6. Certain agents which appear to arrest putrefaction or condense certain
gases, &c., without either destruction or oxidation:
Carbolic acid,
Tar acids,
Charcoal,
Great cold,
Heat sufficient to dry organic substances, but not to char them.
7. Preservative liquids and solutions. Many of these act by coagulating
the albumen of organised bodies:
Antiseptics,
Alcohol,
Solutions of corrosive sublimate,
Solutions of common salt,
Solutions of saltpetre.
8. Destructive agents. Not true disinfectants, they act not by
disinfection, but by destruction:
A dry heat of 200° to 400° F.,
The strong undiluted acids and alkalies.
9. Agents which act in many ways, partly by condensing gases, partly by
absorbing moisture, and partly by a peculiar action on organic matter
analogous to tannin:
Dry earths,
Clays,
The natural and artificial compounds of aluminium.
The table on the next page is a summary by the late Dr Letheby of some
experiments made by Drs Dougall and Calvert, with the view of determining
the relative powers possessed by certain substances of arresting
putrefaction, as measured by their action in preventing the germination of
animalcules and fungi, and the development of vaccine lymph.[258]
[Footnote 258: 'On the Relative Power of various Substances in Preventing
the Germination of Animalculæ,' by John Dougall, 1871. Calvert,
'Proceedings of the Royal Society,' vol. xx, p. 185.]
=Disinfecting Compounds.= 1. (Sir WM. BURNETT'S DISINFECTING LIQUID.) A
concentrated solution of chloride of zinc. See ZINC.
2. (COLLINS' DISINFECTING POWDER.) A mixture of dry chloride of lime, 2
parts, and burnt alum, 1 part. Used either dry or moistened with water.
See LIME.
3. (CONDY'S DISINFECTING FLUIDS.) Solutions of the alkaline manganates and
permanganates. Although this is an excellent and rapid deodoriser, and
makes a most serviceable dressing for fetid sores, it must be borne in
mind that it is in no sense an aërial disinfectant, its action being
limited to the solid or liquid matters only with which it is brought into
immediate contact. It exercises no corrosive action, but it is open to the
objection that it leaves a brown stain upon linen. See MANGANESE.
4. (ELLERMAN'S DEODORISING FLUID.) This is said to consist chiefly of the
perchlorides and chlorides of iron and manganese.
"In a report addressed to the Metropolitan Board of Works in 1859, Drs
Hoffmann and Frankland stated that the perchloride of iron was the
cheapest and most efficient deodoriser that could be applied to sewage."
(Beasley.)
5. (LABARRAQUE'S DISINFECTING SOLUTION; LIQUOR SODÆ CHLORINATÆ, Ph. L. &
D.) A solution of chlorinated soda, or, as it is commonly called,
'chloride of soda.' M. Labarraque made known this valuable disinfectant in
1822, and obtained the prize of the French 'Society for Encouraging
National Industry' for its introduction.
6. (LEDOYEN'S DISINFECTING FLUID.) A solution of nitrate of lead, 1 part,
in about 8 parts of water; or, of litharge, 13-1/2 oz., in nitric acid
(sp. gr. 1·38), 12 oz., previously diluted with water, 6 pints. Sp. gr.
1·40.
7. (SIRET'S DISINFECTING COMPOUNDS.)--_a._ A mixture of sulphate of lime,
53 lbs., sulphate of iron, 40 lbs., sulphate of zinc, 7 lbs., and peat
charcoal, 2 lbs., made into balls.
_b._ Sulphate of iron, 20 parts; sulphate of zinc, 10 parts; tan or waste
oak-bark (in powder), 4 parts; tar and oil, of each 1 part; as before.
Used for deodorising cesspools, &c.
8. (BISULPHIDE OF CARBON.) This generates, when burnt, sulphurous acid,
and is, therefore, a very valuable disinfectant. Its highly inflammable
nature, however, renders the adoption of certain precautions necessary in
its use. A method of employing it in the form of fumigation will be found
under the article "Fumigation."
9. Dry salicylic acid volatilised from a hot plate purifies the air, and
perfectly disinfects the walls of a closed room. (VON HEYDEN.)
10. "SANITAS" is the name given by Mr Kingzett, its discoverer, to a new
liquid antiseptic and disinfectant, containing peroxide of hydrogen and
camphoric acid, and obtained by the atmospheric oxidation of turpentine.
Sanitas is said by its inventor to possess the great advantages of being
non-poisonous, and to exercise no injurious effects either on clothing or
furniture. It is stated that its antiseptic power is distributed between
the peroxide of hydrogen and camphoric acid, the peroxide of hydrogen
being able to evolve large quantities of oxygen, which in this state is
nascent, and of a powerful and oxidising character.
11. COOPER'S UNIVERSAL DISINFECTING POWDER. According to Professor Wanklyn
this powder contains 70 per cent. of mixed chloride of sodium and chloride
of calcium, and about 6 per cent. of anhydrous sulphate of zinc (equal to
about 12 per cent. of hydrated sulphate), a little insoluble matter, and
15 per cent. of moisture.
12. DR BOND'S CUPRALUM AND FERRALUM. The first of these disinfectants is
stated to be a mixture of the sulphates of copper and aluminium, with
potassic dichromate and turpentine. Its inventor claims for it that it
possesses great power of coagulating albumen and high value both as an
antiseptic and deodorant. FERRALUM is a mixture of ferrous and aluminic
sulphates, turpentine, and carbolic acid. Its chief use is for flushing
sewers and in deodorising cesspools, urinals, &c.
13. BAYARD'S DISINFECTANT. A mixture of sulphate of iron, clay, lime, and
coal tar.
_Summary of the Experiments made by_ DR J. DOUGALL,
_and by_ DR CRACE CALVERT, _on the action of various
Antiseptics on Protoplasmic and Fungus Life, and on
Vaccine Lymph._
KEY:
A - Quantity required to prevent Animalcules in six days.
B - Number of Days before Life appeared in a solution containing 1 of
substance in 500 water and 1/2 drachm of following--
C - Number of Days before Vibrio Life appeared in a solution of Albumen
containing 1 of substance in 1000 of solution.
D - Beef Juice.
E - Sol. of Egg Albumen.
F - Reaction of the Solution.
G - Infusion of Hay.
H - Human Urine.
I - Beef Juice and Egg Albumen.
J - Average of all.
K - Effect on Animalcules in Putrid Beef Juice and Egg Albumen, when
added in proportion in third column.
L - Animalcules.
M - Fungi.
N - Animalcules.
O - Fungi.
P - Effect of the Vapour or Gas during 24 hrs. on Vaccine Lymph.
Q - Animalcules.
R - Putrid Odour.
S - Fungi.
T - Mouldy Odour.
-------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------
| |EXPERIMENTS BY DR CRACE
| EXPERIMENTS MADE BY DR JOHN DOUGALL, OF GLASGOW. | CALVERT.
+--------+-------------------+------+-----------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
| | A | | B | | C
| |----+----+----+----+ +-----------------+--------+--------+ |-------+-------+-------+-------
| | | | | | | D | E | | | | |
| | | | | | |--------+--------+--------+--------+ | | | |
Substances used. | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T
-------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
| |1 in|1 in|1 in|1 in| | | | | | | | | |
Acids. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Mineral. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Sulphurous | Acid. | 250| 50| 50| 117|Death.| 24 | 4 P. | 8 |Over 100|Killed.| 11 |Over 40| 21 |Over 40
Nitric | " | 400| 400| 200| 333| " | 18 | 4 P. | 15 | 5 T. | " | 10 | 50 | 10 | 23
Hydrochloric | " | 500| 400| 100| 333| " | 28 | 4 P. | 9 |Over 100| " | -- | -- | -- | --
Sulphuric | " | 800| 500| 100| 467| " |Over 100|Over 100| 30 | 10 T. | -- | 9 | -- | 9 | 11
Chromic | " |4000|1400|1200|2200| -- | 78 | 38 P. |Over 100|Over 100| -- | -- | -- | -- | --
Organic. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Carbolic |Neutral.| 300| 300| 200| 267| None.| 12 | 50 T. | 38 | 36 P. | None. |Over 40|Over 40|Over 40|Over 40
Cresylic | " | -- | -- | -- | -- | " | -- | -- | -- | -- | " | " | " | " | "
Acetic | Acid. | 350| 25| 10| 125| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |Killed.| 30 | -- | 9 | 50
Picric | " | 350| 350| 350| 350|Death.| 44 | 11 P. |Over 100| 44 P. | -- | 17 |Over 40| 19 |Over 40
Benzoic | " | 700| 700| 200| 533| " |Over 100|Over 100| " |Over 100| -- | -- | -- | -- | --
-------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
Alkalies. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Lime | Alk. | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 13 | 19 |Over 40|Over 40
Potash | " | 300| 50| 10| 120|Death.| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 16 | -- | -- | --
Soda | " | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 23 | 31 | 18 | 29
Ammonia | " | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 24 | 50 | 20 |Over 40
-------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
Haloids. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Iodine tincture |Neutral.| 400| 400| 50| 283|Death.| 1 | 80 T.| 15 |Over 100| -- | -- | -- | -- | --
Chlorine gas | Acid. | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |Killed.| 7 | 21 | 21 | --
Chloride lime | Alk. | 200| 200| 25| 142|Death.| 27 | 27 T.| 40 |Over 100| " | 7 | 18 | 16 | --
Chloride zinc | Acid. | 300| 300| 300| 300| " | 4 |Over 100| 18 | " | -- |Over 40|Over 40| 50 |Over 40
Chloride aluminum| " |2000| 500| 300| 933| -- | 19 | 4 P.|Over 100| 8 P. | -- | 10 | " | 21 | 50
-------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
Sulphates, &c. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Bisulphite lime | Acid. | 100| 50| 25| 58|Death.| 4 | 92 T.| 9 |Over 100| -- | 11 | 21 | 14 |Over 40
Sulphate zinc | " | 300| 300| 200| 267| " | 30 | 4 P.| 90 | 70 P. | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
Sulphate iron | " | 500| 500| 100| 367| ? | 14 | 5 T.| 35 | 40 T. | -- | 7 |Over 40| 15 | --
Common alum | " | 800| 500| 100| 467| -- | 14 | 3 P.| 38 | 15 T. | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
Sulphate copper | " |1000|1000| 800| 933|Death.| 86 | 20 P.|Over 100|Over 100| -- | -- | -- | -- | --
-------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
Permanganate potash|Neutral.| 500| 200| 125| 275| None.| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 9 | 50 | 22 |Over 40
Alcohol | " | 350| 50| 20| 140|Death.| 4 | 4 T.| 10 |Over 100| -- | -- | -- | -- | --
Camphor | " | 300| 150| 50| 167| None.| -- | -- | -- | -- | None. | -- | -- | -- | --
Turpentine | " | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 14 |Over 40| 42 |Over 40
-------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
Note.--In the _first_ set of Dr John Dougall's experiments 3 drachms of a
solution of the strength mentioned were treated with 1 drachm of a
filtered infusion of hay, or with half a drachm of urine or half a drachm
of the mixture of beef juice and egg-albumen. In the _second_ set of
experiments equal parts of a putrid solution of beef juice and
egg-albumen, full of living animalcules, and of the solution of the
various substances of the strength known to be preventive of life (as in
third column), were mixed together, and the results immediately noted. In
the _third_ set of experiments 3-1/2 drachms of distilled water,
containing 1 in 500 of the substances named, were treated with half a
drachm of filtered beef juice, or half a drachm of a solution consisting
of 1 part white of egg to 4 parts water. In the _last_ set of experiments,
separate minims of vaccine lymph were exposed to the several vapours for
24 hours, and the dried spot in each case was moistened with glycerin and
water, and sealed in a capillary tube until an opportunity for vaccination
occurred, when the whole of the diluted lymph was used in one insertion so
as to ensure its full effect.
In Dr Crace Calvert's experiments, 0·026 of a gramme of the substance was
added to 26 grammes (1 to 1000) of a solution of albumen containing 1 part
white of egg to 4 parts _pure_ distilled water.
The Animalcules observed were Monads (microphymes), Vibrios, and their
cell segments (microerphymes), Bacteria (microzymes), Am[oe]ba, &c.; and
the Fungi were Torula, Mycelium, Penicilium, &c., indicated in Table by
letters T and P. Putrefaction was always characterised by a putrid odour,
an alkaline reaction, and the presence of animalcules; whereas Mouldiness
and Fermentation were distinguished by a mouldy or musty odour, an acid
reaction, and the presence of Fungi.
14. LARMANDE'S ANTIMEPHETIC LIQUOR. A solution of the sulphates of zinc
and copper.
15. THYMOL. From experiments made with this substance it appears to be a
very powerful and valuable antiseptic, and likely, because of its
non-poisonous and non-irritant qualities, to supplant carbolic acid in
various branches of surgical practice, in which this latter agent has
hitherto been employed; such, for example, as a dressing for wounds,
ulcers, and as a topical application for certain skin eruptions, &c. Its
difficult solubility and price (spite of its much greater antiseptic
power), however, for the present at any rate, preclude it from being made
available as an ordinary common disinfectant, as this term is generally
understood. See THYMOL.
16. SILICATE OF SODA. It is stated that this salt has considerable
anti-putrefactive powers.
17. Aluminised CHARCOAL. This is recommended by Dr Stenhouse as a cheap
and very efficient decolorising agent. It is made by dissolving in water
54 parts of the sulphate of alumina of commerce in water, and mix it with
92-1/2 parts of finely powdered wood charcoal. When the charcoal is
saturated it is evaporated to dryness, and heated to redness in covered
Hessian crucibles till the water and acid are dissipated. The charcoal
contains 7-1/2 per cent. of anhydrous alumina.
The natural disinfectants are air and water.
Air, when in violent motion, as is the case during a hurricane, has in
many instances been known to arrest the course of certain epidemics;
whilst in the form of ordinary ventilation, although inadequate alone to
destroy the causes (whatever they may be) of contagion or infection, it is
nevertheless found to supplement, to a considerable extent, the
application of artificial and specific disinfectants. Hence the paramount
necessity of perfect ventilation in all apartments in which the sick are
placed, and hence also the measures taken in all hospitals to ensure by
this means an increasing supply of fresh air to the wards in which the
patients are lying.
The diminution in the amount of sickness prevailing in an army caused by
the removal of the soldiers from barracks and placing them in sheds or
under canvas is another illustration, tending to show the disinfectant
properties possessed by an atmosphere in a state of circulation, when, of
course, other hygienic precautions are not neglected.
In Hammond's 'Hygiène' for 1863 the author, who was surgeon-general in the
United States army, says that he only met with one instance of hospital
gangrene in a wooden pavilion hospital, and not a single one in a tent;
and the same result is recorded by Kraus, of the Austrian army in 1859,
who says he never discovered that gangrene originated in a tent; that, on
the contrary, cases of gangrene at once began to improve when those
suffering from the disease were sent from hospital wards into tents. In
his work on 'Practical Hygiène' Dr Parkes advises all cases of typhus
occurring in barracks, whenever practicable, to be sent to tents or wooden
huts having badly-jointed walls.
The great solvent power of water, superadded to its being able to hold
matters in suspension, renders it a most important disinfectant, and thus
enables it in the form of rain to remove from the atmosphere many noxious
and pestilential bodies that would doubtless, if allowed to increase,
become a source of disease. The air-current which constitutes the
ventilation of the House of Commons, before entering the Commons' chamber,
is made to pass over a fine spray of water, by which means it has any dust
or other organisms washed out of it. The beneficial effect of rain also in
flushing drains and canals, and sweetening the superincumbent air, and of
washing out of it many solid as well as gaseous objectionable impurities,
is well known. The year 1860 was one of the wettest on record, as it was
also one of the healthiest. Dr W. Budd recommends that when a room is to
be disinfected, a short time before the process is commenced a tub of
boiling water should be placed in the apartment, so that the steam may
become condensed on the walls, and diffused throughout the air, as he
believes there is a greater chance of ensuring the destruction of the
disease germs by the aërial disinfectants than if these latter were
allowed to act on the germs in the dry state.
We have already enforced in these pages the importance of the habit of
personal cleanliness as being one of the greatest aids to the preservation
of health; and although the unstinted use of soap and water will alone
fail to effect the removal of any infectious or contagious maladies, their
use will be found important auxiliaries in assisting recovery. But
personal ablution is not the _sine quâ non_. The frequent cleansing of our
dwellings, streets,[259] alleys (more particularly culs-de-sac), lanes,
and the sheds and habitations of animals, by soap and water, or water
alone, as well as the removal of all decaying or refuse materials from our
midst, is of equal importance, and must not be disregarded, if we desire
to make our sanitary surroundings such as they ought to be.
[Footnote 259: In streets where there is much traffic the air above has
been found to contain large quantities of dust composed, amongst other
matters, of the remains of horse droppings; hence the great importance of
assiduously watering and cleansing the thoroughfares of all large cities
and towns. A plan for laying the dust of streets has been suggested by Mr
Cooper, and consists in watering them with waste chlorides of calcium and
magnesium. Carbolic acid has been employed for the same purpose by many
urban authorities for some years past.]
We extract the following from Dr Parkes' valuable and standard
work--'Practical Hygiene,'
"_Disinfection of Various Diseases._
"EXANTHEMATA, SCARLET FEVER, AND ROTHËLN. The points to attack are the
skin and throat. The skin should be rubbed from the very commencement of
the rash until complete desquamation, with camphorated oil, or oil with a
little weak carbolic acid. The throat should be washed with Condy's fluid,
or weak solution of sulphurous acid.
"Clothes to be baked, or to be placed at once in boiling water, as
directed further back. The clothes should not be washed at a common
laundry. Chlorine or euchlorine should be diffused in the air, the saucer
being put some little distance above the head of the patient. Carbolic
acid and ether or carbolic-acid spray may be used instead.
"_Smallpox._--In this, as in all cases, there can be no use in employing
aërial disinfectants, unless they are constantly in the air, so as to act
on any particle of poison which may pass into the atmosphere.
"The skin and the discharges from the mouth, nose, and eyes are to be
attacked. There is much greater difficulty with the skin, as inunction
cannot be so well performed. By smearing with oil and a little carbolic
acid and glycerin, or, in difficult cases, applying carbolised glycerin to
the papules and commencing pustules, might be tried. The permanganate and
sulphurious acid solutions should be used for the mouth, nose, and eyes.
The clothing should always be baked before washing, if it can be done.
"The particles which pass into the air are enclosed in small dry pieces of
pus and epithelial scales; and Bakewell, who has lately examined them,
expresses great doubts whether any air purifier would touch them. Still it
must be proper to use euchlorine or carbolic acid. Iodine has been
recommended by Richardson and Hoffmann.
"_Measles._--Oily applications to the skin and air purifiers, and
chlorides of zinc and aluminium in the vessels receiving the
expectoration, appear to be the proper measures.
"_Typhus (Exanthematicus)._--Two measures seem sufficient to prevent the
spread of typhus, viz. most complete ventilation and immediate
disinfection and cleansing of clothes. But there is also more evidence of
use from air purifiers than in the exanthemata. The nitrous acid fumes
were tried very largely towards the close of last century and the
beginning of this in the hulks and prisons where Spanish, French, and
Russian prisoners of war were confined. At that time so rapidly did the
disease spread in the confined spaces where so many men were kept, that
the efficacy even of ventilation was doubted, though there can be no
question that the amount of ventilation which was necessary was very much
underrated. Both at Windsor and Sheerness the circumstances were most
difficult. At the latter place (in 1785), in the hulk, 200 men, 150 of
whom had typhus, were closely crowded together; 10 attendants and 24 men
of the crew were attacked; 3 medical officers had died when the
experiments commenced. After the fumigations one attendant only was
attacked, and it appeared as if the disease in those already suffering
became milder. In 1797 it was again tried with success, and many reports
were made on the subject by army and naval surgeons. It was subsequently
largely employed on the Continent, and everywhere seems to have been
useful.
"These facts lead to the inference that the evolutions of nitrous acid
should be practised in typhus-fever wards, proper precautions being taken
to diffuse it equally through the room, and in a highly dilute form.
"Hydrochloric acid was employed for the same purpose by Guyton de Morveau
in 1773, but it is doubtless much inferior to nitrous acid. Chlorine has
also been employed, and apparently with good results.
"In typhus it would seem probable that the contagia pass off entirely by
the skin, at least the effect of ventilation, and the way in which the
agent coheres to the body linen seems to show this.
"The agent is not also enclosed in quantities of dry discharges and
epidemics, as in the exanthemata, and is therefore less persistent and
more easily destroyed than in those cases. Hence possibly the greater
benefit of fumigations, and the reason of the arrest by ventilation. The
clothes should be baked, steeped, and washed, as in the exanthemata.
"_Bubo Plague._ The measures would probably be the same as for typhus.
"_Enteric (typhoid fever)._ The bowels' discharges are believed to be the
chief, if not the sole agents in spreading the disease; the effluvia from
them escape into the air, and will adhere to walls and retain power for
some time, or the discharges themselves may get into drinking-water. Every
discharge should be at once mixed with a powerful chemical agent; of
these, chloride and sulphate of zinc have been chiefly used, but sulphate
of copper (which Dougall found so useful in stopping the growth of
animalculæ), chloride of aluminium, or strong solution of ferrous sulphate
(1 ounce to a pint of water), or carbolic acid. After complete mixing the
stools must be thrown into sewers in towns; but this should never be done
without previous complete disinfection. In country places they should be
deeply buried at a place far removed from any water supply; they should
never be thrown on to manure heaps or on to middens, nor into earth
closets, if it can be possibly avoided. As the bedclothes and beds are so
constantly soiled with the discharges, they should be baked, or, if this
cannot be done, boiled immediately after removal with sulphate or chloride
of zinc. It would be less necessary to employ air purifiers in this case
than in others.
"_Cholera._ There can be little doubt that the discharges are here also
the active media of the conveyance of the disease, and their complete
disinfection is a matter of the highest importance. It is, however, so
difficult to do this with the immense discharges of cholera, especially
when there are many patients, that the evidence of the use of the plan in
the last European epidemic is very disappointing.
"The ferrous sulphate (green vitriol), which has been strongly recommended
by Pettenkofer as an addition to the cholera evacuations, was fully tried
in 1866 at Frankfurt, Halle, Leipzig, in Germany, and at Pill, near
Bristol, and in those cases without any good result. In other places, as
at Baden, the benefit was doubtful. It seemed to answer better with Dr
Budd and Mr Davies at Bristol; but other substances were also used, viz.
chlorine gas in the rooms, and chloride of lime and Condy's fluid for the
linen. On the whole it seems to have been a failure. Ferric sulphate, with
or without potassium permanganate, has been recommended by Kühne instead
of ferrous sulphate, but I am not aware of any evidence on the point.
Carbolic acid was largely used in England in 1866, and appeared in some
cases to be of use, as at Pill, near Bristol, and, perhaps, at
Southampton. It failed at Erfurt, but, as it is believed the wells were
contaminated by soakage, this is perhaps no certain case. Chloride of lime
and lime were used at Stettin without any good result, and, on the whole,
it may be said that the so-called disinfection of the discharges of
cholera does not seem to have been attended with very marked results. At
the same time it cannot be for a moment contended that the plan has had a
fair trial, and we can easily believe that unless there is a full
understanding on the part of both medical men and the public of what is to
be accomplished by this system, and a conscientious carrying out of the
plan to its minutest details, no safe opinions of its efficacy or
otherwise can be arrived at. It would be desirable to try the effect of
chromic acid or bichromate of potash.
"With regard to air purifiers little evidence exists. Chlorine gas
diffused in the air was tried very largely in Austria and Hungary in 1832,
but without any good results. Nitrous-acid gas was used in Malta in 1865,
but apparently did not have any decided influences, although Ramon da Luna
has asserted that it has a decided preservative effect, and that no one
was attacked in Madrid who used fumigations of nitrous acid. But negative
evidence of this kind is always doubtful. Charcoal in bulk appears to have
no effect. Dr Sutherland saw a ship's crew severely attacked, although the
ship was loaded with charcoal.
"Carbolic-acid vapour diffused in the atmosphere was largely used in 1866
in England; the liquid was sprinkled about with water, and sawdust
moistened with it was laid on the floors and under the patients. The
effect in preventing the spread of the disease was very uncertain.
"_Yellow Fever._ In this case the discharges, especially from the stomach,
probably spread the disease, and disinfectants must be mixed with them.
"Fumigations of nitrous acid were employed by Ramon da Luna, and it is
asserted that no agent was so effectual in arresting the spread of the
disease.
"_Dysentery._ It is well known that dysentery, and especially the putrid
dysentery, may spread through an hospital from the practice of the same
close stool or latrines being used. As long ago as 1807, fumigations of
chlorine were used by Mojon to destroy the emanations from the stools, and
with the best effects. The chlorine was diffused in the air, and the
stools were not disinfected; but this ought to be done as in enteric
fever, and especially in the sloughing form. It is probable that carbolic
acid in large quantity would be efficacious.
"With respect to _Erysipelas_, _Diphtheria_, _Syphilis_, _Gonorrh[oe]a_,
_Glanders_, and _Farcy_, local applications are evidently required, and
carbolic acid in various degrees of strength, and the metallic salts, are
evidently the best measures.
"_Cattle Plague._ The experiments made by Mr Crookes on the disinfectant
treatment of cattle plague with carbolic acid vapour have an important
bearing on human disease. Although the observations fall short of
demonstration there are grounds for thinking that when the air was kept
constantly filled with carbolic acid vapour, the disease did not spread.
"So also euchlorine was employed in Lancashire by Professor Stone of
Manchester, with apparent benefit. Dr Moffat employed ozone (developed by
exposing phosphorus to the air), and he believes with benefit. As such
experiments are very much more easily carried out on the diseases of
animals than on those of men, it is much to be wished that the precise
effect of the so-called disinfectants should be tested by continuing the
experiments commenced by Mr Crookes, not only in cattle plague in the
countries where it prevails, but in epizootic diseases generally.
"It may be said, in conclusion, that although positive evidence is so
deficient, yet, taking into consideration the decidedly great and known
effect of many so-called disinfectants, and air-purifiers on organic
matters, and the fact that the infectious organic agencies are certainly
easily destroyed in most cases (since free ventilation renders many of
them inert, and few of them retain their power very long), it is highly
probable that the specific poisons of the so-called zymotic diseases are
destroyed by some of these chemical methods, and at any rate the careful
and constant use of chemical agents for the destruction of the specific
poisons in the excreta and discharges from the body, and when they pass
into the air, is not only warranted, but should be considered
comparative.
"_Purification of rooms after infectious diseases._ In addition to
thorough cleansing of all woodwork with soft soap and water, to which a
little carbolic acid has been added (1 pint of the common liquid to 3 or 4
gallons of water), and to removal and washing of all fabrics which can be
removed, the brushing of the walls, the room should be fumigated for 3
hours with either the fumes of sulphurous or nitrous acids. Both of these
are believed to be superior to chlorine, especially in smallpox. All doors
and windows, and the chimney being closed, and curtains taken down, the
sulphur is ignited as directed in our article FUMIGATION.
"In white-washed rooms the walls should be scraped, and then washed with
hot lime to which carbolic acid is added.
"Mortuaries and dead-houses are best purified with nitrous acid."
These directions may be supplemented by the following:--The towels,
sheets, articles of clothing, &c., should be boiled in water, or plunged
in boiling water containing one to two handfuls of soda to the gallon,
before being taken from the room, after which treatment they should be
steeped in water containing 4 fluid ounces of carbolic acid to a gallon of
water.
Fabrics soiled by the discharges, &c., such as rags, bandages, and
dressings, if of little value should be immediately consigned to the
flames; but if this be not convenient, they may be treated with carbolic
acid and water, in the same manner as directed for towels, sheets, &c.
As soon as any infectious disease sets in, the room of the patient should
be at once stripped of curtains, carpet, bed-curtains, valances, and all
unnecessary garments, whether in a wardrobe or drawers, as well as of all
superfluous furniture, especially chairs stuffed with wool or covered with
fabric of any kind.
Disinfections of the apartment by fumigations must be postponed until it
is vacated; as before such a time thorough disinfection is impossible.
Infected bedding, &c., should be removed in the boxes made for the
purpose, and subjected to the heating process. In most towns provision is
made by the Board of Guardians, and under the directions of the medical
officer of health, for the disinfection process to be efficiently carried
out. See DISINFECTING CHAMBERS.
The disinfection of articles of food is accomplished by thorough cooking,
boiling in the case of milk, boiling and filtration in the case of water,
and complete roasting, stewing, and frying of meat.
The experiments of Mr Crookes (to which reference has been made in the
extract taken from Dr Parkes' 'Practical Hygiène') with carbolic acid
during the cattle plague possess great practical interest both for the
chemist and physiologist.
Of the use of carbolic acid as a disinfectant Mr Crookes, in the Appendix
to the Report of the Cattle Plague Commissioners, writes as follows:
"According to the principles laid down, the air must be treated, and where
there is no disease there is only a secondary use in treating anything
besides the air. Several cowhouses have been treated with carbolic acid
with very excellent results. The mode has been, first, to remove from the
floor the mass of manure, which too often adheres to it; secondly, to
sprinkle the floor with strong carbolic or cresylic acid; next, to wash
the walls, beams, and rafters, and all that is visible in the cowhouse,
with lime, in which is put some carbolic acid, 1 to 50 of the water used,
or with strong carbolic acid alone. Next, to make a solution containing 1
of carbolic or cresylic acid to 100 of water, or, perhaps still better, 60
of water, and to water the yard and fold until the whole place smells
strongly of the acid. Only a few farms have been treated in this way, so
far as I know, but in each it has been successful. It may be well to give
the cattle a little of the weak solution of carbolic acid, but this has
not been so fully tried as the external use. The washing of the mouth and
of the entire animal with the weak solution may be attended with good
results, especially in the early stage of disease; but I know nothing of
cure, and speak only hopefully of prevention.
"The animals seem to have an instinct for disinfection, and lick
substances touched with this acid. They must not be allowed to drink it,
as when strong it blisters the skin, and especially the mouth and tongue."
Mr Crookes also tried the effect of the acid by injecting it into the
veins of the animals, and thus details the results of his
experiments:--"It appeared evident that if harm were to follow the
injection of carbolic acid, the mischievous effect would be immediate; but
that if the fluid could pass through the heart without exerting its
paralysing action on that organ, and could get into the circulation, no
present ill effects need be anticipated. I therefore determined to push
these experiments as far as possible, increasing the quantity of carbolic
acid, until it produced a fatal result.
The next operation was on cow No. 11, in which 3 oz. of solution
(containing 52-1/2 gr. of pure carbolic acid) were very slowly injected;
no bad effect followed. Increasing the dose, cow No. 12 had injected into
her vein 4-1/2 oz. of solution (equal to 78-3/4 gr. of carbolic acid);
this also was followed by no immediate ill effect. Cow No. 13 was then
treated with 6 oz. of solution (containing 105 gr. of pure carbolic acid),
in two portions of 3 oz. each, five minutes' interval elapsing between
each injection. The first 3 oz. produced a slight trembling, but not so
severe as in the case of cow No. 10, as she seemed better in a few
minutes. The second dose of 3 oz. was injected. This proved too much, or
was pumped in too hurriedly, for almost before I had finished the animal
trembled violently, its eyes projected, its breathing became laborious, it
fell down and expired. The result could scarcely be attributed to the
accidental injection of air into the vein, for the distress began with the
injection of the first syringeful, and was only increased by the second;
nor is it likely that this accident would happen twice consecutively. I
was particularly careful on this point, and the construction of the
instrument rendered such an occurrence scarcely possible with ordinary
precaution. It is probable that the injection was performed too rapidly,
or that the vital powers were lower than usual. In the case of the
remaining animal, No. 14, I decided to inject as large a dose as it would
bear, stopping the operation at the first sign of trembling, and
delivering the liquid very gradually. The first syringeful caused no bad
symptoms, and I had just finished injecting the second dose when trembling
commenced. It was rather violent for a short time, but soon went off, and
in five minutes the animal appeared as well as before.
This cow, therefore, bore without inconvenience the injection of 6 oz. of
a 4 per cent. solution, containing 105 gr. of pure carbolic acid. Careful
observations with the thermometer were taken before each operation. There
were no more diseased beasts on the farm, or I should have carried my
experiments still further. On visiting the farm the next day I was told
that all the animals seemed better, and on testing them with the
thermometer that statement was confirmed. I gave directions that each
animal was to be drenched with half a wine-glassful (1 oz.) of carbolic
acid in a quart of warm water every morning, but in other respects they
might be treated as Mr Tomlinson, a skilful cow doctor, should direct.
"Business now calling me to London, I was unable to watch the further
progress of these cases.
"This is to be regretted, as a series of daily thermometric observations
would have been of great value in suggesting further experiments. I had,
however, frequent accounts sent me. Cow No. 14 continued to improve slowly
until convalescent; she is now quite well. Nos. 10, 11, and 12 remained
apparently in the same state for four days; they then changed for the
worse, and died. It is not improbable that had I been able to inject a
further quantity of carbolic acid during the four days in which they were
thus hovering between recovery and relapse, it would have turned the
scale, and some of them at all events would be now alive and well.