3. Yellow rind and juice of lemon; citric acid, 1 dr.; sugar, 2-1/2 oz.;
hot water (which has been boiled), 1 quart; as No. 1. Refrigerant and
slightly diuretic. Used as a common drink in fevers, dropsy, &c., and as a
summer beverage.
=IM'PLEMENTS (Agricultural).= "Almost all the operations of agriculture
may be performed by the plough, the harrow, the scythe, and the flail; and
these are the sole implements in the primitive agriculture of all
countries. With the progress of improvement, many other implements (and
machines) have been introduced, the more remarkable of which are the DRILL
PLOUGH, the HORSE HOE, the WINNOWING MACHINE, the THRESHING MACHINE, the
HAY-MAKING MACHINE, and the REAPING MACHINE. The object of all these
implements and machines is to abridge human labour, and to perform the
different operations to which they are applied with a greater degree of
rapidity, and in a more perfect manner than before." (Loudon.) On the
perfection of agricultural implements and machines depends much of the
improvement of which this art is susceptible. See AGRICULTURE, &c.
=IMPROV'ING.= The trade name for 'doctoring,' 'adulterating,' or
'lowering,' the quality of any substance, with the view of cheapening it
or increasing its bulk. See WINE, &c.
=IN'CENSE.= _Prep._ 1. Olibanum, 2 or 3 parts; gum benzoin, 1 part.
2. Olibanum, 7 parts; gum benzoin, 2 parts; cascarilla, 1 part. Placed on
a hot plate or burned, it exhales an agreeable perfume. Used in some of
the rituals of the Roman Catholic church.
3. Benzoin and storax, of each 4 oz.; labdanum and myrrh, of each 6 oz.;
cascarilla 3 oz.; oil cinnamon, 8 minims; oils bergamot and lavender, of
each 20 minims; oil cloves, 10 minims; mix, and pass through a coarse
sieve.
=INCINERA'TION.= The reduction of organic substances to ashes by
combustion. See CALCINATION.
=INCOMBUSTIBIL'ITY.= The property of being incapable of being kindled, or
of being consumed by fire. Substances possessing this property are said to
be 'incombustible' or 'fire-proof.'
=INCOMBUST'IBLE FAB'RICS.= _Syn._ NON-INFLAMMABLE FABRICS. The fashion of
wearing light gauzy dresses extended by hoops or crinoline has made death
from fire a common casualty. With a view of diminishing the danger to
which women expose themselves, chemists have lately devoted considerable
attention to the problem of rendering muslin and other light fabrics
non-inflammable. This object may be attained by steeping the fabric in
almost any saline solution. Thus, cotton or linen stuffs prepared with a
solution of borax, phosphate of soda, phosphate of ammonia, alum, or sal
ammoniac, may be placed in contact with ignited bodies without their
suffering active combustion or bursting into flame. The salts act by
forming a crust of incombustible matter on the surface of the fibres. They
do not, however, prevent carbonisation taking place, when the temperature
is sufficiently high. It is by a knowledge of this property of culinary
salt that jugglers are enabled to perform the common trick of burning a
thread of cotton while supporting a ring or a small key, without the
latter falling to the ground. The cotton is reduced to a cinder, but from
the action of the salt its fibres still retain sufficient tenacity to
support a light weight.
The addition of about 1 oz. of alum or sal ammoniac to the last water used
to rinse a lady's dress, or a set of bed furniture, or a less quantity
added to the starch used to stiffen them, renders them uninflammable, or
at least so little combustible that they will not readily take fire; and
if kindled, are slowly consumed without flame. None of the above-named
salts are adapted for fine soft muslins, which mostly require chemical
treatment, because they injure the texture, rendering the fabric harsh and
destroying all its beauty. The salt which is found to answer most
completely all the required conditions is TUNGSTATE OF SODA. "Muslin
steeped in a solution containing 20% of this salt is perfectly
non-inflammable when dry, and the saline film left on the surface is
smooth and of a fatty appearance like talc, and therefore does not
interfere with the process of ironing, but allows the hot iron to pass
smoothly over the surface. The non-fulfilment of this latter condition
completely prevents the use of many other salts--such as sulphate or
phosphate of ammonia, which are otherwise efficacious in destroying
inflammability--for all fabrics which have to be washed and ironed."
(Watts.)
The addition of a little phosphoric acid or phosphate of soda to the
tungstate is recommended, for without this addition a portion of the
tungstate is apt to undergo a chemical change and become comparatively
insoluble. Messrs Versmann and Oppenheim, the introducers of tungstate of
soda, give the following formula for a solution of minimum strength:--
Dilute a concentrated solution of neutral tungstate of soda with water to
28° Twaddell (sp. gr. 1·14), and then add 3% of phosphate of soda. This
solution is found to keep and to answer its purpose very well; it is now
constantly used in the Royal Laundry.
PAPER, WOOD, &c., may be also rendered comparatively incombustible by
soaking them in saline solutions. See ASBESTOS, FIRE, &c.
=INCOMPAT'IBLES.= In _medicine_ and _pharmacy_, substances which exert a
chemical action on each other, and cannot, therefore, with propriety, be
prescribed together in the same formula or prescription. The principles
on which we should act to avoid prescribing or dispensing incompatibles,
are briefly developed under the heads AFFINITY and DECOMPOSITION. To this
we may add that, if a substance is endowed with well-marked therapeutical
or poisonous properties, independent of those which may exert a chemical
effect upon the tissues, its mode of action will neither be changed nor
destroyed by the combinations which it forms, provided always that the new
compounds are not insoluble in water.
"It is not necessary to give two incompatible medicines at the same time,
in order to produce decomposition; it is sufficient if they are given
within a very short interval of each other. Thus, a sick person, who has
been treated with lead externally, or even internally, will present a
discoloration of the skin, if he takes a sulphur bath four or five days
after the lead treatment has been discontinued. If a person is rubbed with
iodide of potassium shortly after having applied Vigo's plaster (plaster
of ammoniacum with mercury), or the Neapolitan ointment (mercurial
ointment), iodide of mercury and caustic potash will be formed, which will
cause vesication. So also vomiting occurs if lemonade made with tartaric
acid is taken five or 6 days after the administration of white oxide of
antimony." (Trousseau and Reveil.)
Lists of incompatibles are published in many pharmaceutical and medical
works, but are, in reality, of little use beyond illustrating rules and
principles which are familiar to every chemist, and which every prescriber
should also be intimately acquainted with.
=INCRUSTATION, Prevention of, in Steam Boilers.= With all qualities of
water commonly used for feeding steam boilers there is a tendency to the
production of hard calcareous deposits or layers of incrustation within
the boilers, due to the separation of lime salts (particularly the
carbonate and sulphate, or mixtures of these with a certain amount of
carbonate of magnesia) as the direct consequence of the accumulation of
these impurities from large quantities of water evaporated. The sparing
solubility of the sulphate of lime (gypsum) in hot water fully accounts
for its deposition in the boiler, and the carbonate of lime (chalk) is
thrown down, not only as the result of direct evaporation, but by the
ebullition expelling free carbonic acid, which holds this body to some
extent in solution. Rain water, which of itself is too pure to give rise
to these incrustations, cannot be used _alone_ for boiler purposes, for it
has been found to exert a highly corrosive action upon the iron plates and
fittings. It can, however, be advantageously employed in conjunction with
'hard' spring or river waters, and has the effect of diminishing the
incrustation merely as the result of dilution. The drain pipes leading
from the roof of the factory may be placed in connection with the tank or
well from which the supply of water is drawn for the boilers. It will be
seen hereafter that the self-same remedy is efficient both as a means of
preventing incrustation and obviating corrosion, and that by using one of
the alkaline substances about to be specified this twofold advantage may
be secured. Iron will not rust when immersed in water containing a mere
trace of caustic alkali, and it is a common observation that the iron
vessels used in the preparation of potash and soda remain for any length
of time free from all appearance of rust. This singular property is, no
doubt, susceptible of important applications, amongst them may be
mentioned the better protection of iron ships from the attack of bilge
water, of hydraulic rams, moulding boxes, smith's tools, and other objects
liable to be placed at times under the influence of water. Some forms of
surface condensers become quickly corroded in consequence of the purity of
the water accumulating in them by the process of distillation, and a small
dose of caustic alkali is then useful as a means of protection; the
engine-cylinders also to some extent are preserved when alkaline
anti-incrustation fluids are introduced into the boilers, for the minute
quantity which is carried forward mechanically in the form of spray mixed
with the steam, suffices to preserve the iron. Whilst a tendency to
'priming' undoubtedly results from a too liberal use of soda or other
alkali in the boiler, it will in practice be found easy to adjust the
proportion of this ingredient, so as to secure immunity from corrosion and
incrustation, and at the same time, avoid the tumultuous kind of
ebullition known as 'priming.' In all cases it is advisable to carry out a
rigid system of inspection, and it is only in the way of saving fuel and
labour that the application of boiler fluids is to be recommended.
Much benefit has often resulted from a coating of coal-tar or 'dead oil'
applied to the interior surfaces below the water line, when the boiler is
opened for cleaning and inspection. These will tend very considerably to
lessen the adhesion of calcareous crusts, and are not in any way affected
by the boiler fluids in common use. Soda crystals and caustic soda may be
used with great success in boilers to effect the immediate precipitation
of the lime salts, and they act by throwing down a finely divided form of
carbonate of lime, which in time furnishes nuclei for the deposition of
subsequent accretions both of the carbonate and sulphate, so that they are
prevented from crystallising upon the walls of the boiler. A granular mud
is thus formed, which subsides quickly and may be for the most part got
rid of through the 'blow-off cock,' which should be opened for this
purpose two or three times every day, and run out with as little water as
possible.
The use of caustic soda has undergone a thorough trial at the hands of Mr
J. Spiller, F.C.S., in the boilers of the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, and we
are favoured with the following general instructions regarding its use,
which are based upon an experience of upwards of ten years. The caustic
soda should be dissolved in water so as to make a concentrated solution of
specific gravity 1·300. This, being perfectly miscible with water, may be
introduced into the boiler with the feed-water at any time when, from the
pressure of steam, it may not be convenient to pour it through the safety
valve or other openings in the boiler. But when the steam is down there is
no difficulty in introducing the prescribed dose by using a tin funnel
with flattened aperture to pass it through the safety valve; or a tubular
arrangement with double cocks will answer at all times. Half a gallon per
diem is the average quantity found sufficient for a 20-horse stationary
boiler, working with Thames water for ten hours daily. If the water should
happen to be unusually hard a larger dose may be employed, but it would
not be expedient to add in one charge more than the amount required for
the day's consumption. Locomotive and multitubular boilers have been
worked successfully with caustic soda, and it is here that the importance
of using anti-incrustation fluids makes itself most apparent.
Many other methods have at various times been proposed to prevent the
formation of deposits in steam boilers. Dr Ritterband's method consists in
simply throwing a little sal ammoniac into the boiler, by which carbonate
of ammonia is formed, which passes off with the steam, and chloride of
calcium, which remains in solution. In Holland this plan has been used
with satisfaction for locomotive boilers. About 2 oz. of the salt may be
placed in the boiler twice a week. The chloride of tin is equal to sal
ammoniac, and is similar in its action. Carbonate of soda has been
recommended by Kuhlmann and Fresenius of Germany, and by Crace Calvert of
England. It is now employed generally in the boilers of engines in
Manchester. The common plan adopted by working engineers to prevent
incrustations from either variety of water is, on each occasion of
cleaning out the boiler, to introduce some substance which, by its
mechanical action, shall prevent the precipitated earthy matter caking
together, or adhering to the boiler plates. Some common tar, bitumen, or
pitch, appears to answer well under most circumstances. Mr Ira Hill
recommends the use of 3 or 4 shovelfuls of course sawdust. He states that,
after adopting the use of this article, he never had any difficulty from
lime, although using water strongly impregnated with it, and has always
found the inside of his boilers as smooth as if just oiled. Mr De Haen
recommends the sulphate and bicarbonate of calcium to be decomposed by
adding barium chloride and milk of lime in the proper proportion; when the
water is at a temperature of 35°-45° C. the whole becomes clear in about
ten minutes, a precipitate consisting of a mixture of barium sulphate and
calcium carbonate deposits; if the water be cold, the greater part
separates in ten minutes, but a little turbidity is noticeable for some
hours due to suspended matter.
Protzen recommends the introduction of a piece of zinc into the boiler,
this determines a galvanic current, which protects the iron against
oxidation and corrosion, and causes the mineral ingredients of the water
to be deposited as a fine loose mud, entirely preventing the formation of
incrustation.
Slippery elm bark, and spent bark from the tan works have also been
suggested. We (A. J. Cooley) have worked a powerful boiler daily for
months without opening the 'man-hole,' after throwing a few pounds of
potatoes into it. In all cases, when the earthy matter can be kept in a
state of solution, or precipitated in a pulverulent form, it is easily
removed from the boiler by what engineers term 'priming,' which is
allowing the hot water to be blown over with the steam, so that, after a
sufficient time, the whole original contents of the boiler are removed,
and replaced by fresh water. Before doing so, however, it is of
consequence to cut off the communication with the cylinders, and to open
the waste-steam cock. Consult a pamphlet on 'Boiler Incrustation and
Corrosion' by F. J. Rowan, published by Spon, London.
=INCUBA'TION (Artificial).= The hatching of eggs by artificial heat. This
has been practised by the Egyptians from a very remote period. M.
Bonnemain has the honour of having introduced this art to Western Europe,
in 1775, and having been the first to pursue it successfully on the
commercial scale. The source of heat employed by him was a circulatory
hot-water apparatus, and the temperature maintained by it 100° Fahr. His
plan was to introduce, daily, 1-20th only of the eggs the apparatus was
capable of receiving, so that on the 21st day the first chickens were
hatched, and a like number every day afterwards as long as the supply of
eggs was kept up. Among the trays containing the eggs he placed saucers of
water, to compensate for the absence of moisture derived in natural
incubation by transpiration from the body of the hen. The chickens, as
soon as hatched, were transferred to a 'nursery' or 'chick-room,' also
artificially heated, and were fed with crushed millet seed. Several
attempts have been made of late years to introduce artificial incubation
into this country, with variable success.
=IN'CUBUS.= See NIGHTMARE.
=IN'DIA RUB'BER.= See CAOUTCHOUC.
=INDIGES'TION.= See DYSPEPSIA.
=IN'DIGO.= _Syn._ INDICUM, PIGMENTUM INDICUM, L. A blue dyestuff extracted
from several plants growing in India and America, especially from the
leguminous species _Indigofera tinctoria_ and _I. c[oe]rulea_. It exists
in the plant as a colourless juice. The method of manufacture consists in
steeping the plant in water until fermentation sets in; the colouring
matter dissolves in the water, forming a yellow solution, which is drawn
off from the rest of the vegetable matter, and agitated and beaten to
bring it freely into contact with the air for about 2 hours; this
treatment causes the indigo to form and settle down as a blue precipitate;
this is cut, while soft, into cubical cakes, and dried by artificial heat.
To hasten the formation of the indigo, a little lime water is sometimes
added to the yellow solution. The indigo of commerce contains INDIGO-BLUE
or INDIGOTIN, its most important constituent, INDIGO-RED, and many other
substances, some of which must be regarded as accidental impurities or
adulterations.
_Prop._ Tasteless; scentless; of an intense blue colour, passing into
purple; when rubbed with a smooth hard body, it assumes a coppery hue;
insoluble in water, cold alcohol, ether, alkalies, hydrochloric acid,
dilute sulphuric acid, and the cold fixed and volatile oils; slightly
soluble in boiling alcohol and oils; freely soluble in concentrated
sulphuric acid, and, when decoloured or reduced by contact with
deoxidising substances, in alkaline lyes; soluble in creasote; its colour
is destroyed by chromic acid, nitric acid and chlorine; when suddenly
heated, it gives off rich purple fumes, which condense into brilliant
copper-coloured needles.
_Pur._ The best indigo is that which has the deepest purple colour, that
assumes the brightest coppery hue when rubbed with the nail; its fracture
is homogeneous, compact, fine-grained, and coppery; its powder is of an
intensely deep blue tint, and light enough to swim on water; and it leaves
only a fine streak when rubbed upon a piece of white paper. In general,
when indigo is in hard, dry lumps of a dark colour, it is considered of
bad or inferior quality. Indigo, when in hard or brittle lumps, or in dust
or small bits, is often adulterated with sand, pulverised slate, and other
earthy substances.
_Estimation._ Various methods for estimating the value of samples of
indigo have been proposed, but none of them can be depended upon to give
perfectly accurate results. The plan recommended by O'Neill[353] is
perhaps the best; it is performed as follows:--
[Footnote 353: See 'Dictionary of Calico Printing and Dyeing.']
Weigh 25 gr. of a fair sample of the indigo finely ground; and to soften
or disintegrate it still further, boil it for a short time with weak
caustic soda, and then, if there be any soft lumps or clots, strain
through calico; mix this with 3 quarts of water in a narrow-necked bottle
which it will nearly fill, and add 400 gr. of quicklime, which has been
slaked as perfectly as possible; shake well up and add a 1000 gr. measure
of solution of green copperas (protosulphate of iron) at 30° Twaddell;
cork the bottle closely, and leave it for three days, frequently shaking
it in the interval. The indigo will be dissolved by this time; 1 quart of
the clear solution is drawn off, shaken up in a bottle to oxidise it,
acidified with acetic acid, and the pure indigo (INDIGOTIN) collected upon
a filter, dried, and weighed. Four times the weight of the pure indigo is
the per-centage of indigo in the sample.
_Uses._ As a dye stuff indigo is of great importance, both from the beauty
and permanence of the colour it yields, and from the ease with which it is
applied to fabrics of all materials. As a medicine it has been employed in
various affections of a spasmodic character, as chorea, convulsions,
epilepsy, hysteria, &c. In large quantities it often induces giddiness,
vomiting, and diarrh[oe]a; and when continued for sometime, muscular
twitchings, resembling those arising from strychnine.--_Dose._ Beginning
at about 15 gr., and gradually increased to 1, 2, or even 3 dr., at which
it should be continued for 3 or 4 months; made into an electuary with
honey or sugar, to which some aromatic may be added. See INDIGO DYE,
INDIGOTIN, &c.
=Indigo, Sul'phate of.= _Syn._ SULPHINDYLIC ACID, SULPHINDIGOTIC A.,
SAXONY BLUE, SOLUBLE INDIGO.
_Prep._ By gradually adding indigo (in fine powder), 1 part, to fuming
sulphuric acid (Nordhausen sulphuric acid), 5 parts, or oil of vitriol, 8
parts contained in a stone-ware vessel placed in a tub of very cold water,
to prevent the mixture heating; the ingredients are stirred together with
a glass rod at short intervals until the solution is complete, after which
the whole is allowed to repose for about 48 hours, by which time it
becomes a homogeneous pasty mass of an intense blue colour, which in a
dull light appears nearly black.
_Obs._ In this state it forms 'BARTH'S BLUE,' or the 'CHEMIC BLUE' or
'INDIGO COMPOSITION' of the dyer. Diluted with about twice its weight of
soft water, it is converted into the 'SAXONY BLUE' or 'LIQUID BLUE' of the
shops, also used for dyeing. When commercial sulphate of indigo is
diffused through a large quantity of water, nearly boiling, and wool (old
white flannel rags, &c.) is macerated in it for some time, the latter
absorbs the whole of the sulphate and is dyed blue, whilst the liquor
assumes a greenish-blue colour. Wool, so prepared, when well rinsed in
cold water, and boiled for some minutes in a large quantity of that liquid
containing 1% or 2% of carbonate of potassa, or a quantity equal to about
1-3rd that of the indigo originally employed, gives up its blue colour,
and becomes of a dull brown. The liquid is now a rich blue-coloured
solution of sulphindylate of potassa, from which the salt may be obtained
by cautious evaporation. This compound is prepared on the large scale, by
diluting sulphate of indigo with about 12 times its weight of soft water,
and imperfectly saturating the solution with carbonate of potassa; the
sulphindylate falls down as a dark-blue coppery-looking powder, soluble
in 140 parts of cold water and in about 90 parts of boiling water. This
substance is kept both in the moist and dry state, and is known in
commerce under the respective names of 'DISTILLED INDIGO,' 'PRECIPITATED
INDIGO,' 'SOLUBLE INDIGO,' 'INDIGO PASTE,' 'BLUE CARMINE,' 'DISTILLED
BLUE,' 'SOLUBLE BLUE,' &c. It is extensively used in dyeing; and when
mixed with starch, whilst in the moist state, and made into cakes or
knobs, it constitutes the finest variety of the 'BLUE' used by laundresses
for tinging linen. The ammonia and soda salts may be prepared in the same
way as the potassa salt, by substituting the carbonates of those bases for
carbonate of potassa. The ammonia salt is very soluble.
=INDIGO BLUE.= See INDIGOTIN.
=INDIGO DYE.= There are two methods of preparing solutions of indigo for
dyeing.--1. By deoxidising it, and then dissolving it in alkaline
menstrua.--2. By dissolving it in sulphuric acid. The former method is
used in preparing the ordinary INDIGO VAT of the dyers.
1. _a._ (COLD VAT.) Take of indigo, in fine powder, 1 lb.; green copperas
(clean cryst.), 2-1/2 to 3 lbs.; newly slaked lime, 3-1/2 to 4 lbs.;
triturate the powdered indigo with a little water or an alkaline lye, then
mix it with some hot water, add the lime, and again well mix, after which
stir in the solution of copperas, and agitate the whole thoroughly at
intervals for 24 hours. A little caustic potassa or soda is frequently
added, and a corresponding portion of lime omitted. For use, a portion of
this 'preparation vat' is ladled into the 'dyeing vat,' as wanted. After
being employed for some time, the vat must be refreshed with a little more
copperas and fresh-slaked lime, when the sediment must be well stirred up,
and the whole thoroughly mixed together. This is the common vat for
cotton.
_b._ (POTASH VAT.) Take indigo, in fine powder, 12 lbs.; madder, 8 lbs.;
bran, 9 lbs.; 'potash,' 24 lbs.; water at 125° Fahr., 120 cubic feet; mix
well; at the end of about 36 hours add 14 lbs. more potash, and after 10
or 12 hours longer further add 10 lbs. of potash, and rouse the whole up
well; as soon as the fermentation and reduction of the indigo are well
developed, which generally takes place in about 72 hours, add a little
fresh-slaked lime. This vat dyes very quickly, and the goods lose less of
their colour in alkaline and soapy solutions than when dyed in the common
vat. It is well adapted for woollen goods.
_c._ (WOOD VAT.) As the last, but employing wood instead of madder; the
vat is 'set' at 160° Fahr., and kept at that temperature until the
deoxidation and solution of the indigo has commenced. The last two are
also called the 'warm vat.'
_d._ (PASTEL VAT.) This is 'set' with a variety of wood which grows in
France, and which is richer in colouring matter than the plant commonly
known as 'wood.'
_e._ (SCHÜTZENBERGER and DE LALANDE'S VAT.) It is known that the low stage
of oxidation of sulphur obtained on the reduction of sulphurous acid with
zinc, dissolves indigo. On this reaction the following proceedings for
dyeing and printing with indigo are founded:--To prepare the reducing
liquid, a solution of bisulphite of soda at 35° B. is brought in contact
with sheet zinc in a closed vessel, of which the liquid should occupy only
one fourth. After the lapse of an hour the zinc is precipitated from the
clear liquid by means of milk of lime. It is then diluted or decanted, or
filtered with exclusion of air.
The clear liquid is then poured upon the ground indigo, with the addition
of the needful soda and lime. One kilo of indigo yields in this manner a
very concentrated vat of from 10 to 15 litres. Cotton is dyed cold, and
wool with the aid of heat. A vat is filled with water, and a suitable
quantity of the above indigo mixture introduced, when the dyeing can be
performed at once. The excess of the low sulphur acid dissolves the froth
which appears on the surface. During the process of dyeing, further
quantities of indigo can be added as required. Cotton can be rapidly and
easily dyed in this manner; and in the case of wool, the dyer escapes the
many disadvantages of the hot vat and obtains brighter and clearer shades.
To print a fast blue the alkaline solution of the reduced indigo is
printed on with an excess of the reducing agent, aged for twelve to
twenty-four hours, washed and soaped. In comparison with the old process
there is a saving of indigo to the extent of 50 to 60 per cent.; the
shades are richer and the impressions sharper. The colour requires no
subsequent treatment, and can therefore be printed on simultaneously with
most other colours.
_Obs._ Wool, silk, linen, and cotton, may each be dyed blue in the indigo
vat. The goods, after being passed through a weak alkaline solution, are
subjected to the action of the vat for about fifteen minutes; they are
then freely exposed to the air; the immersion in the vat and the exposure
are repeated until the colour becomes sufficiently deep. Wood and madder
improve the richness of the dye. Other deoxidising substances, besides
those above mentioned, may be used to effect the solution of the indigo;
thus a mixture of caustic soda, grape sugar, indigo, and water, is often
employed on the Continent for this purpose; and orpiment lime, and
pearlash are also occasionally used. When properly prepared, the indigo
vat may be kept in action for several months by the addition of one or
other of its constituents, as required. An excess of either copperas or
lime should be avoided.
2. Solution of sulphate of indigo is added to water, as required, and the
goods, previously boiled with alum, are then immersed in it, and the
boiling and immersion are repeated until the wool becomes sufficiently
dyed.
_Obs._ With this every shade of blue may be dyed, but it is most commonly
employed to give a ground to logwood blues. The colouring matter has
affinity for woollen and silk with or without 'mordant,' but none for
cotton. A solution of soluble indigo (sulphindylate of potassa or soda),
in water very slightly acid with sulphuric acid, imparts a very fine blue
to cloth, superior in tint to that given by the simple sulphate. See
DYEING, &c.
=INDIGO PUR'PLE.= _Syn._ PH[OE]NICINE. The name given by Mr Crum to the
purple precipitate obtained by filtration from a solution of indigo in
fuming sulphuric acid, when largely diluted with water.
=INDIGO RED.= _Syn._ INDIGO RESIN, RED RESIN OF INDIGO. This is prepared
by boiling alcohol (sp. gr. ·830), on powdered indigo previously exhausted
by digestion in dilute acids and in a strong alkaline solution. When
heated, it is converted into a white sublimate (deoxidised indigo red),
but recovers its red colour by the action of nitric acid.
=INDIGO WHITE.= _Syn._ INDIGOGENE, INDICYLE, REDUCED INDIGO, HYDROGENISED
I., HYDRATE OF I. Reduced or deoxidised indigo blue.
_Prep._ The yellow alkaline solution obtained by one or other of the
processes noticed under INDIGOTIN is carefully protected from the air,
both before and after precipitation with hydrochloric acid; and the
precipitate, after being rapidly washed with recently boiled distilled
water, or with very dilute sulphurous acid, is drained on a filter, dried
in vacuo, and then at once transferred to a well-stoppered bottle.
_Prop., &c._ A greyish-white mass of minute crystals, generally light blue
on the surface, and rapidly turning blue on exposure to the air; soluble
in alkalies, alcohol, and ether, to which it imparts a yellow colour.
These solutions deposit indigo blue on exposure to the air. A solution of
this substance constitutes the indigo vat of the dyer (see _above_).
=INDIGO'TIN.= _Syn._ CERULIN, INDIGO BLUE. This is the pure blue principle
of indigo. It appears to be the oxide of the same organic radical of which
indigo white is probably the hydrate.
_Prep._ 1. Indigo (in fine powder) is digested successively in dilute
hydrochloric acid, solution of potassa, and alcohol; the dried residuum is
crude indigotin.
2. Indigo (in fine powder), 1 part; green sulphate of iron, 2 parts;
hydrate of lime, 3 parts; water, 15 parts; mix, agitate occasionally until
the colour is destroyed, then decant the clear portion, precipitate with
dilute hydrochloric acid, and wash the powder first with water, and then
with boiling alcohol, until the latter ceases to acquire a yellow colour.
3. Caustic soda and grape sugar, of each 1 part; water, 20 parts; powdered
indigo, 5 parts; mix, and proceed as last. The above are essentially the
same as the indigo vat, but on the small scale.
4. The process for estimating the value of indigo given under INDIGO is a
good process for obtaining Indigotin.
_Obs._ The product from all the above exceeds 50% of the indigo operated
on.
5. (Taylor.) Powdered indigo, 2 parts; plaster of Paris, 1 part; water, q.
s. to reduce the mixture to a thin paste; spread the mass evenly upon an
oblong iron plate to the depth of about 1/8 inch, and dry it by a gentle
heat. It must then be held over the flame of a spirit lamp, when a
disgusting odour will be evolved, the mass will begin to smoke, and in a
few minutes will be covered with a heavy purple vapour, which will
condense into brilliant flattened prisms or plates of an intense copper
colour, forming a thick velvety coating over the surface immediately
exposed to the heat. Should the mass catch fire, it may be instantly
extinguished by a drop of water let fall upon it. _Prod._ 15 to 18%. See
INDIGO, &c.
=INDIUM.= IN. = 113·4. This very rare metal was discovered by means of the
spectroscope by Messrs Reich and Richter in a specimen of zinc-blende from
Freiberg, in 1863. Since then it has been found in the flue dust of some
zinc furnaces worked in the Hartz mountains, also in a black blende, known
as christophite, occurring in Saxony; in the Wolfranc of Zinnwald,
associated with zinc, as well as in Wolfranc alone; and also in the blende
met within steatite, near Schlaggenwald. In all of these substances the
indium is present in very minute quantity,[354] and is more or less
associated with lead, arsenic, cadmium, iron, and copper; its separation
from which is matter of no inconsiderable labour and difficulty.
[Footnote 354: In the flue dust of the zinc furnaces it is present to the
amount of about 0·1 per cent.; in christophite in the proportion of 0·0062
per cent.]
The following process for the detection of indium in zinc-blende, and its
extraction from the same source, is given by Winkler. Precipitate the
hydrochloric acid solution of the roasted ore with metallic zinc at the
boiling heat; dissolve the precipitate in nitro-hydrochloric acid; remove
the arsenic, cadmium, &c., by sulphuretted hydrogen, and precipitate the
indium as oxide by barium carbonate. Should this precipitate contain any
iron, it must be removed by resolution, heating with sodium sulphate, and
digestion with barium carbonate in a closed vessel. The indium may also be
precipitated from the original solution, either directly by barium
carbonate, or from a solution containing sulphuric acid, by neutralisation
with sodium carbonate, till a precipitate begins to form, and addition of
sodium acetate; it is then precipitated as a basic sulphate containing
zinc."[355]
[Footnote 355: Various other processes are given in 'Watts' Dictionary.']
Indium may be obtained in the metallic state from the reduction of its
oxide by means of hydrogen; charcoal or carbonaceous fluxes are not good
reducing agents, as their employment necessitates a very high temperature,
and loss from volatilisation occurs. Sodium is found to be the best
reducing agent when large quantities of the metal are required.
Böttger's method is to precipitate the indium by zinc, to press the spongy
metal so obtained in hot water, then to submit it to pressure in a screw
press between filtering paper, and finally to melt it with cyanide of
potassium.
_Prop._ Indium is a soft, white, durable metal, somewhat resembling
cadmium, wholly destitute of crystalline structure. Its specific gravity,
which is 7·421 at 16·8° C., is not altered by rolling or hammering. When
heated in the air to 176° C., it melts without becoming oxidised; at a
temperature above this, however, it becomes covered with a coating of
suboxide, becoming gradually changed into the yellow sesquioxide. Indium
is less volatile than either cadmium or zinc. It dissolves slowly in
dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, hydrogen being given off. In
strong hydrochloric acid it dissolves rapidly. Nitric acid oxidises it,
evolving at the same time nitric oxide; whilst sulphuric acid converts it
into anhydrous sulphate.
When examined by means of the spectroscope, the flame of indium reveals
two brilliant bands--a violet and a blue one.
Indium is completely precipitated from a solution of its acetate, as well
as from neutral solutions of its salts in general, by sulphuretted
hydrogen. Ammonia, neutral sodium carbonate, and acid sodium carbonate,
throw down white precipitates insoluble in excess of the precipitant;
caustic potash and soda produce a white precipitate of indium hydrate,
soluble in excess. Barium carbonate precipitates it completely. Potassium
ferrocyanide gives a white precipitate.
_Estim._ "The most convenient method of estimating indium is by
precipitating it as hydrate with ammonia, dissolving the washed
precipitate in hot dilute nitric acid, evaporating, igniting, and weighing
the oxide thus obtained. Precipitation with sulphuretted hydrogen does not
give exact results on account of the solubility of the indium
sulphide."[356]
[Footnote 356: Watts.]
Indium forms compounds with bromine, chlorine, iodine, oxygen, and with
several of the organic and inorganic acids.
=INDURA'TION.= In _pathology_, an increase in the consistence of any
portion of the body, usually resulting from chronic inflammation,
pressure, or friction.
=IN'FANCY.= "The domestic treatment of infants and children is comprised
in the application of the laws of health to the mother as well as to the
child. The position of parent is one of serious responsibility, both
morally and physically, and the edict has gone forth that 'the sins of the
parent shall be visited on the children.' If we could ensure good mothers,
we could vastly improve the race of men. The nursing mother of a sick
infant must, by following faithfully the rules of health in respect of the
four great hygienic principles--food, clothing, exercise, and
ablution--give health with her milk to her offspring; she must also pay
close attention to her mind, avoid all sources of irritation and anxiety,
and remember that an angry mother sours her milk, and produces a fractious
and often a diseased infant. I am quite of opinion that if mothers were
sound in constitution, and bestowed the requisite care upon the
maintenance of their health, we should hear little of diseases of
children. In children, as well as in parent, the rules of health must be
carried out," and their neglect cannot fail to bring with it a heavy
retribution. (Eras. Wilson.) See EXERCISE, NURSING, &c.
=INFANT DEATH-RATE.= In England, according to Dr Farr, out of 1000 infants
born, 149 die annually before reaching their first year; and the same
authority tells us that 311 out of every 1000 die during the first month
in the same period. Amongst illegitimate children, the lives of one half
never exceed the first month.
The above figures represent the yearly average of infantile deaths
throughout the whole of England, when we come to the large cities the
mortality is notably higher. In Liverpool, for instance, out of 1000
children born, 239 died in their first year.
When we examine into the infant mortality prevailing amongst different
classes, we find the proportion existing between the death-rate of the
children of the nobility, and the general death-rate up to one year, to be
as 3 to 8.
In 1874, Mr Charles Ansell, jun., published a work entitled 'Statistics of
Families of the Upper and Professional Classes,' in which he showed, from
investigations into the deaths occurring amongst 48,000 children of the
wealthy, professional, and titled classes, that in the first year of life,
about 80 only of such children die out of every 1000. According to Dr
Farr, the northern countries of Europe show a much lower infant death-rate
than the southern ones. Infant mortality is lowest in Norway, and highest
in High Bavaria, where 404 infants per 1000 die in their first year. In
New York, in 1869, the mortality amongst infants under one year old was
27·4 per cent. and in 1873, 31·0 per cent.
Both in France and England the mortality prevailing amongst illegitimate
children up to the age of one year is very large. In 1860, the death-rate
amongst the foundlings of the Loire-Inférieure, was as much as 876 in the
1000, and it averages between 500 and 700 in France. In Wakefield, amongst
the same class of children, it was 26·22 per cent.; in Coventry, 40; in
Padstow, 50; and in Bantry, 80; in manufacturing towns the average is 35
per cent. In London the number of illegitimate children who die annually
under the age of a year is probably about 75 per cent.[357]
[Footnote 357: 'Proceedings of the Obstetrical Society for 1870.']
In the Montreal Foundling Asylum, out of 4060 infants, only 7 per cent.
lived one year. In the rural districts of England and also in Bavaria, the
average of deaths at one year is about the same for the illegitimate as
for the legitimate children.
In the 'Transactions of the Obstetrical Society for 1870' there is a
valuable and interesting report, throwing much light on the condition and
treatment of the children of the poor in England. The following is the
substance of this report, the information contained in which was collected
by various members of the society:--It was found that amongst the poorer
populations of villages 30 to 90 per cent. are attended by midwives, and
that this custom prevails to an almost equal extent in the large
provincial and manufacturing towns. Thus in Glasgow, 75 per cent., in
Coventry, 90 per cent.; and in Leeds and Sheffield, equally large numbers
of the population employ the services of these women. In Edinburgh the
midwife is rarely called on; neither is she in the West End of London; but
in the East End 30 to 50 per cent. of the accouchements are undertaken by
women.
Except in Glasgow, Sheffield, and London, the women are asserted to be
totally ignorant and incompetent to meet any difficulty that might arise.
In country districts the pernicious custom of giving an aperient to a
newly born babe was very general, but less prevalent in London and the
large towns. Amongst the married poor, suckling was found to be the rule;
and it seemed to be pretty conclusively proved that it is often
unreasonably prolonged for eighteen months or even two years, as a
preventive to renewed pregnancy. It was found, however, that illegitimate
children were rarely suckled, but almost always fed on artificial food.
Amongst the married poor also it appears universal to give the children
artificial food as well as the breast, and this from a very early and
tender age. Further, it was found that the food was generally unsuited to
the child both in quantity and quality. It consisted chiefly of bread
soaked in water and milk, and sweetened, of arrow-root, sago and corn
flour, and such like objectionable substances.
In one case the mother admitted to giving her infant (who was a few months
old only) a diet similar to that she herself partook of, viz.--cheese,
bread, meat, salt fish, heavy pastry, vegetables and beer. Amongst the
upper classes it was ascertained that there is an increasing tendency
amongst mothers to discontinue lactation, and to employ instead the
services of a wet nurse; and where this was not done, it was found that
the food partaken of by the babe was much more judiciously chosen than is
the case amongst the poorer women. Mr Curquiven and others observed that a
large number of women in London do not suckle their offspring, because of
a deficient secretion of milk. It is satisfactory to find that both in the
manufacturing and agricultural districts, the children of the poor are so
constantly in the open air; but equally unsatisfactory to learn that at
night they sleep in ill-ventilated and over crowded dormitories. The
infant is encouraged to sleep to the utmost, and should it fail in
securing renewed slumber (its waking being attributed to a desire for
food), is very often dosed with gin, syrup of poppies, and paregoric.
Another plan adopted for keeping infants quiet, consisted in letting them
remain in the cradles and allowing them to suck the nipple attached to the
empty feeding bottle, long after the food had been consumed; a practice
that gives rise to infantile dyspepsia.
As regards cleanliness, it was learnt that poor people's children are
tolerably well attended to in this respect, or rather that the baby
generally comes in for a larger share of ablution than the elder ones, who
are sometimes much neglected in the matter of soap and water. The clothing
of the little ones was much too scanty, and this was the case no matter
what the season of the year. A prevalent practice, except in the
agricultural villages, was that of giving the children cordials, spirits,
and medicines.
A still worse custom was found to be the systematic administration of
opiates. At Long Sutton, in Lincolnshire, which has a population of 6000,
one chemist alone sold 25-1/2 gallons yearly of Godfrey's cordial (a
mixture principally consisting of treacle and opium), whilst 6-1/2 pints
were got rid of weekly by another chemist in the same town. This
administration of anodynes was mostly confined to illegitimate infants,
and factory children placed out to nurse. A habit not unusual was that of
an intentional deferring sending for a doctor when the child was first
seized with illness, medical advice being only sought when in many cases
it could be of no avail. Desertion by fathers and mothers of their
children, especially of illegitimate ones, as well as concealment of birth
and infanticide, were found to be much more general in London and the
larger cities than in the country.
The causes of the high rate of infant mortality prevailing amongst the
poor, seem very clearly indicated in the above abstract. For instance, the
deaths of nearly half the children under one year of age are referable to
diarrh[oe]a, convulsions, atrophy, mesenteric disease, and allied
disorders; all of which maladies are caused by the grossly erroneous and
unsuitable diet upon which the children are fed. In the article "Infants'
Food," we have already pointed out that the proper and only safe aliment
for an infant up to the age of eight or nine months is the maternal milk,
and failing this, the pure and unadulterated milk of the cow; and we have
furthermore shown that the admission into the dietary of infants even
above nine months old, of farinaceous foods, should be regulated with
great caution. Yet we learn from the above report, that in the early days
of the infants' existence, amongst the poor the breast milk is in most
cases supplemented by large quantities of these very farinaceous matters,
which we have shown to be so prejudicial and dangerous. That the deaths
from these causes are clearly preventable, in a large measure, if not
wholly, is proved by the very much less extent in which they occur amongst
the higher classes, who use much greater judgment in the selection of
their children's food. Another important factor in the high infant
death-rate is the extensive use of narcotics, a practice there is no doubt
which yearly carries off a large number of infants, by poisoning, more or
less prolonged. Inadequate clothing is likewise another source of
mortality amongst the very young, whose tender frames easily succumb to
inclement weather, and the sudden changes of temperature occurring in our
variable climate. Hence we shall have no difficulty in understanding why
pneumonia, bronchitis, &c., should be so prevalent among poor children.
The habits of overcrowding and bad ventilation which prevail amongst the
poor must also be fertile sources of disease amongst their offspring--the
more immediate effect of such violations of sanitary principles resulting
in bronchitis. That the extensive recourse by the poor to uneducated and
unskilful midwives, also adds to infant mortality, seems indisputable.
In the report already alluded to, beyond reference to the fact that
infanticide was rare, we find no mention made as to the number of violent
deaths occurring amongst infants. It appears that about a sixteenth of the
mortality amongst infants under one year old is due to violence, mostly
accidental, the great majority of such deaths being caused by the mother
lying upon and smothering her babe. These misadventures are said to occur
mostly on Saturday nights, and raise the question as to whether a large
proportion of such deaths are not due to the drunkenness of the mothers,
who retire to rest in a state of alcoholic stupor.[358]
[Footnote 358: Blythe.]
The inference, we think, to be drawn from the above statements is, that
the preponderating mortality prevailing amongst the children of the poor
is due to ignorance and poverty, and not to intentional neglect or want of
parental affection. Bearing in mind that poor women much more frequently
suckle their babes than rich ones, it might perhaps be argued that this
was evidence of greater maternal solicitude, and that, therefore, the poor
mother exhibits more natural affection than the lady who consigns her
offspring to the arms of the wet-nurse; but, possibly, were the
circumstances of the two inverted, the lady might be found giving her
infant the breast, whilst the humbler wife might call in the services of
the wet-nurse; neither of them perhaps reflecting that, in choosing the
latter alternative, they were depriving another little human unit of the
maternal sustenance, and exposing it to the dangers of vicarious nurture
and supervision. What these dangers are that beset the children of the
poor when removed from their mother, the revelations of baby-farming and
the appalling statistics of illegitimate infant mortality serve very
forcibly to illustrate. For every 311 legitimate children of all classes
500 illegitimate out of every 1000 die each year under one month old, this
large increase being due to cruel neglect and substitution of bad,
insufficient, and improper food for the maternal milk. That in their own
homes they are exposed to the serious hardships arising from errors in
diet has already been shown, but in their own homes they die at little
more than half this rate; hence the deduction is unavoidable that half of
these poor little waifs perish because they are deprived of the care and
solicitude of the mother.
Writing on this subject M. Hanon says that of 59,927 infants born in
Paris, 20,049 are sent into the country to nurses. Of those children that
remain in Paris, and that are so rarely suckled by their mothers, no less
than 8250 die from 0-1 year, which gives a death-rate of 243 per 1000
births. As to the mortality of the unfortunate infants, 20,049 in number,
sent off to nurse, this amounts to 500 or 700 per 1000 in the first year
of life.
We extract the following from the 'Echo' of October 9th, 1878:
"ALLEGED BABY-FARMING.
"Dr Hardwicke, the coroner for Central Middlesex, held an inquest at the
Islington Coroner's Court, Holloway Road, this morning, relative to the
death of the female child of Emily Corley, a servant at 49, Gower Street,
Euston Road. Mr Baby, the inspector under the Infants Life Protection Act,
watched the case. The mother of the child had gone to service as a wet
nurse after coming out of the workhouse, leaving it with one Ann Leach,
who said it was a very delicate child. She added that she had for a time
two children under one year of age with her, and had been told that this
was contrary to the Act. The inspector under the Infant Life Protection
Act pointed out that persons having more than one child to nurse under a
year old had to obtain a licence. The coroner characterised the Act
as a mere farce. It left children to take care of themselves after they
were twelve months old--the most critical time of their existence. He also
remarked on how prolific a source of prostitution such cases as the
present were, where mothers had to forsake their own illegitimate
offspring, depriving them of breast milk in order that they might sell it
to the rich. The jury found that the child died from exhaustion following
from diarrh[oe]a, accelerated by want of breast milk."
=INFANTS, Food for.= For the newly-born and very young of all mammiferous
animals, no food is so expressly and admirably adapted as that drawn from
the mother. In the nourishment of the babe from the maternal breast lies
the soundest condition for its physical well-being and growth, subject to
the qualification that the mother must be in good health, which, of
course, implies that she must be well fed. This latter essential
fulfilled, it is very wonderful to note how nature makes provision for the
proper nourishment of the offspring by converting even a weakly and
frequently ailing mother into a strong one during the period of suckling.
There may be, and doubtless are, many circumstances in which lactation
cannot be practised with safety either to mother or child; but, where such
circumstances do not exist, the practice of seeking the vicarious services
of the wet-nurse, or of having recourse to other than the maternal milk,
for many reasons, calls for remonstrance and reproof.
We may emphasise this by the following quotation from Dr West's admirable
work, 'Diseases of Infancy and Childhood.' He says: "The infant whose
mother refuses to perform towards it a mother's part, or who by accident,
disease, or death is deprived of the food that nature destined for it, too
often languishes and dies. Such children you may see with no fat to give
plumpness to their limbs--no red particles in their blood to impart a
healthy hue to the skin, their face wearing in infancy the lineaments of
age; the voice a constant wail; their whole aspect an embodiment of woe.
But give to such children the food that nature destined for them, and if
the remedy do not come too late to save them, the mournful cry will cease,
the face will assume a look of content, by degrees the features will
disclose themselves, the limbs will grow round, the skin pure red and
white."
But although the maternal aliment (or, failing this, that supplied from
the breast of a young and healthy wet-nurse, who has been recently
confined) is undoubtedly the best adapted for infantile nutrition, it
fortunately happens that in circumstances where the infant is unable to be
fed from either of these sources, we have a very valuable substitute in
the milk of the cow, the similarity of which, in composition to woman's
milk, will be seen at once by studying the following table arranged by Dr
Letheby:
--------------+---------------------------+--------
| Woman's Milk. | Cow's
| | Milk.
--------------+--------+--------+---------+--------
| Max. | Min. | Average.| Average.
Casein | 4·36 | 2·97 | 3·52 | 3·64
Butter | 5·18 | 4·45 | 4·02 | 3·55
Sugar of Milk | 4·43 | 3·29 | 4·27 | 4·70
Various salts | 0·26 | 0·38 | 0·28 | 0·81
+--------+--------+---------+--------
Total solids | 14·20 | 11·09 | 12·09 | 12·70
Water | 85·80 | 88·91 | 87·91 | 87·30
+--------+--------+---------+--------
Total | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00
--------------+--------+--------+---------+--------
The milk of the cow being rather richer in solids than that of woman, it
is considered desirable to somewhat dilute the former when it is used as
food for the infant. Dr Letheby recommends the addition to it of a third
of water, with a little sugar to sweeten it, and to render it more
acceptable to the baby palate. It cannot be too forcibly insisted upon
that immeasurably the best and safest food for an infant, next to human
milk, is the milk of the cow, _and nothing else_, until it reaches the age
of eight or nine months. It is perhaps needless to state that the milk
must be perfectly pure and unadulterated, and that it will fail of being
this if yielded by an unhealthy cow. The animal's food and habitat also
exercise an important influence on the quality of the milk, that given by
grass-fed cows roaming in open pastures undoubtedly being the best and
richest.
Different cows yield different qualities of milk; hence, when milk from
any particular cow suits an infant, it has been found desirable not to
change it.
The newer and fresher the milk the better is it adapted for the child's
use; that which has in the least become soured should be especially
rejected.
Sometimes even fresh and good milk is found to disagree with a child. When
this is the case it may be remedied by adding a little lime water to it
previous to its being drunk. If it were practicable, and within the means
of every family to keep their own cow, so that the infant could be fed
with the milk directly it came from the animal, nature's example in giving
it direct from the mother's breast might be followed. The writer
remembers, some years ago, the Princess of Wales travelling with her baby
on a voyage to and from Denmark, and being accompanied by her bovine
purveyor in the shape of an Alderney.
In hot weather, more particularly, if milk be kept even for a short time
it is liable to become acid, or "to turn," as it is called. It is,
therefore, always desirable to keep it in a cool cellar till required for
use, and in very hot weather it should be stood in ice.
The daily allowance of milk for a child during the first month of its life
is two or three pints. M. Guillot says 2-1/2 lbs. avoirdupois is the
least the babe can properly subsist on. He weighed several infants before
and after they had taken the breast, and found that they had gained in
weight, in quantities varying from 2 oz. to 5 oz.
Opinion is divided as to the value of condensed cows' milk as a food for
infants. Its chief merit seems to be that it affords a substitute for the
natural milk in cases where this latter is not obtainable, or where, in
consequence of disease amongst the cows of a neighbourhood, it cannot with
safety be consumed. Since the maternal fluid, without undergoing
alteration or modification, forms so perfect and model a food for infants,
it does not seem an unreasonable inference that the milk from the cow,
which so nearly approaches it in composition and qualities, should prove
most advantageous when partaken of under similar conditions. It has been
asserted that condensed milk is inferior in strengthening qualities to the
natural cows' milk. If this be the case it is certainly not due, according
to Mr Wanklyn, to any removal of the constituents of the latter. In his
useful little work on 'Milk Analysis' Mr Wanklyn says: "A year ago a
report was spread that these preserved milks were preserved skim-milk, and
not preserved new milk. I have myself examined the principal brands of
preserved and condensed milk, which are in the London market, and find
that the milk which has been condensed, or condensed and preserved, had
been charged with its due proportion of fat."
The physiological facts that in an early stage of infancy the digestion is
very feeble, and that until an infant has cut its first teeth there is but
little, if any, secretion of saliva, which latter is essential for the
conversion in the system of starch into sugar, point, therefore, to the
imprudence of feeding very young infants upon so-called "infants' foods,"
where these consist of amylaceous substances. The starch of which these
latter are composed not only fails to become assimilated, and therefore to
produce no nutrient effect, but clogs up the lower parts of the bowels,
and thus gives rise to a train of evils, amongst which may be included
indigestion, diarrh[oe]a, vomiting, and not infrequently convulsions and
death.
The difference in the mortality between infants under one year of age who
annually die of convulsions in England and Scotland is attributed to the
fact that whereas the English mother feeds her offspring on thick
spoon-food, the Scotch woman nourishes hers from the breast. In 'The
Fourteenth detailed Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Scotland' it
is stated that "The English practice of stuffing their babes with
spoon-meat occasioned the death by convulsions of 23,198 children under
one year of age during the year 1868, out of 786,858 births; in other
words, caused 1 death from convulsions in every 34 of the children born
during the year in England. In Scotland, during the same year, only 312
infants under one year of age fell victims to convulsions out of 115,514
children born during the year; in other words, 1 death from convulsions in
every 370 born during the year."
When a child has reached the age of eight or nine months the judicious use
of farinaceous foods is not only unobjectionable but desirable; but even
then it is most important to increase the quantity of the food very
cautiously with the age, as well as to see that it has been well baked and
afterwards boiled before being partaken of. In all cases it should be
mixed with the milk.
When the child has reached the age of twenty months Dr Letheby advises the
quantity of farinaceous food to be still further increased, and with a
little egg given in the form of pudding until it attains its third year.
At this period the child's diet may also include bread and butter, and at
the end of it well-boiled potato with a little meat gravy.
From the third to the fifth year he prescribes a small quantity of meat,
and at the end of the ninth year the usual food of the family. During all
these periods the use of milk as an important article of the dietary is
enforced.
The following table by the late Dr Edward Smith, exhibiting the
proportions between the daily quantities of carbon and nitrogen required
at different periods of human existence, illustrates the great
preponderance of nitrogen demanded by the infant over those who succeed
him in the scale of age:
Carbon. Nitrogen.
In infancy 69 6·72
At ten years of age 48 2·81
At sixteen years of age 30 2·16
At adult life 23 1·04
In middle life 25 1·13
See MILK.
=IN'FANTS' PRESER'VATIVE.= (Atkinson's.) Carbonate of magnesia, 6 dr.;
white sugar, 2-1/2 oz.; oil of aniseed, 20 drops; compound spirit of
ammonia and rectified spirit, of each 2-1/2 fl. dr.; laudanum, 1 fl. dr.;
syrup of saffron, 1 oz.; caraway water, q. s. to make the whole measure 1
pint. Antacid, anodyne, and hypnotic.
=INFEC'TION.= _Syn._ CONTAGION. The communication of disease, either by
personal contact with the sick or by means of effluvia arising from their
bodies. Attempts have been made to restrict the term contagion to the
former, and infection to the latter, but this distinction is now discarded
by the majority of writers. The following are the principal diseases which
are commonly regarded as contagious:--Chicken-pox, cholera, cow-pox,
dysentery, erysipelas, glanders, gonorrh[oe]a, hooping-cough, hydrophobia,
itch, measles, mumps, ophthalmia (purulent), plague, scald-head, scarlet
fever, smallpox, syphilis, yaws. See DISINFECTANT, &c.
=INFLAM'MABLE AIR.= See HYDROGEN.
=INFLAMMA'TION.= _Syn._ INFLAMMATIO, L. In _pathology_, a certain state of
disease. The common symptoms of inflammation are pain, swelling, heat, and
redness, attended with fever, and general constitutional derangement when
severe.
The treatment of inflammations, whether trifling; or serious, is
essentially the same in principle, and only differs in degree. This
consists in the adoption of the usual means for lowering the force of the
circulation and the frequency of the pulse; of which leeching, purging, a
low diet, and the use of refrigerant drinks and lotions, form the most
important part. The constitutional derangement or symptomatic inflammatory
fever, and inflammatory condition of the blood always accompany local
inflammation, and progress with its intensity. In inflammations of a more
purely local character, cupping or leeching the part immediately affected,
or the parts adjacent to it, is in general more appropriate and
successful. In these cases the application of refrigerant or sedative
lotions, baths, &c., generally proves of much advantage. In cases in which
there is induration or dryness of the part, the use of warm embrocations
is indicated.
Inflammation often arises from apparently very trifling causes,
particularly in persons of a full or bad habit of body, or who indulge in
the free use of malt liquors. In some persons a very trifling local
injury, as a slight abrasion, cut, prick, or sprain, produces a
considerable amount of tumefaction, attended with severe constitutional
excitement. Punctured wounds, sprains, and dislocations commonly furnish
the most serious cases of inflammation that depend on mere external
injury.[359] See ABSCESS, FEVER, TUMOUR, &c.
[Footnote 359: In all inflammatory cases of a serious nature, the reader
is strongly advised to commit himself to the care of a medical
practitioner.]
=Inflammation of the Bowels.= The common causes are incautious exposure to
cold, the use of improper food, and the presence of acrid substances or
hardened fæces in the bowels. The more constant symptoms are pain over the
abdomen, thirst, heat, and extensive restlessness and anxiety; sickness,
obstinate constipation, and a hard, small, quick pulse. In the later
stages the pain and tenderness of the abdomen, especially around the
navel, become excessive, and there is difficult micturition. In some cases
the pain suddenly ceases, the belly becomes tumid, the pulse scarcely
perceptible, the countenance ghastly, and the patient dies in a few hours.
The treatment consists in blisters, leeches to the abdomen, hot bath and
fomentations, aperient clysters, and mercurial purges; with effervescing
draughts and opium to allay sickness, followed by diaphoretic salines and
gentle aperients. See STOMACH AFFECTIONS, &c.
=INFLAMMATORY FE'VER.= See FEVER and INFLAMMATION.
=INFLUEN'ZA.= See CATARRH.
=INFU'SION.= _Syn._ INFUSUM, INFUSIO, L. A liquid medicine, prepared by
macerating vegetable or animal substances in water, at any temperature
below that of ebullition.
The mode of preparing infusions is, with most substances, precisely
similar to that pursued for making the almost universal beverage--TEA. The
ingredients are commonly placed in a stoneware pot or vessel (an 'infusion
pot'), previously made hot; boiling water is then poured over them, and
the cover being placed on, the whole is allowed to digest together, at
first, for a short time, in a warm situation, as on the hob or the fender,
and afterwards (the vessel being removed from the heat) until the whole
becomes cold. The liquid is then poured from the ingredients, and the
latter, being slightly pressed, if necessary, the infusion is strained
through a piece of clean linen or a hair sieve for use. During the
digestion the ingredients should be occasionally stirred, an important
matter often neglected, and not even referred to by most pharmaceutical
writers.
The substances employed for making infusions receive the same preliminary
treatment as those intended for making DECOCTIONS. Shavings, leaves, and
flowers require no previous preparation beyond being pulled asunder; but
roots, woods, and other solid substances must be bruised or sliced, if in
the green or recent state, or bruised or coarsely pulverised, if dry, for
the purpose of exposing as large a surface as possible to the action of
the menstruum.
The substances extracted by water from vegetables by infusion are chiefly
gum, mucus extractive, tannin, certain vegetable acids, the bitter and
narcotic principles, gum-resin, essential oil, and alkaloids. Some of
these substances are only sparingly soluble in water at ordinary
temperatures; but more readily so in hot water, and freely soluble in
boiling water. The temperature of the water should be therefore
proportioned to the nature of the vegetable matter operated on. For mere
'demulcent infusions,' in which starch and gum are the chief substances
sought to be dissolved out, and when the active principle is scarcely
soluble in water, unless at nearly the boiling temperature, boiling water
alone should be employed; but when the medicinal virtues of vegetables are
soluble in water at lower temperatures, it is better to employ hot water
(165° to 175° Fahr.), and to allow a little longer period for the
digestion. In many cases temperate water (from 60° to 70° Fahr.), or tepid
water (from 80° to 90° Fahr.), may be used with advantage, especially in
the preparation of 'aromatic bitter infusions,' and in most cases where it
is wished that the product should contain as little inert matter as
possible; but when water at low temperatures is employed, the period of
the maceration must be proportionately increased. By adopting the method
of maceration in vacuo, or in an atmosphere of carbonic acid, the
menstruum may be allowed to lay in contact with the vegetable matter for
an unlimited period, without decomposition taking place.
Infusions, like decoctions, are liable to undergo spontaneous
decomposition by keeping, especially in warm weather, when a few hours are
often sufficient for their passage into a state of active fermentation;
they should, therefore, when possible, be prepared for use daily, as
beyond twenty-four hours they cannot be depended on. The London College
directs a pint only to be made at a time, thus very properly regarding
them as extemporaneous preparations.
CONCENTRATED INFUSIONS, now so common in the shops, and, unfortunately, so
generally used in dispensing, are either made by taking 8 times the
quantity of the ingredients ordered in the pharmacop[oe]ia, and then
proceeding in the usual manner, or by the method of displacement; or, by
carefully and rapidly concentrating the simple infusions, by evaporation
in a steam or salt-water bath, until reduced to about 1-7th of the
original quantity. In either case the liquid is put into a strong bottle,
without being filtered, and 10 to 12% of rectified spirit added to it,
whilst still hot. The cork is then put in and secured down, and the whole
agitated for some minutes, after which it is set aside for a week, when
the clear portion is carefully decanted from the sediment for sale.
Another method, which answers well with the aromatic bitter vegetables, is
to take 8 times the usual quantity of the ingredients, and to exhaust them
with a mixture of rectified spirits, 1 part, and distilled water, 3 parts;
by digestion, or, better still, by percolation. Concentrated infusions
made in this way keep well, and deposit scarcely any sediment. Many houses
that are remarkable for the 'brilliancy' and beauty of these preparations,
employ 1/3 spirit of wine and 2/3 water as the menstruum. It may, however,
be taken, as a general rule, that for vegetable substances that abound in
woody fibre, and contain little extractive matter soluble in water (as
quassia, for instance), 1/6 to 1/5 part of spirit is sufficient for their
preservation; whilst for those abounding in mucilage or fecula, or that
readily soften and become pulpy and glutinous in weak spirit (as rhubarb),
1/5 to 1/3 is required.
By adopting the method originally suggested by Mr Alsop, infusions may be
preserved, uninjured, for a year or longer, without the addition of spirit
or any other substance. The only precaution necessary is to keep them in
bottles, perfectly filled and hermetically sealed.[360] Our own plan is to
put a few bruised cloves or seeds of black mustard into the bottles, which
must be only 2-3rds filled, then completely fill them with a condensed
atmosphere of carbonic acid gas; and, lastly, to stopper them and seal
them over, so as to perfectly exclude the air. A pint of decoction of
sarsaparilla and 1/2 pint of infusion of calumba, treated in this way,
kept good for fully 9 years. By simply macerating in the infusion as much
bruised mustard seed as can be added without flavouring the liquor, along
with a little bruised cloves, we find that most vegetable infusions may be
preserved in bottles which are occasionally uncorked, without either
fermenting or becoming mouldy, by the use of very little spirit (1/9 or
1/10).
[Footnote 360: 'Pharm. Journ.,' i, 57.]
Before adding the spirit to infusions made with cold water, or with water
which is only tepid, it is advisable to heat the liquid to about 185°
Fahr., in a water bath, and after keeping it at that temperature for a few
minutes, and allowing it again to become cold, to separate it from the
precipitated matter, either by filtration or decantation.
It is often very difficult to render vegetable infusions and decoctions
perfectly transparent, a quality always expected in the concentrated
preparations. Defecation by repose is always better than filtration, owing
to the more or less viscidity of the suspended matter. When this is not
sufficient, they may be clarified with white of egg (2 or 3 to the gall.),
previously beaten up with 5 or 6 fl. oz. of water. Most of the vegetable
infusions and decoctions will readily pass the filter, after a very small
quantity of acetic, nitric, or sulphuric acid has been added to them. The
most obstinate may be rendered 'brilliant,' or 'candle bright,' as the
'cellarmen' call it, by shaking them up, first with about a drachm of
dilute sulphuric acid, and afterwards with the whites of 3 or 4 eggs,
previously mixed with a few ounces of water, for each gallon of the
liquid. This plan is, however, objectionable for many medicinal
preparations.
As many infusions which are occasionally employed in medicine must
necessarily escape being separately noticed in this work, it may be as
well to remark that the infusions of all vegetables that do not exert a
very powerful action on the human frame as ordinary herbs and roots may be
made by pouring 1 pint of boiling water on 1 oz. of the vegetable matter,
and allowing it to macerate for 1/2 an hour to an hour. The decoctions of
the same vegetables may be made by simply boiling the above ingredients,
in the same proportions, for 10 or 15 minutes, instead of operating by
mere infusion. With substances of somewhat greater activity, only half the
above quantity should be taken; whilst, with the narcotic plants and those
possessing great activity, 1 to 2 dr. to water, 1 pint, will be the proper
quantity. The ordinary dose of such infusions and decoctions is 1/2 to 1
wine-glassful (1 to 2 fl. oz.), two, three, or four times a day, as the
case may indicate.
Infusion is preferred for all bodies of a delicate texture, which readily
yield their active principles to water; and especially when these are
either volatile or liable to be injured by the heat of ebullition.
The simple infusions are now less frequently made by the druggist than
formerly. In most cases he merely furnishes the ingredients, and the
infusions are prepared by either the nurse or patient, by whom they are
commonly called 'TEAS,'
[asterism] The following list embraces most of the infusions used in
prescribing or noticed in books. Where the proportions of the ingredients
are not given, 1 oz. of the medicinal substance and 1 pint of boiling
water are to be taken, and the dose is that referred to above.
=Infusion of Agrim'ony.= _Syn._ AGRIMONY TEA; INFUSUM AGRIMONII, L. From
the fresh tops before the flowers are formed. Vermifuge.--_Dose._ A
teacupful 3 or 4 times a day; also used as an astringent gargle and
lotion. For internal use, an equal weight of liquorice root (sliced) is
commonly added.
=Infusion of Al'kaline.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ALKALINUM, L. _Prep._ (Beasley.)
Hickory ash, 1 pint; wood soot, 1/4 pint; boiling water, 1 gall.; in 24
hours decant the clear. "A popular remedy in America for dyspepsia with
acidity."
=Infusion of Alkaline.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ALKALINUM. _Prep._ Hickory ash, 1
lb.; wood soot, 1/4 lb.; boiling water, 1/2 gall. Let them stand 24 hours,
and decant. A wine-glassful three or four times a day. This is simply
another form of the previous preparation.
=Infusion of Al'oes.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ALOËS, D. _Prep._ 1. From hepatic or
Socotrine aloes (in powder), 2 dr.; carbonate of potassa, 1-1/2 dr.;
boiling water, 1 pint.
2. (Compound; INFUSUM ALOËS COMPOSITUM, L.)--_a._ As the COMPOUND
DECOCTION OF A. (Ph. L.), but using only a pint of boiling water.
_b._ (Fothergill.) Calumba and rhubarb, of each, 1 oz.; aloes, 2 dr.; lime
water, 16 fl. oz.; spirit of horseradish, 1 fl. oz.; macerate in the cold
for 12 hours, and strain. The last three, like the decoction, are
aperient, antacid, stomachic, tonic, and emmenagogue.--_Dose_, 1
tablespoonful to a small wine-glassful, in water. The last one is an
admirable medicine in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, and troublesome
constipation.
=Infusion of Amer'ican Calum'ba.= _Syn._ INFUSUM FRASERÆ, L. From the
dried root of American calumba (_Frasera Carolinensis_). A pure, powerful,
and excellent bitter, destitute of aroma, and fully equal to gentian.
(Lindley.)
=Infusion of Amer'ican Cen'taury.= _Syn._ INFUSUM SABATII, L. From the
herb (_Sabbatia angularis_). A pure bitter tonic, without astringency or
aroma.
=Infusion of Amer'ican Sen'na.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CASSIÆ MARYLANDICÆ, L.
_Prep._ (Martin.) Leaves of American or wild senna (_Cassia Marylandica_),
1-1/2 oz.; coriander seed, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint. Purgative.
=Infusion of Angel'ica.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ANGELICÆ, L. From the root of
garden angelica. A warm stomachic and diaphoretic; and, in large doses,
aperient. It is a popular remedy in dyspepsia, flatulent colic, and
heartburn.
=Infusion of Aniseed.= _Syn._ ANISEED TEA; INFUSUM ANISI, L. Carminative;
an excellent adjunct to purgatives, to prevent griping; given to infants
to relieve colic, &c. Dr Prout recommends the use of water at 120° or 125°
Fahr.
=Infusion, Antiscorbu'tic.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ANTISCORBUTICUM, MISTURA
ANTISCORBUTICA, L. _Prep._ Water trefoil (_Menyanthes trifoliata_), 1 oz.;
orange peel, 2 dr.; boiling water, 1 quart; infuse for 8 or 10 hours,
strain, and add of compound spirit of horseradish, 5 fl. oz. In scurvy.
=Infusion of Ar'nica.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ARNICÆ, L. 1. From the flowers of
mountain arnica or German leopard's bane (_Arnica montana_). Cottereau
orders 1 oz., Dr Pereira 1/2 oz., and Dr A. T. Thomson, 1/4 oz. of the
flowers to the pint. The first is the usual quantity. The dose of the
first is a tablespoonful; of the second, 1/2 to 1 fl. oz.; of third, 1/2
to 1 wine-glassful.
2. (Compound; INFUSUM ARNICÆ COMPOSITUM, L.--Ph. Copenh.) Flowers of
arnica, 1 dr.; peppermint, 2 dr.; chamomiles, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1/2
pint.--_Dose_, 1 fl. oz. As the last.
=Infusion of Arnica-root.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ARNICSÆ RADICIS, L. _Prep._ (Ph.
Castr. Ruth.) Arnica root, 40 gr.; water, 1 lb.--_Dose_, 1 fl. oz. As the
above.
=Infusion, Astrin'gent.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ASTRINGENS, MISTURA A., L. _Prep._
1. From oak-bark.
2. Infusion of cusparia, 17 fl. oz.; tincture of catechu or kino, 1 fl.
oz.; powdered ipecacuanha, 1 dr.; powdered opium, 12 gr.; mix. In
diarrh[oe]a, &c. It must be well shaken before pouring out the dose.
=Infusion of Balm.= _Syn._ INFUSUM MELISSÆ, L. _Prep._ (Plenck.) Fresh
herb, 5 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse for fifteen minutes.
=Infusion of Aya-pana, Compound= (Dr Camera). _Syn._ INFUSUM AYÆ-PANÆ
COMPOSITUM. _Prep._ Leaves of Brazilian aya-pana, 2 dr.; aniseed, 1 dr.;
boiling water, 2 pints.
=Infusion of Bar'berry.= _Syn._ INFUSUM BARBERIS, L. _Prep._ (Dr Copland.)
From the bark of the barberry shrub (_Berberis vulgaris_). In jaundice,
biliary fluxes, and other cases where heat and acrimony prevail; either
alone or combined with a little carbonate of soda or potassa, and tincture
of calumba.
=Infusion of Bark.= See INFUSION OF CINCHONA.
=Infusion of Bay-leaves.= _Syn._ INFUSUM LAURI, I. LAURI NOBILIS, L. From
the leaves or the berries of the sweet bay (_Laurus nobilis_). Aromatic,
stimulant, and emmenagogue; in very large doses, emetic and poisonous. It
is chiefly given in colic, flatulence, paralysis of the extremities, and
obstructed menstruation.
=Infusion of Bearberry= (B. P.) _Syn._ INFUSUM UVÆ URSI. _Prep._ Infuse
bearberry leaves, bruised, 1/2 oz.; in boiling distilled water, 10 oz.; in
a covered vessel for 2 hours, and strain.
=Infusion of Beef.= See ESSENCE, TEA, &c.
=Infusion of Belladon'na.= _Syn._ INFUSUM BELLADONNÆ. L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr
Paris.) Leaves of deadly nightshade (dried), 4 gr.; boiling water, 2 fl.
oz.; for a dose.
2. (Compound;--Dr Saunders.) Leaves (dried), 1/2 dr.; boiling water, 12
fl. oz.; infuse, strain, and to every 7 fl. oz. of the infusion add of
compound tincture of cardamoms, 1 fl. oz.
=Infusion of Bis'tort.= _Syn._ INFUSUM BISTORTÆ, L. _Prep._ (Radius.)
Bistort or snake-weed root (_Poligonum Bistorta_), 1/2 oz.; boiling water,
1 pint; infuse 2 hours, and strain. In passive hæmorrhages.
=Infusion of Black Snake-root.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CIMICIFUGÆ RACEMOSÆ, L. In
dropsy, rheumatism, and chest complaints.
=Infusion of Blessed Thistle.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CARDUI BENEDICTI, L. From
the whole herb. In small doses it is diaphoretic; in larger ones, tonic,
stomachic, and deobstruent; taken warm, it is occasionally given to
promote the action of emetics. The properties of carduus benedictus "are
such as to lead us to the belief that it has been superseded by other not
more efficacious remedies." (Lindley.)
=Infusion of Blood-root.= _Syn._ INFUSION OF PUCCOON; INFUSUM SANGUINARIÆ,
L. _Prep._ Blood-root (_Sanguinaria Canadensis_), 1/2 oz.; boiling water,
1 pint. Stimulant and emetic.
=Infusion of Blue Flag.= _Syn._ INFUSUM IRIDIS VERSICOLORIS, L. _Prep._ 1.
From the flowers of blue flag (_Iris versicolor_).--2. From the root of
rhizomes. The first is used chiefly for its rich colour, as a test, &c.;
the second is diuretic and cathartic, and apt to produce distressing
nausea and prostration.
=Infusion of Bone'set.= _Syn._ INFUSUM EUPATORII, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. U.
S.) From the dried leaves and flowers of boneset or thorough-wort
(_Eupatorium perfoliatum_). Diaphoretic, nauseant, and emetic when warm;
tonic when cold.
2. (Compound; INFUSUM EUPATORII COMPOSITUM, L.--Ellis.) Boneset and sage,
of each 1/2 oz.; cascarilla, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; infuse
until cold, and strain. In hectic fever. A wine-glassful of either of the
above, given hourly, in these diseases, until perspiration and nausea are
induced, has been highly recommended in influenza.
=Infusion of Braz'il-wood.= _Syn._ INFUSUM LIGNI BRASILINSIS, L. From
ground or rasped Brazil wood. When wanted to keep, rectified spirit, 3 fl.
oz., is added to every pint. Used for colouring, and as a test.
=Infusion of Broom.= _Syn._ INFUSUM SCOPARII, L. See DECOCTION OF BROOM.
=Infusion of Bu'chu.= _Syn._ INFUSUM BUCHU (B. P.), I. BUCKU (Ph. E.), I.
DIOSMÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) From bruised buchu leaves, 1 oz.; boiling
distilled water, 1 pint; infuse for an hour and strain. Diuretic,
sudorific, tonic; in dyspepsia, &c.; but chiefly in chronic affections of
the bladder and urethra attended with copious secretion.--_Dose_, 1 to 2
oz.
2. (Compound; INFUSUM BUCHU COMPOSITUM, I. DIOSMÆ C., L.--(Radius.) Leaves
of buchu and whortleberry, of each 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 8 oz. (say 1/2
pint); digest for half an hour, strain, and add of syrup of senega, 1/2
fl. oz.--_Dose_, 1 or 2 table-spoonfuls every hour; in atony of the
bladder and mucous discharges.
=Infusion of Buck'bean.= _Syn._ INFUSUM MENYANTHIS, L. From the herb or
root of buckbean or marsh trefoil (_Menyanthes trifoliata_). Bitter,
stomachic, tonic, and diuretic; in large doses, purgative, vermifuge, and
emetic. It has been recommended in agues, gout, dropsy, scurvy, worms, &c.
The chief consumption of this plant is by the brewers; "2 oz. being equal
to 1 lb. of hops." (Gray.)
=Infusion of Bur'dock.= _Syn._ INFUSUM BARDANÆ, L. From the root of common
burdock. Aperient, diuretic, diaphoretic, and tonic; in gout, rheumatism,
skin diseases, &c. See DECOCTION and EXTRACT.
=Infusion of Calum'ba.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CALUMBÆ (B. P.) L. _Prep._ 1. (B.
P.) Calumba, in coarse powder, 1 oz.; cold distilled water, 2 oz.;
macerate one hour, and strain. Infusion of calumba is a good tonic and
stomachic bitter.--_Dose_, 1 to 3 fl. oz.; in dyspepsia, &c., and for
restraining vomiting and diarrh[oe]a during pregnancy or dentition. It is
preferably joined with small doses of the carbonates of soda, potassa,
ammonia, or magnesia, when there is acidity; or with chalybeates, when
there is paleness and a low pulse; with all of which substances it may be
mixed without suffering any sensible alteration.
2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM CALUMBÆ CONCENTRATUM, L.)--_a._ Calumba, in
coarse powder, 5-1/2 oz.; cold distilled water, 12 fl. oz.; digest with
frequent agitation, for 3 or 4 hours, then express the liquor, and repeat
the digestion with 5-1/2 fl. oz. more of tepid water; after another hour,
express this portion also, using as much force as possible; next mix the
liquors, heat them quickly to the boiling-point in a shallow vessel, and
pour the infusion, whilst still hot, into a strong bottle, and when it has
cooled a little add of rectified spirit, 4 fl. oz., secure down the
stopper or cork, and agitate well for a few minutes; the bottle must now
be set aside for a week, after which the clear portion is to be decanted
from the dregs. Very superior.
_b._ (Wholesale.) From calumba (reduced to coarse powder), 5-1/4 lbs.;
rectified spirit, 5 pints; (diluted with) water, 12 pints; digest for a
week, or precede by displacement. Should there be any difficulty in
obtaining it free from cloudiness, the whites of 4 or 5 eggs, previously
mixed with about a 1/4 pint of cold water, may be added to the infusion,
which, after being well agitated for about ten minutes, must be allowed to
repose for 7 or 8 days, and then decanted from the dregs. Should it not be
perfectly transparent, it may be filtered through blotting
paper.--_Product_, 20 lbs.
_Obs._ The concentrated infusion produced by the above formulæ is of very
superior quality, and has acquired an extensive sale in the wholesale
trade. 1 part added to 5-1/4 parts of water makes a perfectly transparent
liquid, possessing exactly similar virtues to the INFUSION OF CALUMBA--B.
P.
=Infusion of Canthar'ides.= _Syn._ INFUSION OF SPANISH FLIES; INFUSUM
CANTHARIDIS, I. LYTTÆ, L. _Prep._ (Soubeiran.) Spanish flies (powdered) 20
gr.; boiling water, q. s. (about 3-1/2 fl. oz.) to yield 3 fl. oz., after
expression and filtration.
=Infusion of Cap'sicum.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CAPSICI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Pereira.)
Capsicum (powdered), 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint.--_Dose_, 1/2 fl. oz.
2. (Stephen's 'PEPPER MEDICINE'--Pereira.) Red pepper (_Capsicum
fructescens_), 2 table-spoonfuls (or 3 of cayenne pepper); common salt, 2
teaspoonfuls; boiling water, 1/2 pint; to the strained liquor, when cold,
add of very sharp vinegar, 1/2 pint.--_Dose_, 1 table-spoonful, slowly
swallowed, every half hour, in cholera, malignant sore throat, scarlatina,
&c.
=Infusion of Car'away.= _Syn._ CARAWAY TEA; INFUSUM CARUI, L. _Prep._ From
bruised caraway seed, 3 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint. In the flatulent colic
of infants, and as an adjunct to aperient medicine.
=Infusion of Car'rot Seed.= _Syn._ INFUSUM DAUCI, I. CAROTÆ, L. Diuretic;
in dropsy and nephritic complaints; 1/2 to 1 pint being taken daily.
=Infusion of Cascaril'la.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CASCARILLÆ (B. P.), L. _Prep._
1. (B. P.) Cascarilla, in coarse powder, 1 oz.; boiling distilled water,
10 oz.; infuse for one hour in a closed vessel and strain.--_Dose._ 1 to 2
oz., usually combined with carbonate of soda and tincture of cascarilla.
It is an excellent medicine in dyspepsia, debility, diarrh[oe]a, &c.
2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM CASCARILLÆ CONCENTRATUM, L.)--_a._ Cascarilla
(good and fragrant, bruised), 6-1/2 lbs.; rectified spirit of wine, 3
pints; cold water, 6 pints; macerate in a close vessel for 14 days,
express the liquor, and filter.
_b._ As the last, but proceeding by the process of percolation.
_Obs._ If the preceding processes are well managed, the product is 10
lbs., and resembles brandy in colour and transparency, and is delightfully
fragrant. 1 part of this infusion mixed with 6-1/2 parts of water makes a
preparation exactly resembling the INFUSION OF CALUMBA--B. P.
3. (Alkaline; INFUSUM CASCARILLÆ ALKALISATUM, L.--Ph. Palat.) Cascarilla,
3 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 2 dr.; boiling water, 16 fl. oz. Antacid and
tonic.--_Dose_, l tablespoonful.
=Infusion of Cas'sia.= _Syn._ CASSIA TEA; INFUSUM CASSIA FISTULÆ, L.; EAU
DE CASSE, Fr. _Prep._ (Soubeiran.) Cassia pods (bruised), 4 oz.; boiling
water, 1-1/2 pint. Laxative.
=Infusion of Cate'chu.= _Syn._ COMPOUND INFUSION OF CATECHU; INFUSUM
CATECHU (B. P.), L. _Prep._ (B. P.) Catechu in coarse powder, 160 gr.,
cinnamon, bruised, 40 gr., boiling water, macerate for half an hour in a
covered vessel, and strain. Astringent in diarrh[oe]a.--_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.
three or four times a day, or after every liquid dejection.
=Infusion of Catmint.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CATARIÆ. _Prep._ Dry catmint, 2 oz.;
boiling water, 1 pint.
=Infusion of Cayenne Pep'per.= See INFUSION OF CAPSICUM.
=Infusion of Cen'taury.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CENTAURI, L. From the flowering
tops of common or lesser centaury (_Erythæa centaurium_). Bitter,
febrifuge, stomachic, and vermifuge. A popular remedy in obstructions,
jaundice, debility, dyspepsia, &c.; and externally, for the itch, and to
destroy pediculi. An infusion is also made of the root, which is about one
half more powerful than the tops. The plant is "a valuable native
medicine; in the places where it grows it is carefully collected for use
in rustic pharmacy." (Lindley.)
=Infusion, Cephal'ic.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CEPHALICUM, L. _Prep._ (Edin. Hosp.)
Valerian root, 2 oz.; rosemary tops, 4 dr.; boiling water, 1 quart, infuse
12 hours, strain, and add aromatic water, 4 fl. oz. As an antispasmodic,
and in various affections of the head.
=Infusion of Cham'omile.= _Syn._ CHAMOMILE TEA; INFUSUM ANTHEMIDIS (B. P.)
I. CHAMÆMELI, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Chamomile flowers, 1/2 oz.; boiling
water, 10 oz.; infuse for fifteen minutes, and strain.
Tonic, bitter, and stomachic; also emetic. It should be drunk cold, as it
is emetic when warm.--_Dose._ As a stomachic, 1 to 3 oz.; as an emetic, 5
to 10 oz.
2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM ANTHEMIDIS CONCENTRATUM, L. From chamomiles,
5-1/2 oz., water; 1 pint; boil till the mixture weighs exactly 21 oz.,
express the liquor by means of a powerful tincture-press, cool, and add of
essential oil of chamomile, 15 drops, dissolved in rectified spirit, 5 fl.
oz. agitate well, let it repose until the next day, then decant the clear,
and filter. Strongly bitter and odorous, and beautifully transparent.
5-1/2 times as strong as the ordinary INFUSION--B. P.
=Infusion of Chamomile and Orange= (Dr Percival). _Syn._ INFUSUM
ANTHEMIDIS ET AURANTII. _Prep._ Chamomile flowers, 1 oz.; dried orange
peel, 1/2 oz.; cold water, 3 lbs.; macerate for 24 hours.
=Infusion of Cher'ry-laurel.= _Syn._ INFUSUM LAURO-CERASI, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Cheston.) Fresh leaves of the common or cherry-laurel (_Cerasus
Lauro-cerasus_). 2-1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse, strain, and add
of clarified honey, 2-1/2 oz. As a lotion in cancer of the lip, and as a
wash for malignant ulcers.
=Infusion of Chiret'ta.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CHIRATÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.)
Chiretta, cut small, 1 oz.; distilled water, at 120° F., 40 oz.; infuse
half an hour, and strain.--_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.
_Obs._ Chiretta is a pure tonic bitter, closely allied to gentian, and has
been long esteemed in the East Indies as a remedy for acidity, flatulence,
and dyspepsia, especially when occurring in gouty or debilitated habits.
It is usually given in combination with carbonate of soda or salts of
iron. The whole of the plant is employed.
2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM CHIRETTÆ CONCENTRATUM, L.) From Chiretta, 4 oz.;
for each pint of the product, prepared as either CONC. INFUSION OF CALUMBA
or CASCARILLA. Eight times as strong as the common infusion.
=Infusion of Cincho'na.= _Syn_. INFUSION OF BARK, INFUSUM CINCHONÆ, L.
_Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Yellow cinchona (calisaya) bark, in coarse powder, 1
oz.; boiling distilled water, 1 pint; infuse for two hours in a covered
vessel, and strain.
_Obs._ Infusion of bark is tonic and stomachic, and in very large doses
febrifuge. It is an extremely useful medicine in dyspepsia, debility, and
during convalescences, and is often a valuable adjunct to more active
remedies. Like the decoction, it is most energetic when strained whilst
hot. The addition of 1 fl. dr. of diluted sulphuric acid to the water
before pouring it on the bark increases its solvent power, and,
consequently the strength of the infusion.--_Dose_, 1 to 3 fl. oz.
2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM CINCHONÆ CONCENTRATUM, L.)--_a._ Yellow bark
(coarsely powdered), 4 lbs.; boiling water, 8 lbs.; digest for 12 hours,
express the liquid, add rectified spirit, 2 lbs., and after 24 hours'
repose decant the clear portion.
_b._ Yellow bark (in coarse powder), 4 lbs.; cold water, 8 lbs.; rectified
spirit, 2 lbs.; dilute sulphuric acid, 4 fl. oz.; mix the fluids, and
either macerate the bark in them for a week in a closed vessel, or proceed
by the method of displacement. Very superior.
_Obs._ 1 fl. dr. of either of the above, added to 7 fl. dr. of water,
produces an extemporaneous infusion of cinchona resembling that of the
pharmacop[oe]ia. The concentrated preparation of the Ph. L. being more
than 8 times the usual strength, is placed amongst LIQUORS.
3. From PALE BARK:--_a._ (Ph. L., INFUSION OF PALE CINCHONA; INFUSUM
CINCHONÆ PALLIDÆ--Ph. L.) From pale bark, as INFUSION OF CINCHONA--Ph. L.
_b._ (Ph. D.; INFUSUM CINCHONÆ--Ph. D.) Crown or pale bark, 1 oz.; boiling
water, 1/2 pint; infuse 1 hour in a covered vessel, and strain through
paper.
_Obs._ "This infusion is inferior to the preceding" (from yellow bark) "in
activity, and is a very unnecessary one. It is said to oppress the stomach
less than that of the other cinchona bark; the reason is obvious--it is
weaker." (Pereira.)
_c._ Concentrated; INFUSUM CINCHONÆ PALLIDÆ CONCENTRATUM, L. As
CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF CINCHONA, but using pale bark. The concentrated
preparation of the Ph. L. will be found under LIQUORS.
=Infusion of Cin'namon.= _Syn._ CINNAMON TEA; INFUSUM CINNAMOMI, L. In
flatulence, dyspepsia, and nervous colics.
=Infusion of Cloves.= _Syn._ CLOVE TEA; INFUSUM CARYOPHYLLORUM, I.
CARIOPHYLLI (B. P.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Cloves (bruised), 1 oz.;
boiling distilled water, 20 oz.; infuse for half an hour, and strain.
Aromatic, stimulant, and stomachic, either alone or in combination; in
colic, dyspepsia, gout, &c.--_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.
2. (Concentrated: INFUSUM CARYOPHYLLI CONCENTRATUM, L.)--_a._ Bruised
cloves, 3 oz.; boiling water, 16 fl. oz.; infuse as above and strain; when
cold, add of rectified spirit 1/4 pint, and filter.
_b._ Bruised cloves, 1-3/4 lb.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; cold water, 3
quarts; macerate for 7 days, and express the liquid; sprinkle the marc
with water, 12 fl. oz., and after the lapse of an hour again submit it to
the press; lastly filter the mixed liquors. Very fine. The above are about
eight times the strength of the INFUSION OF CLOVES.--Ph. L.
=Infusion of Cof'fee.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CAFFEI, L. _Prep._ (Dr McBride.)
Unroasted coffee berries (bruised), 30 in no.; cold water, 1 quart;
macerate 2 or 3 hours. In calculus, &c.--_Dose_, 1/2 pint every morning.
_Obs._ Sir J. Floyer and Sir J. Pringle cured asthma with a strong
solution of roasted coffee. M. Bouchardat prescribes a strong infusion
made by displacement (percolation), and mixed with a little brandy, in
poisoning by opium and other like narcotics, after the administration of
emetics and ioduretted water. M. Honore also employs very strong-made
coffee in albuminuria. Clausen gives it in gout, and Parker employs it as
a nervous stimulant in lieu of ammonia and wine, for persons of a slightly
sensitive and excitable temperament.
=Infusion of Contrayer'va.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CONTRAYERVÆ, L. _Prep._
(Pereira.) Contrayerva (in powder), 1 oz.; boiling water, 12 fl. oz.
Stimulant, tonic, and diaphoretic; in low fevers, &c.
=Infusion of Copal'che Bark.= _Syn._ INFUSUM COPALCHI CORTICIS, L. _Prep._
(Dr Stark.) Bark of copalche bush (_Croton pseudo-China_), 1/2 oz.;
boiling water, 1 pint; digest 2 hours, and strain. A warm bitter and
stomachic.
=Infusion of Cor'sican Moss.= _Syn._ INFUSUM HELMINTHOCORTI, L. _Prep._
(Farr.) Corsican moss, 5 dr., boiling water, 1 pint; macerate for 10 or 12
hours, and strain. _Ad libitum_ in cancer. See DECOCTION.
=Infusion of Cotula.= _Syn._ INFUSUM COTULÆ. From dried flowers of
Anthemio cotula, as infusion of chamomiles.
=Infusion of Cuspa''ria.= _Syn._ INFUSION OF ANGOSTURA BARK; INFUSUM
CUSPARIÆ (B. P.), I. ANGUSTURÆ, L. _Prep._ (B. P.) Cusparia, in coarse
powder, 1 oz.; distilled water, at 120°, 20 oz.; infuse 2 hours, and
strain. Stimulant and tonic; in typhus fever, bilious diarrh[oe]a,
dysentery, &c.
=Infusion of Daf''fodil.= _Syn._ INFUSUM NARCISSI PSEUDO-NARCISSI, L.
_Prep._ (Dufresnoy.) Flowers of daffodil (_Narcissus pseudo-Narcissus_), 3
to 16 in no.; boiling water, 1 pint. Expectorant, nauseant, and emetic. In
hooping-cough.
=Infusion of Dah''lia Pe'tals.= From the violet or blue varieties. Used
for its colour and as a test.
=Infusion of Dandeli'on.= _Syn._ INFUSION OF TARAXACUM; INFUSUM TARAXACI,
L. 1. From the sliced root. Stimulant, resolvent, and tonic.
2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM TARAXACI CONCENTRATUM, L.) From the root
(sliced), 1 lb.; exposed to a current of warm dry air until crisp, then
coarsely pulverised, and digested for a week in a mixture of rectified
spirit, 12 fl. oz.; cold water, 1-1/2 pint. 8 times the usual strength.
3. (Compound; INFUSUM TARAXACI COMPOSITUM, L.--Meigs.) Infusion of
dandelion, 4 fl. oz.; extract of do., 2 dr.; sesquicarbonate of soda, 1/2
dr.; tartrate of potassa, 3 dr.; tincture of rhubarb, 3 fl. dr.; tincture
of henbane, 20 drops. In dropsical and visceral affections.--_Dose._ One
third part thrice daily. See DECOCTION, EXTRACT, &c.
=Infusion of Digita'lis.= See INFUSION OF FOXGLOVE.
=Infusion, Diuret'ic.= _Syn._ INFUSUM DIURETICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Broom
tops, 1 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse 1 hour, strain, cool, and add
of sweet spirits of nitre, 3 fl. dr.--_Dose._ A wine-glassful every other
hour.
2. Infusion of foxglove, 1 fl. oz.; tincture of foxglove, 1/2 fl. dr.;
acetate of potassa, 1 dr.; laudanum, 10 drops.--_Dose_, 1 table-spoonful
twice or thrice a day, carefully watching the effects.
3. Juniper berries, 2 oz.; aniseed, 1/4 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse
1 hour; strain, and when cold, add of compound spirit of juniper, 2 fl.
oz.; tincture of squills, 1 fl. dr.; nitre, 1 dr.--_Dose_, 1/2 a teacupful
frequently. All the above are used as diuretics in dropsy. See INFUSIONS
OF BROOM, FOXGLOVE, and JUNIPER.
=Infusion of Dog'wood.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CORNUS FLORIDÆ, L. From the bark of
American dogwood (_Cornus Florida_). See DECOCTION.
=Infusion of Dulcamara= (B. P.). _Syn._ INFUSUM DULCAMARÆ. _Prep._ Infuse
bruised dulcamara, 1 oz.; in 10 fluid ounces of boiling water in a covered
vessel for 1 hour; and strain.--_Dose_, 1 oz. to 2 oz.
=Infusion of El'der Flowers.= _Syn._ ELDER-FLOWER TEA; INFUSUM SAMBUCI
FLORUM, L. From the picked flowers, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint.
Pectoral, expectorant, and diaphoretic, either alone or sweetened with
honey.
=Infusion of Elecampane.= _Syn._ INFUSUM INULÆ. _Prep._ Elecampane root, 5
dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse for two hours, and strain.
=Infusion of Elm-bark.= _Syn._ COMPOUND INULÆ, L. Diaphoretic,
expectorant, and tonic. FUSION OF ELM-BARK; INFUSUM ULMI COMPOSITUM, L.
_Prep._ (Cadet.) Elm-bark, bitter-sweet, burdock, and fumitory, of each 2
dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; digest for 4 hours, strain, and add of syrup
of sarsaparilla, 1 oz. The whole to be taken in 24 hours, in divided doses
in the chronic exanthemata. See DECOCTION.
=Infusion of Er'got of Rye.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ERGOTÆ (B. P.). L. _Prep._ 1.
(B. P.) Ergot, 1, in coarse powder, 1 oz.; boiling distilled water, 40
oz.; infuse 1/2 an hour in a covered vessel, and strain. Should be made
fresh when required.--_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz. every 1/2 hour or hour, as a
parturient. Also as an injection for gleet.