples. Indecisive battle of Luzzara

between Philip and Prince Eugene. Grand Alliance between

England, Holland, Denmark, Austria, and Prussia, against Spain

and France. The allies fail before Cadiz, but destroy the

Spanish plate fleet at Vigo.

1704 The archduke Charles lands at Lisbon, and in union with

the king of Portugal declares war on Spain. A French army under

Berwick invades Portugal. Charles lands at Barcelona, but

effects nothing and retreats. Gibraltar taken by Sir George

Rooke. Indecisive battle off Malaga.

1705 An attempt to recover Gibraltar fails. The allies take

Barcelona. Catalonia, Valencia, and Murcia declare for Charles.

1706 Philip fails at the siege of Barcelona. Portuguese

invasion. Marlborough’s victory at Ramillies leads to the loss

of nearly the whole Spanish Netherlands. Charles enters Madrid.

Aragon declares for him. The French driven from the Milanese

and Charles proclaimed. The allies expelled from Castile.

1707 Berwick defeats the allies at Almansa. The Austrians

conquer Naples; Valencia and Aragon recovered for Philip. Their

_fueros_ abolished, and their government assimilated to the

Castilian.

1708 Attempt to exact a loan from the clergy. The pope forbids

its payment, but offers a tax on church property, which Philip

declines. The allies win the battle of Oudenarde. The plate

fleet captured by the English. Minorca, Majorca, and Sardinia

conquered by the allies, and Oran by the Moors.

1709 Amelot, the French ambassador, dismissed. Medina-Celi

prime minister. Barrier treaty between England and Holland

regulating the northern boundary of the Spanish Netherlands,

and providing for their government in the name of Charles, and

eventual transfer to Austria.

1710 Insincere negotiations of Gertruydenberg between France

and the allies. War in Spain renewed. Philip defeated at

Almenara and Saragossa. Charles re-enters Madrid, but leaves to

repel an invasion of Catalonia, and Philip returns and wins the

battle of Villaviciosa.

1711 Death of the emperor Joseph I. The archduke Charles

succeeds him as Charles VI.

1712 England withdraws from the Grand Alliance, and recalls

her troops from Catalonia. Philip renounces his rights to the

French crown, and changes the law of succession to the Spanish

crown, excluding females while one of his male descendants

shall survive.

1713 The imperial troops withdraw from Catalonia. Orry becomes

finance minister, and reforms the administration. Death of

Queen Maria Louisa. The clergy resist an attempt to curb

the power of the Inquisition. Spain accedes to the Peace of

Utrecht between France and England, Holland, Prussia, Savoy,

and Portugal, by which Philip is recognised as king of Spain;

the Spanish Netherlands, Sardinia, the Milanese, and Naples are

ceded to Austria, and Sicily to Savoy; while England retains

Gibraltar and Minorca.

1714 France and England send troops to reduce Catalonia.

Barcelona taken by storm. The privileges of Catalonia

abolished, and the Castilian constitution established there.

Majorca submits. Philip marries Elizabeth Farnese. She gains

unbounded influence over him, and makes Alberoni, an Italian

priest, her chief adviser. He turns his attention to the

revival of commerce and industry, economical reforms, and the

reorganisation of the army and navy.

1715 Peace with Portugal. Colonia del Sacramento on the Rio de

la Plata ceded to her.

1716-17 Triple alliance between France, England, and Holland to

preserve the provisions of the treaty of Utrecht.

1717 Sardinia occupied by the Spaniards.

1718 Triple alliance between the emperor, France, and England.

The Spaniards invade Sicily. Their fleet is destroyed by Byng

in a battle off Cape Passaro. Alberoni concerts with count

Görtz, minister of Charles XII of Sweden, a scheme for a joint

invasion of Scotland by Sweden and Russia, which is frustrated

by the death of Charles XII.

1719 Spain invaded by the French. A Spanish fleet, sent to

restore the English pretender, dispersed by a storm. The allies

ravage the Spanish coasts. Spanish reverses in Sicily. Holland

accedes to the Triple, now the Quadruple, Alliance. Alberoni

disgraced. Patiño succeeds him.

1720 Philip accedes to the Quadruple Alliance. Sicily ceded

to Austria, and Sardinia to Savoy. Successful campaign on the

Barbary coast.

1721 Defensive alliance with France and England.

1724 Philip abdicates in favour of his son =Luis=. Death of

Luis. =Philip V= resumes the crown.

1725 The Spanish infanta, the intended queen of Louis XV,

sent back to Spain. Philip’s agent, Ripperdá, concludes with

the emperor the treaty of Vienna, securing the succession of

Charles, son of Philip and Elizabeth Farnese, to Parma and

Tuscany and arranging a commercial alliance.

1726 England joins France in the league of Hanover.

Administration and disgrace of Ripperdá.

1727 Gibraltar besieged by the Spaniards. The emperor makes

peace with England and France, referring the questions of

Parma, Tuscany, and Gibraltar to a congress.

1728 Philip accepts the terms in the convention of the Pardo.

1729 Treaty of Seville between Spain, England, and France. The

commercial treaty with the emperor abrogated. Philip’s son

Charles recognised as heir to Parma and Tuscany.

1731 The emperor annexes Parma, but in the second treaty of

Vienna accedes to the treaty of Seville. Charles succeeds to

Parma and Piacenza.

1732 Oran recovered from the Moors.

1733 Perpetual Family Compact between France and Spain. France,

Spain, and Sardinia agree to assert the claims of Stanislaus

Leczinsky to Poland.

1734 Charles of Parma takes possession of Naples and is

declared king of the Two Sicilies. The retiring Germans

defeated at Bitonto. Sicily reduced for Charles. The Germans

beaten at Parma.

1735 Preliminaries of Vienna. France and Sardinia make peace

with the emperor. Parma to be ceded to Austria and Tuscany to

Francis of Lorraine.

1736 Philip and Charles of Sicily accede to the Peace of

Vienna, Charles retaining Sicily.

1739 War of Jenkins’ Ear occasioned by the disputes of Spanish

and English traders in the West Indies. To meet the expense of

the war, government pensions and payments are suspended for a

year, and the interest on the public debt reduced. Porto Bello

captured by the English.

1740 Death of the emperor Charles VI. Philip claims the

succession for his son Don Philip.

1741 Unsuccessful siege of Cartagena de las Indias by the

British. They fail to conquer Cuba. Anson plunders Payta and

captures a Spanish treasure ship.

1742 Philip sends troops to invade Austrian Lombardy. The

king of Sardinia suddenly goes over to the emperor and drives

the Spaniards from Lombardy. The British fleet compels the

neutrality of Naples.

1743 Alliance of Austria, England, and Sardinia. Spain renews

the French alliance in the Treaty of Fontainebleau.

1744 Indecisive battle of Hyères between the English, French,

and Spanish fleets. Unsuccessful siege of Coni by the

Spaniards.

1745 The French and Spanish overrun the Milanese.

1746 The French and Spaniards routed at Piacenza and expelled

from Lombardy. Death of Philip. His son, =Ferdinand VI=,

succeeds.

1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Don Philip receives Parma,

Piacenza, and Guastalla. Maria Theresa recognised as successor

of Charles VI.

1749 Commercial treaty of Aquisgran between Spain and England.

Under the administration of Carvajal and Ensenada, Spain begins

to recover her prosperity.

1752 Treaty of Aranjuez between Spain, Maria Theresa, and the

dukes of Tuscany, and Parma guarantees the neutrality of Italy.

1753 Pope Benedict XIV acknowledges by a concordat the Spanish

king’s right to make ecclesiastical appointments.

1754 Death of Carvajal. Richard Wall, an Irishman, succeeds him.

1755 Earthquake in Spain.

1759 Death of Ferdinand. His half-brother, Charles of Naples,

succeeds as =Charles III=. Naples is handed over to Charles’

younger son, Ferdinand. Charles restores Aragon and Catalonia

some of their privileges and remits arrears of taxes. Squillaci

(Esquilache) appointed minister of finance.

1761 Third family compact with France for mutual defence.

Consequent war with England.

1762 Portugal refuses to join the family compact and is invaded

by the French and Spaniards. England sends troops to Portugal.

The Spaniards defeated at Valencia de Alcantara and Villa

Velha. Havana and Manila captured by the English. Colonia del

Sacramento taken from Portugal.

1763 Peace with England. Spain cedes Florida and her fishing

rights on the Newfoundland banks. England restores Havana and

Manila. Grimaldi succeeds Wall. Louisiana ceded to Spain by

France. The inhabitants refuse to accept the transfer.

1765 Reorganisation of the Spanish colonies. Discontent and

revolts.

1766 Discontent roused against Squillaci by sumptuary laws,

foreign innovations, and the high price of bread. Sanguinary

revolution in Madrid called the “Revolt of Esquilache.” De

Aranda minister. He continues the policy of innovation, and

1767 expels the Jesuit fathers from Spain and the colonies, as

aiders and abettors of revolution.

1769 Louisiana subdued.

1770 The Spaniards assert their claim to the Falkland Islands

and expel the English. Preparations are made for war, but

France withdrawing her support,

1771 Spain is compelled to apologise and restore the Falklands.

De Aranda dismissed.

1773 The pope, Clement XIV, compelled by Spain to order the

suppression of the Jesuits. The pursuit of trade declared to

involve no loss of rank or privilege.

1774 The final blow given to the Inquisition by a decree making

civil offences punishable by civil tribunals only.

1775 Ceuta and Melilla attacked by the Moors. The aggressors

defeated. A Spanish army routed in Algiers.

1776 The Portuguese attack the Spaniards on the Rio Grande.

Colonia del Sacramento and the neighbouring colonies occupied

by Spain.

1777 Grimaldi replaced by Florida-Blanca. Peace with Portugal.

Spain retains Colonia del Sacramento.

1778 Perpetual alliance with Portugal. Privilege of free

trade with all American colonies save Mexico granted to seven

principal Spanish ports. The privilege was afterwards extended

to all the provinces save Biscay.

1779 Spain offers to mediate between England and her revolted

American colonies. On her refusal Spain declares war. Gibraltar

besieged by the Spaniards. Failure of a Franco-Spanish naval

expedition against England.

1780 The principle of the Armed Neutrality announced by Russia

and accepted by Spain. Rodney defeats the Spanish fleet off

Cape St. Vincent. English transport fleet captured.

1781 Pensacola taken by the Spaniards. Rebellions in Peru and

Mexico.

1782 Minorca taken by the French and Spaniards. Gibraltar

relieved by Howe. Treaty with Turkey containing commercial

provisions, arranging for the exchange of slaves and protection

for Spanish pilgrims.

1783 Peace with England concluded at Versailles. Spain retains

Minorca and Florida. Increase of duties on foreign manufactures.

1784 The proceedings of the Inquisition against grandees and

officials subjected to the king’s approval.

1786 Treaty with Algiers. The Algerian government guarantees

the suppression of piracy.

1788 Death of Charles III. He is succeeded by his son =Charles

IV=.

1791 Spain protests against the foundation of the English

settlement at Nootka Sound, but being unsupported by France

has to recognise it. This humiliation being attributed to

the French Revolution leads to a reaction against liberalism.

Florida-Blanca urges the European powers to restore Louis XVI.

1792 Dismissal of Florida-Blanca. Manuel de Godoy, the queen’s

favourite, becomes supreme. The Spanish government intercedes

for Louis XVI.

1793 Execution of Louis XVI. Spain joins the First Coalition

against France. Failure of the invasion of France.

1794 The Spaniards are defeated with the loss of nine thousand

men and surrender Figueras. The French invade Spain.

1795 Treaty of Bâle. Spain surrenders her territory in Santo

Domingo. The French evacuate Spain.

1796 Alliance between France and Spain in the treaty of San

Ildefonso. Spain joins

1797 the war against England, and her fleet is defeated in the

battle of Cape St. Vincent.

1800 Louisiana ceded to France.

_Nineteenth Century_

1801 Successful invasion of Portugal. Portugal agrees to

exclude English forces from her ports. Napoleon exacts a large

payment from Portugal and insists on Spain’s ceding Trinidad to

England.

1803 Napoleon compels Spain to pay a large subsidy for the war

with England and to undertake to secure Portuguese neutrality.

1805 Spain joins France in the war. The English defeat the

French and Spaniards at Cape Finisterre and Trafalgar. British

invasion of Buenos Ayres.

1806 Ferdinand, king of Naples, expelled from Naples. Spain

prepares for war, but after Napoleon’s victory at Jena renews

the

1807 French alliance in the Treaty of Fontainebleau, arranging

for the partition of Portugal. Ferdinand, prince of Asturias,

conspires against the government. Charles asks help from

Napoleon. The French march into Spain. Reconciliation of

Ferdinand and Charles.

1808 Murat sent to command the French troops in Spain.

Barcelona, Pamplona, and the northern fortresses of Spain

occupied by the French. Indignation in Spain and riots against

Godoy. Charles IV is constrained to abdicate in favour of

=Ferdinand VII=. Murat occupies Madrid. Charles declares his

abdication compulsory. Meeting of Napoleon and the Spanish

royal family at Bayonne. Murat assumes the Spanish government

in the name of Charles IV. Ferdinand restores the crown to

Charles IV, who resigns his rights to Napoleon and retires to

Rome. Napoleon makes =Joseph Bonaparte= king. General revolt

against the French throughout Spain. The French sack Cordova.

Saragossa and Valencia successfully resist them. Savage

guerilla warfare. Capitulation of Baylen; twenty thousand

French surrender. Flight of Joseph. The central junta assumes

the government. French victories of Burgos, Espinosa, and

Tudela. Napoleon enters Madrid, abolishes feudalism and the

Inquisition and restores Joseph. The Spanish colonies of Buenos

Ayres, Mexico, Chili, and Venezuela revolt.

1809 Battle of Corunna and retreat of an English army. Napoleon

quits Spain. Joseph returns. Marshal Lannes takes Saragossa

by storm. French victories of Medellin and Ciudad-Real. Soult

commander-in-chief of the French in Spain. Wellington is sent

to aid the Spaniards and defeats the French at Talavera.

Wellington returns to Portugal. Spaniards defeated at Ocaña.

Flight of the central junta from Seville to the isle of Leon.

Joseph enters Seville.

1810 Napoleon converts Catalonia, Aragon, Navarre, and Biscay

into military governments. Juntas formed in the colonial cities

govern in Ferdinand’s name, but work for independence. The

cortes meet at the isle of Leon, swear fealty to Ferdinand VII

1811 as a constitutional monarch and declare the abolition

of feudalism, the privileges of the nobles and the tithes of

the church, declare the sovereignty to reside in the people,

and draw up a constitution called the “constitution of the

year 12.” The cortes refuse to grant the colonies equality of

representation and free trade. Most of the colonies declare

their independence and successfully assert it against Spanish

troops. The cortes conclude a treaty with England, granting her

free trade in America, and make Wellington commander-in-chief

of the Spanish troops in the western provinces. The French take

Tarragona, Murviedro, and Valencia.

1812 Wellington captures Badajoz, defeats Marmont at Salamanca,

and enters Madrid.

1813 Wellington defeats Joseph at Vitoria. Napoleon recalls

Joseph and names Soult governor of Spain. Wellington takes San

Sebastian and Pamplona. Wellington invades France.

1814 =Ferdinand VII= returns. He imprisons the liberal leaders

and restores absolutism with the privileges of the nobles and

clergy. The Inquisition re-erected. Persecution of partisans

of Joseph, leaders of the liberal party, and guerilla captains.

A camarilla or court party rules supreme and organises a reign

of terror. Wars for independence in the South American colonies.

1815 Porlier’s rebellion at Corunna suppressed. Morillo sent to

Venezuela. He crushes rebellion and governs vigorously.

1816 Rio de la Plata asserts its independence.

1817 Lacy rebels in Catalonia, is captured and shot.

1819 Florida sold to the United States. Secret societies formed

against the government.

1820 Venezuela and New Granada declare their union as the Free

State of Colombia. An army, assembled to conquer Colombia,

rebels under Riego and Quiroga. The revolt spreads throughout

Spain. Ferdinand compelled to swear to the constitution and

abolish the Inquisition. Cortes and liberal government. The

moderate party fails to restrain the radicals. The priests stir

up the people against the constitution. Disorder throughout the

country.

1821 Mexico becomes independent.

1822 Triumph of the radical party. Riego president of the

cortes. The clerical and servile (royal) party sets up a

regency in Urgel and arms for the king. Civil war in Catalonia

and Aragon between serviles and radicals. Congress of

Verona, France, Russia, Austria, and Prussia agree for armed

intervention in Spain in favour of Ferdinand. Victory of the

Liberals under Mina and flight of the regency to France.

1823 The government withdraws to Seville. Invasion by the

French. The serviles and common people join them. The French

erect a provisional government in Madrid and restore the

“legitimate order” of things. The cortes withdraw to Cadiz, but

surrender it to the French. Ferdinand resumes despotic power.

Execution of Riego and other liberals. Many go into exile.

President Monroe declares the United States’ intention to

oppose the interference of European powers for the restoration

of Spanish absolutism in America.

1824 Battle of Ayacucho. Chili and Peru achieve independence by

the defeat of the Spaniards.

1825 “Commissions of purification” persecute all opponents of

despotism. Bessières’s revolt suppressed.

1830 Ferdinand publishes the Pragmatic Sanction of 1789 which

abrogated the Salic law of 1713. Birth of Ferdinand’s daughter

Isabella.

1832 Illness of Ferdinand. The queen Christina appointed

regent. Ferdinand recalls the Pragmatic Sanction, thus

restoring the rights of his brother Don Carlos. The queen

recalls the exiled constitutionalists. Ferdinand cancels his

revocation of the Pragmatic Sanction. Disturbances in favour of

Don Carlos. Don Carlos exiled.

1833 Death of Ferdinand. Christina regent for =Isabella II=.

The northern provinces revolt for Carlos. France and England

recognise Isabella. Don Carlos assumes the title of Carlos V

king of Spain.

1834 Ministry of Martínez de la Rosa, including moderate

royalists and moderate liberals. The cortes summoned. Quadruple

Alliance. France and England agree to support the young queens

of Spain and Portugal against the pretenders Carlos and Miguel.

A Spanish army invades Portugal and expels the Portuguese

pretender. Carlos escapes to England. A savage guerilla war

between Carlists and Christinos begins in Biscay and Navarre.

Carlos returns. Mina given command of the queen’s troops.

1835 Mutiny of the guards in favour of the constitution of

1812. The Carlists become masters of all northern Spain.

Dissension between the rival parties of moderates and radicals,

or progressists, and anarchy in the southern provinces.

Cloisters attacked and monks murdered by the Christinos.

Semi-republican juntas formed in the cities. The Carlists

defeated at Mendigorria. The war continues with increased

savagery. Mendizabal minister.

1836 The convent law of Mendizabal suppresses the monastic

orders, confiscating their goods. Mendizabal retires. The

moderates in power. A British legion defeats the Carlists

at Bilbao. At La Granja the soldiers force Christina to

promulgate the constitution of 1812 and dismiss her ministers.

The Christino general Espartero relieves Bilbao. The “royal

expedition” of Don Carlos to Madrid is driven back to the north.

1837 The constitution modified by the cortes and made less

democratic. Carlos enters Castile, but is expelled by Espartero.

1838 The moderates in power. Attempts at absolutist reaction.

1839 Maroto becomes Don Carlos’ chief adviser and opens

negotiations with Espartero which lead to the treaty of

Bergara, by which the insurgents agree to lay down their arms

in return for an amnesty and confirmation of the _fueros_ of

Navarre and Biscay. Carlos escapes to France. The war continues

two years longer in Catalonia and Valencia.

1840 The liberals force Christina to accept Espartero as chief

minister. She abdicates.

1841 Espartero regent. Insurrections in favour of Christina.

1843 Revolt of Barcelona. General Narvaez occupies Madrid for

Christina. Espartero flees to England. Isabella’s majority

declared. Christina returns. Reactionary policy under French

influence.

1844 Insurrection of the coloured population of Cuba.

1845 New constitution increasing the power of the crown.

1846 Louis Philippe procures the marriage of Isabella with

Francis de Asis and of her sister with the duke of Montpensier.

1847 Cabrera fails to excite a Carlist rising.

1850 Amnesty to the Carlists. Revolt in Cuba in favour of union

with the United States suppressed.

1851 Fall of Narvaez. Concessions to the clergy.

1852 The constitution changed in favour of absolutism.

Limitation of the freedom of the press.

1854 The moderates and radicals join in a liberal union.

Revolts in Barcelona and Madrid. Espartero minister. Attempts

to revive internal prosperity. Sale of the property of the

church, of institutions, and of the state ordered.

1856 New constitution. Espartero retires. Riots in Madrid and

Barcelona. The old moderate party under Narvaez in power.

1858 Union of moderates and radicals under the O’Donnell

ministry.

1860 Successful expedition to Morocco. The Spaniards win the

battles of Tetuan and Guad Ras. Ortega proclaims Don Carlos’

son as Charles VI. Ortega captured and shot. Don Carlos’ sons

captured and compelled to renounce their pretensions.

1861 Santo Domingo declared reunited to Spain. Convention of

London. At the instigation of Spain, England, France, and Spain

agree to force Mexico to fulfil her obligations. Spanish troops

under Prim join in the Mexican expedition.

1863 Prim’s attitude brings about a misunderstanding with

France. Dissolution of the O’Donnell cabinet.

1864 War with Santo Domingo.

1865 A party formed for the union of Spain with Portugal.

1866 War with Peru. Rebellion in Catalonia, Valencia, and

Madrid. A new ministry under Narvaez and Gonsalez Bravo

endeavours to restrain rebellion by a reign of terror.

1868 The liberal union, progressists, and democrats unite

against the government. Revolution. Insurgents’ victory at the

bridge of Alcolea. Flight of Isabella. Provisional government

under Prim, Topete, and Olozaga. Disputes as to the form

of government. Religious orders abolished and toleration

proclaimed. Cuban insurrection.

1869 Monarchist majority in constituent cortes. Various

candidates for the throne proposed. New constitution drawn up.

Serrano becomes regent with Prim as minister. Republican and

Carlist risings suppressed.

1870 =Amadeo=, duke of Aosta and son of the king of Italy,

elected king of Spain. Prim assassinated.

1871 Serrano and Sagasta ministers.

1873 Amadeo abdicates. Republican government. Constituent

assembly meets to draw up a federal republican constitution.

Don Carlos (Charles VII) raises a Carlist rebellion with

guerilla warfare in the north. The intransigentes or extreme

republicans in opposition to the federalists erect independent

governments in the coast towns. Cartagena becomes the centre

of the extreme republicans. Cuba revolts in consequence of the

law releasing slaves and seeks union with the United States. A

party of Americans landing in Cuba to aid the insurgents seized

and many of them executed.

1874 General Pavia occupies the house of assembly with troops

and declares the cortes closed. Military dictatorship under

Serrano and Sagasta. Cartagena surrenders to the federalists.

General Martínez Campos proclaims =Alfonso XII=, son of

Isabella, king.

1875 Alfonso returns to Spain. Religious liberty abolished. The

law of civil marriage confined to non-Catholics. The Carlists

driven from Catalonia and Valencia. Urgel, Vitoria, and Estella

capitulate.

1876 New constitution with a minimum of religious toleration;

senate partly elective. The Carlist insurrection suppressed.

1879 Campos ministry. Inundations. Alfonso marries the Austrian

archduchess Maria Christina. Cánovas del Castillo ministry.

1880 Law for abolition of slavery in Cuba.

1881 Sagasta ministry. Riots in Catalonia over a projected

commercial treaty with France.

1882 The treaty concluded.

1883 Socialist and military outbreaks. Posada Herrera succeeds

Sagasta.

1884 Conservative ministry under Cánovas del Castillo.

1885 Dispute with Germany over Caroline Islands arbitrated by

the pope (1886). Death of Alfonso XII. Queen Maria Christina

regent. Sagasta ministry.

1886 Commercial treaty with England. Birth of =Alfonso XIII=.

Don Carlos protests against the proclamation of Alfonso.

1888 Ruiz Zorrilla issues a revolutionary manifesto demanding a

new form of government to be settled by the people. Republican

disturbances.

1889 Introduction of trial by jury. Great strike in Catalonia.

1890 Reform of the constitution. Cánovas del Castillo ministry.

1892 New commercial tariff and consequent break with France.

War with Morocco. Sagasta again minister.

1893 Explosions produced by anarchists in Barcelona.

1894 Legislation against anarchists. Consecration of the first

bishop of the Spanish reformed church.

1895 Peace with Morocco.

1896 The United States requests Spain to recognise the

independence of Cuba. Indignation in Spain.

1897 Cuban reform bill passed. Cubans recognised as

belligerents by the United States. Cánovas del Castillo

assassinated by an anarchist. Sagasta ministry.

1898 Armistice to the Cubans. The president of the United

States sends a message to congress requiring the end of the

Cuban War. Spain declares the message incompatible with Spanish

rights. Bread riots in Spain. War with the United States in

Cuba and the Philippines. The Spaniards defeated in the battles

of Manila, San Juan, and Santiago. Santiago surrenders. Martial

law proclaimed in Spain. Philippine Republic proclaimed. Treaty

between Spain and America. Spain resigns her rights in Cuba,

Porto Rico, and her other possessions in the Antilles and

Philippines.

1899 Spain left with embarrassed finances. The Sagasta ministry

resigns. Señor Silvela forms the modern conservative party.

Señor Villaverde effects many financial reforms. Caroline

Islands sold to Germany. Reform of the navy.

1900 A new conservative administration formed by General

Azcarraga.

_Twentieth Century_

1901 Anti-clerical riots in Madrid and other towns. A

Liberal government under Sagasta again goes into power. The

queen in opening the Cortes declares that a thorough social

reorganization of the country is necessary, that its finances

must be consolidated and its wealth developed.

1902 Alfonso XIII declared of age and crowned. Attempt to

assassinate Alfonso XIII. Silvela returns to power. Spain

concludes treaties of arbitration with all countries of South

America except Chile.

1903 Death of Sagasta. New cabinet headed by Señor Villaverdi.

[Illustration]

A BRIEF RÉSUMÉ OF PORTUGUESE HISTORY

_Tenth Century_

997 Oporto and surrounding territory taken from the Moors by

Bermudo II of Galicia.

_Eleventh Century_

1055 Cea and other fortresses captured from the Moors by

Ferdinand the Great of Castile and Leon.

1057 Ferdinand takes Lamego and Viseu

1064 and Coimbra, and forms the conquered territory into a

country under Sesnando, a Moor.

1065 Death of Ferdinand. The suzerainty of the counties of

Coimbra and Oporto passes with Galicia to his son Garcia.

1073 Garcia’s territories reunited with Leon and Castile under

Alfonso VI.

1095 Alfonso VI gives Porto Cale (Portugal), consisting of

the fiefs of Oporto and Coimbra, to Count Henry of Burgundy

(Besançou), who married his daughter Theresa, 1072.

_Twelfth Century_

1109 Death of Alfonso. Urraca succeeds to Castile and Leon.

Henry interferes in the internal troubles of that kingdom.

1112 War with Almoravids. Death of Henry. Theresa regent for

her son Alfonso Henriques.

1117 Theresa besieged by Moors at Coimbra. She gives power to

her lover Ferdinand Peres de Trava.

1121 Urraca takes Theresa captive. Peace made.

1127 Alfonso VII of Castile conquers Theresa’s realm and

compels her homage.

1128 Alfonso Henriques assumes power, defeats and exiles

Theresa. In the next years he three times invades Galicia and in

1137 defeats Alfonso VII’s troops at Cerneja. Peace of Tuy.

Alfonso Henriques submits to the king of Leon.

1139 Battle of Ourique. Alfonso Henriques crushes the Moors. A

legend was formerly current that he was then hailed as king by

his soldiers.

1140 The Moors capture and destroy Leiria. Tourney of Valdevez.

The Portuguese knights defeat the Castilian. Alfonso Henriques

king of Portugal as =Alfonso I=.

1143 Peace of Zamora. Alfonso VII acknowledges Alfonso I as

king. The latter declares himself a vassal of the pope.

1144 The Moors defeat the Templars at Soure.

1147 Alfonso I captures Santarem and takes Lisbon with the aid

of English and other crusaders. Other Moorish cities surrender.

1152 Alfonso repulsed at Alcacer-do-Sal.

1158 Alfonso captures Alcacer-do-Sal.

1161 Alfonso is defeated by the Moors.

1166 The Moors take Evora.

1167 Alfonso invades Galicia.

1168 Alfonso besieges Badajoz, is taken prisoner and compelled

to relinquish Galician conquests.

1170 Alfonso loses to the Moors in Alemtejo.

1171 Alfonso victorious at Santarem, makes seven years’ truce

with Moors.

1172 Makes his son Dom Sancho co-ruler, who fights the Moors

constantly.

1184 Dom Sancho crushes and kills Yusuf at Santarem.

1185 Alfonso dies and is succeeded by =Sancho I, O Povoador=

(“City Builder”).

1189 Sancho, aided by crusaders on their way to Palestine,

takes Algarve and Silves from the Moors.

1192 The Moors reconquer Alemtejo, but are repulsed at

Santarem, and peace is made. Dom Sancho wages constant war with

Alfonso IX of Leon. He builds many cities.

_Thirteenth Century_

1209 Sancho’s quarrels with Pope Innocent III, respecting

jurisdiction over priests, culminate in the siege and escape of

the bishop of Oporto.

1210 Dom Sancho grants the pope’s demands, retires to a convent

and dies.

1211 =Alfonso II “the Fat”= succeeds, and summons the first

real parliament; he wars with his brothers and sisters and

Alfonso IX of Leon.

1212 Portuguese take part in the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa.

1217 Alcacer-do-Sal recovered from the Moors. Alfonso II is

excommunicated for seizing church lands.

1223 Alfonso II dies and is succeeded by the thirteen-year-old

=Sancho II=.

1226 Sancho II captures Elvas from the Moors.

1227 Sancho reinstates officials hostile to the clergy and

fights the Moors.

1228 The pope reconciled.

1237 The pope lays an interdict on Portugal, but is pacified.

1239-1244 Sancho II takes several cities from the Moors.

1245 The pope deposes Sancho II. The clerical party sets up

Sancho’s brother,

1248 Alfonso, who drives Sancho II into exile, where he dies.

=Alfonso III= completes the conquest of Algarve.

1254 Alfonso marries Beatrice de Guzman, the natural daughter

of Alfonso the Learned of Castile, so alienating the papal

faction. Alfonso III summons a cortes at Leiria.

1261 The cortes forces the king to recognize the necessity of

obtaining the people’s consent to taxation.

1262 The pope legalizes the king’s marriage and legitimates his

son Dom Diniz, who

1263 is made king of Algarve.

1277 Dom Diniz rebels against his father.

1279 Alfonso III dies, leaving Portugal fully established and

its boundaries defined. =Dom Diniz El Ré Lavrador=, established

after war with his brother. Period of internal progress and

prosperity.

1294 Commercial treaty with Edward I of England.

1297 Peace settled with Castile and Leon.

1300 University founded at Lisbon.

_Fourteenth Century_

1319 Diniz founds the order of Christ to replace the Templars.

1323 His wife, St. Isabella, prevents a battle between Diniz

and his son Alfonso.

1325 Diniz dies and is succeeded by =Alfonso IV=.

1336 Alfonso invades Castile; peace made by St. Isabella.

1340 The Portuguese and Castilians defeat the Moors at the

river Salado.

1348 The Black death invades Portugal.

1355 Iñes de Castro, wife or mistress of the infante Dom Pedro,

murdered.

1357 Alfonso dies and is succeeded by =Dom Pedro (I) the

Severe=.

1361 Pedro the Cruel of Castile surrenders the murderers of

Iñes in exchange for Castilian fugitives. The murderers put to

death with torture.

1367 Pedro dies and is succeeded by =Ferdinand the Handsome=,

who

1369 claims the throne of Castile and Leon, and combats Henry

of Trastamara.

1371 Ferdinand resigns his claims to Castile.

1373 Henry of Trastamara invades Portugal.

1374 Ferdinand promises to support John of Gaunt’s claims to

Castile, but again makes peace with Henry of Trastamara.

1383 The English, angry at Ferdinand’s fickleness, ravage

Portugal. Ferdinand dies, leaving his wile Leonora regent,

against whom the people rise.

1384 Juan I of Castile allies himself with her, but is repulsed

at Lisbon.

1385 The Portuguese proclaim Dom João, grand master of Aviz and

son of Pedro the Severe, king, as =João (I) the Great=. The

Portuguese defeat the Castilians at Aljubarrota and Valverde.

1386 A perpetual treaty of alliance signed with England.

1398 Iñes de Castro’s son, Diniz, attempts to overthrow João,

but, with English assistance, he is defeated.

_Fifteenth Century_

1411 Peace made with Castile.

1415 The Portuguese take Ceuta in Africa, their first foreign

possession.

1418 Prince Henry’s captains discover the Madeiras.

1420 Madeiras colonised.

1432 Azores occupied by Portuguese.

1433 A Portuguese ship passes Cape Bojador. João dies and is

succeeded by =Duarte= (Edward), who calls a cortes at Evora and

passes the Lei Mental ordaining the reversion to the crown of

lands granted to nobles on failure of male descendants of the

grantee.

1437 Duarte sends an expedition against Tangier. The Portuguese

surrounded and saved only by Prince Ferdinand’s offering

himself as hostage.

1438 Duarte dies, =Alfonso V the African=, a minor, succeeds.

Pedro, son of João I, regent.

1441 Slave-trade begun by Portuguese.

1447 Alfonso V comes of age and dismisses Pedro.

1449 Alfonso V defeats and kills Pedro at Alfarrobeira.

1458 Alfonso takes Alcacer-Seguier, Africa.

1460 Prince Henry the navigator dies. Cape Verd Islands

discovered and settled.

1462 Pedro de Cintra discovers Sierra Leone.

1464 Alfonso repulsed in Africa.

1471 Tangier captured by the Portuguese.

1475 Alfonso marries Juana (Beltraneja) of Castile and claims

the Castilian crown,

1476 but is defeated at battle of Toro and concludes with

Castile the treaty of Alcantara (1479). Juana retires to a

convent.

1481 Alfonso dies. =João II the Perfect.= The cortes of Evora

determines on an inquiry into titles to estates and the

abrogation of the judicial powers of the nobles.

1483 The duke of Braganza and other nobles oppose these

measures. Braganza executed.

1484 Diogo Cam discovers the Congo and Angola.

1487 Bartholomeu Dias discovers the Cape of Good Hope.

1488 Commercial treaty with England.

1490 Covilhão enters Abyssinia.

1493 Pope Alexander V declares the boundary between Portuguese

and Spanish areas of discovery.

1494 By the treaty of Tordesillas the boundary is readjusted.

1495 João II dies without heirs and is succeeded by =Emmanuel

the Fortunate=, who expels the Jews from Portugal as the

condition of his marriage with the daughter of

1497 Ferdinand of Spain. Vasco da Gama discovers Natal.

1498 Vasco discovers Calicut.

1500 Cabral discovers Brazil. Factories established at Kananur

and Cochin.

_Sixteenth Century_

1501 Ascension Island discovered. Vespucci discovers Rio de la

Plata and Paraguay.

1502 St. Helena discovered. Vasco visits India and establishes

a factory at Mozambique.

1505 De Almeida, the first Portuguese viceroy, sent to India.

His son Lourenço discovers Ceylon. Mombasa occupied.

1506 Massacre of the New Christians in Lisbon.

1508 Albuquerque supersedes Almeida as viceroy in India.

1510 Albuquerque is repulsed in an attack on Calicut and

conquers Goa

1511 and Malacca.

1512 Serrão discovers the Moluccas.

1515 Albuquerque captures Ormus. Portuguese established at Diu.

1517 Andrade settles at Canton.

1518 Portuguese settlement established in Ceylon.

1520 Magellan discovers the straits of Magellan.

1521 Andrade reaches Pekin. Emmanuel dies, and is succeeded

by =João III=. He finds his countrymen too eager to gain

wealth by foreign adventure and emigration, thus threatening

depopulation.

1531 Daman taken and destroyed by Portuguese. Sousa founds São

Vicente in Brazil and receives a grant of the first hereditary

captaincy, or governorship of a province, in Brazil.

1536 Inquisition established in Portugal.

1539 Bishopric established at Goa.

1541 St. Francis Xavier sent to the Indies. Estevão da Gama,

governor of India, leads an expedition to the Red Sea.

1542 Japan discovered by Fernão Mendes Pinto.

1543 Xavier founds Christian settlements in Travancore.

1545 The Indian viceroy De Castro wins victory of Diu over the

king of Guzerat.

1548 St. Francis Xavier goes to Japan.

1549 Thomé de Sousa first governor-general of Brazil. He founds

Bahia and governs by aid of Jesuits.

1557 Factories established at Macao. João III dies, and is

succeeded by his three-year-old grandson =Sebastian=, under

the regency of his grandmother Catherine and his great-uncle

Cardinal Henry, but under the power of the brothers Camara.

1558 Portuguese settled at Daman.

1560 Inquisition introduced into India.

1567 Portuguese established at Rio de Janeiro after conflicts

with French settlers.

1568 Sebastian of age.

1578 He invades Africa, and is defeated and killed at

Kassr-el-Kebir. He is succeeded by his uncle =Henry=, who,

feeling that he cannot live long, calls the cortes to name his

successor.

1580 Henry dies. Philip II of Spain is chosen king as =Philip

I=, and defeats his rival Antonio, prior of Crato, at

Alcantara, and again in

1582 the Azores.

1584-1585 Two pretenders, who claim to be the dead Sebastian,

captured.

1585 São Thiago, Cape Verd Islands, captured by an English

fleet.

1586 Bahia plundered by the English.

1589 Combined English and Dutch expedition to “restore”

Antonio, wins successes, but retreats.

1594 Gabriel Espinosa, a third false Sebastian, executed.

Philip closes the Portuguese harbours to the Dutch.

1596 The English sack Faro and Fort Arguin and ravage the

Azores.

1597 The Dutch build a factory in Java and occupy other East

Indian possessions.

1598 =Philip II= (III of Spain) king.

_Seventeenth Century_

1603 Tullio, a fourth false Sebastian, captured.

1605 The Dutch take Amboyna and expel the Portuguese from the

Moluccas.

1615 The Portuguese defeat the king of Achin in Malacca.

1621 =Philip III= (IV of Spain).

1622 The Shah of Persia, aided by the English, recovers Ormus.

1624 Bahia taken by the Dutch and recovered.

1630 Olinda in Brazil taken by the Dutch. Maurice of Nassau

extends the Dutch power in Brazil.

1632 Military post of Tete in Mozambique established.

1634 An insurrection in Lisbon put down.

1637 An insurrection in Evora put down.

1638 The Dutch take Portuguese forts in Ceylon.

1640 The Dutch take Malacca. The Portuguese having been

alienated by the misfortunes of their country under Spanish

rule and by the bad faith of their kings, a sudden revolution

ousts the Spaniards and gives the crown to the duke of Braganza

as =João (IV) the Fortunate=. The assistance afforded by the

Jesuits in this revolution is rewarded by almost unlimited

power in ecclesiastical and great influence in civil affairs.

1641 The cortes assembles and accepts João IV. France and

Holland send fleets. England recognises the king. Caminha

conspiracy to restore Spanish power betrayed by the Spanish

marquis De Ayamonte. The leaders executed.

1644 Albuquerque defeats the Spaniards at Montijo.

1645 Revolts against Dutch rule in Brazil and consequent breach

with Holland.

1648 Benguela and Angola recovered from the Dutch.

1650 The revolted English fleet under Prince Rupert takes

refuge in the Tagus. The Portuguese refuse to allow the

parliamentary admiral Blake to enter the river. Blake attacks

Portuguese merchantmen.

1652 Commercial treaty with England, greatly in the latter’s

favour.

1654 The Dutch expelled from Brazil.

1656 João IV dies and is succeeded by his thirteen-year-old son

=Alfonso VI=. Marshal Schomberg with a picked band of French

officers comes to the assistance of Portugal.

1658 The Dutch take the last Portuguese stronghold in Ceylon.

1659 Menezes defeats the Spaniards at Elvas. In the treaty of

the Pyrenees, France promises Spain to abandon Portugal.

1661 Spaniards invade Portugal.

1662 English alliance secured by the marriage of the king’s

sister with Charles II and the cession of Tangier and Bombay

with a grant of free trade with Portuguese dominions. Alfonso

VI declares himself of age.

1663 The count of Villa Flor defeats Don John of Austria at

Amegial and recovers Evora.

1664 Magalhães defeats the Spaniards at Ciudad Rodrigo. The

Dutch take the Portuguese settlements on the coast of Malabar.

1665 The Portuguese crush the Spaniards at Montes-Claros.

1666 The king marries the French princess Marie d’Aumale.

1667 Alfonso’s excesses lead to a revolution in favour of his

brother Dom Pedro. Alfonso imprisoned. The queen granted a

divorce.

1668 Dom Pedro recognised as regent. Spain recognises

Portugal’s independence. The queen marries Dom Pedro.

1683 The king dies in prison. Dom Pedro succeeds as =Pedro II=.

1698 Portuguese expelled from Mombasa.

_Eighteenth Century_

1703 Paul Methuen, the English ambassador, negotiates the

Methuen treaty which secures preference to Portuguese over

French wines in England, and forms the basis of the subsequent

friendship between the two countries. Portugal recognises the

archduke Charles, the English candidate to the Spanish throne.