some states had raised themselves to a kind of supremacy, and many others
were in a condition of dependence. After the stormy period of migration,
two tribes, the _Arverni_ and _Aedui_, unfortunately for Gaul, had risen,
and tried to crush each other, as Athens and Sparta did in Greece. About
two hundred and sixty years after the capture of Rome by the Gauls, these
two tribes were the most powerful in the country; and all the others
were obliged to acknowledge the majesty of either the one or the other.
The Romans, who protected the Allobroges, became involved in a war with
the Arverni; and it must have been on that occasion, perhaps after the
victory of Q. Fabius, that they concluded the alliance with the Aedui,
in which the latter were declared _fratres populi Romani_: with their
assistance, the Arverni were greatly humbled. After this, the Aedui were,
for a time, at the head of affairs; but soon the Cymri or Cimbri, driven
back from the east of Europe, inundated Gaul. The Aedui then lost their
power, and the Sequani, in Franche Comté, rose in their place. Caesar’s
expressions on these affairs are unusual and strange, and require
explanation.
The southern coast of Gaul, from the frontier of Catalonia, had formerly
been inhabited by Ligurians. In the earliest times, they were mixed
with Iberians, for Scylax of Caryanda says, that Ligyans, mixed with
Iberians, occupied the country from the Pyrenees to the river Rhodanus.
The Iberians spread there as they did in Aquitania. The conquest of
the Iberians is repeated in that of the Visigoths and of the Arabs,
and extends as far as the Loire. The Iberians were the rulers, and
the Ligurians the subject people. At a later period, the inhabitants
of Languedoc were Gauls, who had evidently advanced again and taken a
portion of the conquest from their conquerors, otherwise Caesar would
have described the inhabitants of those districts as Iberians. The Gauls,
probably, spread southward as well as eastward.
NARBO, on the coast, was a large commercial city, which had long been a
great emporium, and from which a commercial road passed right through
Gaul to the Loire. Its harbour is now filled up with sand, like nearly
all others on that coast; in antiquity, it was very well adapted for
merchant ships, though not for ships of war. During the period between
the Gracchi and the Cimbrian war, the Romans founded there the town of
_Narbo Martius_ (in the provincial dialect _Narbona_), which, on account
of its importance, was the provincial capital, without being politically
the seat of the government. This was its condition in the time of Caesar
and under the empire; but in the middle ages the place decreased in
importance, because it is unhealthy.
Besides Narbo, there are very few important places in that beautiful
hilly country between the Rhone and the Pyrenees. I may mention, however,
_Agatha_, a Massilian colony. _Nemausus_ (Nismes) must have been a great
city under the Romans, as we may infer from the ruins still existing.
_Beterrae_ (Beziers) can scarcely be believed to have been a Gallic town;
many Greek coins, with beautiful Greek inscriptions have been found
there; and I suspect that it was a Massilian settlement.
The coast from the Rhone to Italy ought not to be regarded as a part
of Gaul, but of Liguria. How far the Ligurians dwelt inland, cannot be
ascertained; but the neighbourhood of Avignon was inhabited by Celts
mixed with Ligurians, as is manifest from the name of the _Celtoligyans_
who formed the population of that part. It is probable that the
Ligurians extended on the one hand towards Italy as far as the Cottian
Alps, and on the other, in Gaul as far as the frontier of the Allobroges
and the Basses-Alpes. But in these latter parts, the Ligurians must be
regarded as the original inhabitants, and the greater part of the coast
was afterwards taken from them by the Iberians. Marseilles was not the
only Greek city there, but a number of Greek settlements existed all
along the coast: Nizza is the ancient _Nicaea_, Antibes is the ancient
_Antipolis_, and the name of the _Hierian islands_ shows that they were
occupied by Greeks.
MASSALIA or MASSILIA. The origin of this city is frequently assigned to
the reign of Cyrus, in consequence of a confusion between the settlement
of the Phocaeans on the Ligurian coast, and their emigration after
the conquest of their city by Harpagus; but the two events are quite
distinct. Massalia was planted for commercial reasons, and was originally
a factory, whereas the emigration of the Phocaeans was undertaken by them
for the purpose of escaping from the dominion of the barbarians. Massalia
did not contain those elements of growth and development which it would
have had among a kindred people in Greece or Sicily; but it nevertheless
became great at an early period, through its trade and commerce and
through the reputation of its eunomia. Its relation of friendship with
Rome was assuredly based on historical tradition and was very ancient;
the presents sent by the Romans to the temple of Delphi were deposited
in the treasury of the Massaliots. According to a statement of Trogus
Pompeius in Justin, Massalia had to carry on serious wars with Carthage
on account of the coral fisheries; Justin, indeed, speaks only of
fisheries, but he probably alludes to the coral fisheries on the coast
of Africa, which the Provençals possessed throughout the middle ages
and down to the present day. Massalia acknowledged the supremacy of
the Romans, who willingly and zealously supported the city against the
neighbouring barbarians. In consequence of the fall of Carthage, the
commerce of Massalia seems to have been greatly extended, and after the
destruction of Carthage, it appears, in fact, to have stepped into its
place. We cannot say with certainty how long Greek culture maintained
itself at Marseilles, but it certainly preserved it longer than is
commonly believed; traces of it occur at a very late period, and copies
of the Greek gospels were made there as late as the ninth and tenth
centuries. In the third century of our era, it is still called a Greek
city; when, however, the Ligurians began to become Romanised, their
influence was irresistible, and even Greeks were overpowered by it.
ARELAS or ARELATE was a great place during the decline of the Roman
empire and during the middle ages; the modern Arles, just as the modern
Ravenna, is only a shadow of what it once was. In later times, Arelate
was the capital of Gaul.
AQUAE SEXTIAE (Aix), the first town founded by the Romans in Gaul, was
a military colony. It is celebrated for the victory which Marius gained
there. There were several other military colonies on the Rhone and in
Gallia Narbonensis, such as _Forum Julii_ (Fréjus), _Avineo_ (Avignon),
_Arausio_ (Oranges), _Nemausus_ (Nismes), but not Narbo. In the interior,
as well as in the west and on the north-eastern frontier, there were
but few military colonies; Lyons was not one of them, but there existed
several _coloniae civiles_. _Colonia Augusta Rauracorum_ (Basle) was a
military colony.
Beyond the Isara, we reach the extensive country of the ALLOBROGES,
who were a great and extensive nation even as early as the time of
Hannibal, when they occupied nearly the whole of Dauphiné and the greater
part of Savoy. They allied themselves with Hannibal, and vigorously
opposed the Romans in the wars of Fabius Allobrogicus and Domitius, but
were overpowered; they were, however, not subdued until the war which
immediately followed that of Sulla; their complete subjugation cannot be
assigned to an earlier period than that of Caesar, for at the time of
the Catilinarian conspiracy it was, properly speaking, not yet complete.
VIENNA was no doubt a capital even in the time of Hannibal; under the
emperors it was a very important town.
LUGDUNUM, at the confluence of the Arar (Saone) and the Rhodanus, was
a colony founded by Munatius Plancus in the earliest part of the reign
of Augustus. It may have been a Gallic town before, otherwise it would
scarcely have received a Gallic name; and this supposition quite agrees
with the system of the ancients, to found colonies in places already
existing as towns. Ancient Lugdunum was very small in comparison with
the modern Lyons; but it afterwards became the residence of the Roman
governor of the provincia Lugdunensis.
The country north of Lyons between mount Jura and the Cevennes was
inhabited by three tribes. The _Arverni_, the westernmost of them,
occupied the very heart and centre of Gaul, so far as height and
ramification of the mountains are concerned. That district exhibits
traces of an immense volcanic activity at some remote period. On the
north-east of the Arverni, we have the _Aedui_ (not _Haedui_), in
Bourgogne, and the _Sequani_ in Franche Comté. In the seventh century
of Rome, these three nations were the most powerful in Gaul; and the
Arverni and Aedui were contending for the supremacy. The Arverni and
Allobroges were allied, and Q. Fabius and Cn. Domitius, who carried on
war against them, broke the power of both in two campaigns. The Arverni,
like all Gallic tribes, are said to have had kings, and names of kings
occur on their barbarous coins; according to some accounts which must
probably be traced to Posidonius, their power was very great. After the
war of Fabius and Domitius, the greatness of the Arverni was completely
gone; in the wars of Caesar, they act a very subordinate part, and when
the Aedui, their former rivals, were humbled, the Arverni displayed
a malicious satisfaction. During the latest period of the Roman
empire, however, they again rose to a certain moral importance: when
the Visigoths settled in Languedoc and made Toulouse the residence of
their kings, when the Burgundians and other tribes advanced from the
east, when northern Gaul was isolated from Spain and Italy, and when
the war extended from the north-west to the Rhone, the Arverni, who now
regarded themselves as Romans, and felt the greatest aversion against the
barbarians, distinguished themselves by their manly and heroic resistance
to the hostile conquerors. They were indeed ceded to the Goths, but the
barbarians did not settle among them, as they had done in other countries
by force of arms. The country of the Arverni is called by Gregory of
Tours that of the _Romana nobilitas_. Sidonius Apollinaris does the
greatest honour to his province.
The _Aedui_ are termed _fratres populi Romani_ as a recognition of
their political fraternity and equality, but not on account of any
relationship, as Lucan thinks. _Augustodunum_ was their most important
town.
The _Sequani_ rose after the fall of the Arverni, just as the Boeotians
and Aetolians did in Greece after the decay of the great states. When
Caesar arrived in Gaul, his conquest averted from the country the
calamity which, four centuries and a half later, actually came upon it, I
allude to its conquest by the Germans; for Ariovistus and the Suevi had
already settled in the country, as was afterwards done by the Franks:
if the first conquest had succeeded, the country would have been called
Suabia instead of France. Caesar subdued the Sequani.
_Tolosa_, on the left of the Arverni, was the most important town on the
upper Garonne, and was remarkable for the temple and the gold accumulated
in it, which the Romans, under Caepio, had taken as booty in the Cimbrian
war. When Caesar appeared there, the people were already subject to the
Romans.
The real _Aquitanians_, as I have already observed, were Iberians; but
Augustus extended Aquitania for political convenience as far as the
Loire; historically it did not extend beyond the Garonne.
_Burdigala_ was an ancient emporium. These towns were always favoured by
the natural advantages of their situation.
According to Caesar, the _Matrona_ and _Sequana_ formed the frontier
between Celtic Gaul and the Belgae. This is generally understood, as if
those rivers had always been the permanent line of separation between
the two nations, but if this had been the case, we should not be able
to understand how the inhabitants of Lower Britany could be of the same
race as the Belgae. In order to account for this fact, people have had
recourse to an immigration, and it is alleged that, owing to the influx
of Angli, Saxons, and Frisians into Britain, a part of the British
population quitted their native island and settled in Lower Britany.
But this alleged colony of Britons is not supported by any historical
evidence; the writers of the fifth century say nothing about it, and what
they do say, does not refer to an immigration, but to the fact that a
part of Armorica, in the fifth century, made itself independent of Rome.
We may assert, on the contrary, that, at an earlier period, the Cymri
inhabited a much greater part of Gaul, and that in Lower Britany alone
they maintained themselves against the invading Celts, while Normandy and
the other countries were conquered by the Gael. The physical nature of
Lower Britany also was favourable to its isolation; marshes and forests
render it inaccessible, whence the inhabitants also remained free from
Roman contagion. In this manner, the Cymrian element was preserved
against the influence of the Gauls.
In the fourth and fifth centuries, the northern coast from the Loire
to the frontier of the Netherlands, was called _Tractus Aremoricus_ or
_Aremorica_ which in Celtic signifies “maritime country.” The commotions
of the third century, which continued to increase during the fourth and
fifth, repeatedly drove the Romans from that country. French antiquaries
imagine that it was a regularly constituted Gallic republic, of which
Chlovis had the protectorate, but this is wrong.
The country north of the Matrona and Sequana was inhabited by the BELGAE,
who belonged to the race of the Cymri, and were mixed with Germans only
accidentally, because conquered Germans lived among them. The _Remi_,
with their capital of _Durocortorum_, were the most distinguished tribe
among them in the time of Caesar, and they continued to be great for
a long time after, although during the Roman wars they had, properly
speaking, fallen from their height. The frontier between the Belgae and
Germany is involved in much obscurity; in regard to many tribes, such
as the Menapii, it is even doubtful as to whether they were Germans
or Cymri. The _Treviri_, according to Tacitus, were _ambitiosi circa
Germanicam originem_. On the whole, it would seem that eighteen or
nineteen hundred years ago the frontier of the Germans was pretty much
the same as it is now. Alsace was occupied by Germans, and the Vosges
mountains, and the modern Walloon district about Liege probably formed
the boundary. It is possible that at a later period Brabant and Flanders
were still Cymric, but nothing decisive can be said about this.[73]
The German nations were divided, in the Roman administration into two
great parts, _Germania prima_ and _secunda_, which were connected with
Gaul only on account of the general government, but were not included
by the Romans in the name of Gaul; and at a later time, they were
politically separated, because they were under a military government.
Treves was the capital of these parts; in Tacitus it is still called
TREVIRI, but afterwards AUGUSTA TREVIRORUM. Ever since the third century,
it was probably a considerable city, though not in its circumference,
which people generally are inclined to make much too large; it does
not appear to have been much greater than that of its present walls,
which, however, is not inconsiderable, if the place was well peopled.
The amphitheatre was no doubt outside the walls, as in all Roman towns,
except Rome itself. The greatness of Treves extends from the middle
of the third to the fifth century; the architectural remains, as is
evident from their style, belong to that period. It is the period after
Maximinus, or somewhat later, after Valerian, when the barbarians
advanced on all sides; the Gallic emperors resided at Treves.
COLONIA AGRIPPINA (Cologne) was less important; it was a frontier
fortress and a prosperous colony; but by no means of the importance of
Treves.
Traces of Roman settlements are particularly numerous in upper Alsace.
_Germania prima_ and _secunda_ were not confined to the left bank of the
Rhine: in the reign of Trajan, the Romans had extended the frontier to
the line marked by the _limes_ running through a part of Nassau, across
the Maine, and as far as the Alps. This _sinus imperii_ did not form
a separate province, but belonged to Germania on the left bank of the
Rhine, being one of those _provinciae Germaniae_, which had their own
_praesides_. It was, on the whole, a favourite practice at that time to
divide the power among several magistrates.
BRITANNIA.
Britain was known in the most remote times; but its name does not occur
until the Macedonian period; it was previously designated by the name
of _Cassiterides insulae_. The tin trade can be traced to a very early
period; for the first attempts to smelt copper were made by mixing it
with tin. The brass of the ancients, the real χαλκός, consisted for the
most part of tin, and all the ancient Roman ases consist of copper and
tin. Ὀρείχαλκος, from ὀρεύς, a mule, is something different (Messing),
and the spuriousness of the mixture is indicated even by its name. A
plentiful supply of tin is not found in any part of Europe, except
Cornwall, whence it is quite certain that the name Cassiterides refers to
Britain. The trade in it was carried on from Gades; but the Massilians
had, no doubt, their share in it, as we may infer from the voyages of
Pytheas. In the geography of Eratosthenes, the British islands are
already mentioned in the plural; but before the time of Caesar, this part
of the world was buried in great obscurity.
Britain, like Gaul, was inhabited by the two nations, the Gael and the
Cymri; but it is very difficult and problematical to draw the boundary
line between the two. The north seems originally to have been occupied by
Cymri, though, according to Tacitus, who in this matter also is a weighty
authority, apparently with an admixture of Germans or Scandinavians. At
present, the inhabitants in the west, from Cumberland down to Cornwall,
so far as the ancient population is preserved, are Cymri; but we do not
know whether these Cymri retreated to those parts during the conquests
of the Angli and Saxons, or whether they had dwelt there even before. In
Ireland nearly the whole population is Gaelic; the north, about Ulster,
contains only feeble traces of Belgae or Cymri, and if this observation
be correct, it is a proof of a conquest having taken place. From Ireland
the Gaelic population spread into Scotland, but it is uncertain whether
in this latter country they strengthened the Gael who already dwelt
there, or whether they expelled tribes of the Cymri. These events belong
to a comparatively recent period. The Picts, in the south-west of
Scotland, unquestionably belonged to the Cymrian race.
All Britain, like the country on the east of the British Channel, was
inhabited by a number of small tribes, each of which had its own peculiar
institutions. But they were much more uncivilised than those in Gaul,
which had unquestionably been much benefited by their intercourse with
Massilia and Rome. The conquest of Britain was attempted by Julius
Caesar from a mere love of enterprise, and without any definite object,
but he soon gave it up. Under Augustus the Romans were little concerned
about Britain, and Tiberius only wanted stillness and stagnation, whence
his generals could not attempt any great undertakings: he scarcely
allowed them to defend themselves when they were hard pressed. This
state of things ceased under Claudius, who undertook an expedition into
Britain without Rome having any real interest in it. The conquest was
wonderfully successful: a great part of England was subdued, and colonies
were established in the country. A part of the inhabitants soon became
Romanised, built towns according to the Roman fashion, and obtained the
Roman franchise. Under Domitian, Agricola carried his conquests as far as
the interior of Scotland. The hostility of the Picts induced Hadrian, and
afterwards Severus, to build frontier walls against the northern tribes.
Britain soon acquired the appearance of a civilised country, but the
Romans did not concern themselves about Ireland. In the third century,
Britain also acquired a kind of political importance, but it always
remained subordinate to Gaul. Afterwards, during the invasions from the
north, the inhabitants shewed great weakness and helplessness and were
unable to defend their frontier walls. In no part of Europe has the
ancient population been so utterly annihilated as in the eastern parts of
England by the conquest of the Saxons.
The towns in Britain are not of any great historical importance;
_Camalodunum_ alone ought perhaps to be mentioned. _London_ shows how
successful the Romans were in selecting sites for towns. Tacitus, when
speaking of the people in the south-west of England, says that they
resembled the Spaniards, and he suspects that they were of Spanish
origin. It is not impossible that Iberians may have spread as far as
those districts, but whether there be any foundation for this opinion
or not cannot be decided, for all historical traces are lost. It is
possible, however, that there may have been a tradition, that the Gauls,
who had conquered the north of Spain, were afterwards expelled from
it; in this case we should be obliged to suppose that the Gauls, when
driven out of Spain, arrived in Britain by sea. With few exceptions, all
the stories of the middle ages relating to ancient times are devoid of
historical value. The tradition of Irish chronicles—that their ancestors
came from Spain—though it is interwoven with a tissue of fables, may yet
not be altogether without some foundation. In the British legends, on
the other hand, there occur stories, as if in the time of the Romans the
country had been governed by native kings. English antiquaries, attaching
too much weight to these stories, have imagined that Britain was a kind
of feudal kingdom under the supremacy of Rome, whereas, in truth, it was
governed like every other province.
CELTIC NATIONS ON THE EAST OF THE RHINE.