Mean time of
chymification
Foods. How cooked. in stomach.
h. m.
Rice Boiled 1
Eggs, whipped Raw 1 30
Trout, salmon, fresh Boiled 1 30
Venison, steak Broiled 1 35
Sago Boiled 1 45
Milk Boiled 2
Eggs, fresh Raw 2
Milk Raw 2 15
Turkey Boiled 2 25
Gelatin Boiled 2 30
Goose, wild Roasted 2 30
Pig, sucking Roasted 2 30
Lamb, fresh Broiled 2 30
Beans, pod Boiled 2 30
Potatoes, Irish Baked 2 30
Chicken Fricassed 2 45
Oysters, fresh Raw 2 55
Eggs, fresh Soft-boiled 3
Beef, lean, rare Roasted 3
Mutton, fresh Boiled 3
Bread, corn Baked 3 15
Butter Melted 3 30
Cheese, old, strong Raw 3 30
Potatoes, Irish Boiled 3 30
Beef Fried 4
Veal, fresh Broiled 4
Fowls, domestic Roasted 4
Ducks, Domestic Roasted 4
Veal, fresh Fried 4 30
Pork, fat, and lean Roasted 5 15
Cabbage Boiled 4 30
The results recorded in the above table, giving the respective time
required for the digestion of different foods, were obtained by Dr
Beaumont, through his being enabled to watch the process of digestion
actually going on in the stomach of a man, who had received a wound in
that organ, by which part of it was laid bare, and could thus be seen
into.
The above data were controlled by a series of independent experiments,
which consisted in digesting different foods in a solution of gastric
juice, and heating the mixture to 100°. The relative results of both sets
of experiments were found to agree pretty closely; and they have since, on
the whole, being confirmed by the researches of other physiologists.
=DIGES'TIVES.= In _surgery_ substances which, when applied to wounds or
tumours, induce or promote suppuration. All stimulating applications are
of this class. Heat is a most powerful digestive agent. The action of
digestives is opposed to that of DISCUTIENTS, which repel or resolve
tumours and indurations.
=DIGITA'LIN.= _Syn._ DIGITA'LIA. A vegetable principle discovered by M.
Royer in _Digitalis purpurea_, or purple foxglove.
_Prep._ 1. (Majendie.) Foxglove leaves (powdered), 1 lb., are digested in
ether, first in the cold, and then heated under pressure; when the whole
has again become cold, the liquor is filtered (rapidly), and the ether is
distilled off in a water bath; the residuum is dissolved in water, the
filtered solution treated with hydrated oxide of lead, the whole gently
evaporated to dryness, and the dry residuum again digested in hot ether;
from this solution the alkali is obtained, by evaporation and repeated
resolutions, in a crystalline form.
2. (Homolle and Henry.) Foxglove leaves (carefully dried and powdered),
2-1/2 lbs., are digested in rectified spirit, and the tincture expressed
in a tincture press; the spirit is then distilled off, and the residual
extract treated with distilled water, 1/2 pint, acidulated with about 2
fl. dr. of acetic acid, a gentle heat being employed; some animal charcoal
is then added, and the whole filtered; the filtrate is then diluted with
water, and partly neutralised with ammonia; a fresh-made, strong decoction
of galls is next added; a copious precipitation of tannate of digitalin
ensues; the precipitate is washed with water, and mixed with a little
alcohol, after which it is triturated with litharge (in fine powder) and
exposed to a gentle heat; the whole is now digested in alcohol, the
tincture treated with animal charcoal, and evaporated; the dry residuum
is, lastly, treated with cold sulphuric ether, which takes up some foreign
matter, and leaves the digitalin. 2 lbs. 8 oz. of the dried leaves yield
140 to 150 gr. of the digitalin.
_Prop., &c._ White, inodorous, porous masses, or small scales; it
crystallises with difficulty, is intensely bitter, and excites violent
sneezing when smelled to; dissolves freely in alcohol; scarcely soluble in
cold ether; and takes 2000 parts of water for its solution; it is neither
basic nor alkaline; concentrated colourless hydrochloric acid dissolves
it, forming a characteristic solution which passes from yellow to a fine
green. (Homolle.) It is one of the most powerful of known poisons, being
fully 100 times stronger than the powdered leaves of the dried plant. It
is used in the same cases.--_Dose_, 1/60 to 1/30 gr.; either made into
pills or dissolved in alcohol and formed into a mixture. Owing to the
difficulty and uncertainty connected with dispensing such small
quantities, it is now seldom employed in this country.
=Digitalin, Crystallised.= Digitalis leaves from the Vosges, in rather
fine powder, 1000 grams; neutral lead acetate, 250 grams; distilled water,
1000 grams. The digitalis should be collected in its second year just when
the first flowers appear. With respect to the lead acetate, it is very
important that it should not have an alkaline reaction; a slight acidity
would be preferable. The lead salt is dissolved in the cold water, the
powder added and thoroughly mixed, the whole passed through a sieve and
left in contact twenty-four hours, taking care to mix it from time to
time. The mixture is then packed sufficiently in a displacement apparatus,
and exhausted with 50° alcohol, until it no longer yields any bitterness.
About six parts of liquor are thus obtained, and this is neutralised
exactly with sodium bicarbonate dissolved to saturation in cold water;
about 25 to 30 grams will be required. When effervescence ceases, the
alcohol is distilled, and the liquor remaining is evaporated in a water
bath down to 2000 grams; it is then left to cool and diluted with its
weight of water. Two or three days afterwards the clear liquor is decanted
off, by means of a syphon, and the precipitate drained upon a linen
filter. When freed from the extractive liquor the precipitate weighs about
100 grams. It is suspended in 1000 grams of 80° alcohol, and the whole
passed through a metal sieve or a fine cloth; the turbid liquor obtained
is heated to ebullition, and to it is added a solution containing 10 grams
of neutral lead acetate; the heating is continued a few moments, and the
liquor is then left to cool and filtered. The deposit in the filter is
washed with alcohol to remove any liquor it may retain, and then pressed.
To this liquor is added 50 grams of finely powdered vegetable charcoal
that has been washed with acid and afterwards with water until quite
neutral, and it is then distilled, the residue being heated for some time
in a water bath, it being very important that all the alcohol should be
driven off. A little water is added to replace what may evaporate; the
residue is allowed to cool, then drained upon the cloth that was used to
separate the precipitate, and the carbonaceous mass is washed with a
little water to remove the last portion of the coloured liquor. The
carbonaceous residue is then dried completely in a stove at a temperature
not exceeding 100° C., and exhausted by displacement with pure chloroform
until it passes colourless. This liquid is distilled to dryness, and a few
grams of 95° alcohol are placed in the retort, and evaporated to drive off
the last traces of chloroform.
The residue is crude digitalin with viscous and oily matter. It is
dissolved with heat in 100 grams of 90° alcohol, and 1 gram of neutral
lead acetate dissolved in a little water added, together with 10 grams of
animal charcoal in fine granules without powder that has been treated with
hydrochloric acid, and washed until the washings are no longer acid. After
boiling for ten minutes it is allowed to cool and settle, and then
filtered in a glass cylinder furnished with a tight cotton plug, through
which it passes quickly and clear. The black deposit is added last, and
exhausted of all bitterness with alcohol. After distillation the digitalin
remains as a grumous crystalline mass, now only contaminated with the
coloured oil. A little aqueous liquor that occurs with it is separated and
the weight of the impure digitalin is taken in the previously tarred
vessel. The digitalin is then dissolved with heat in exactly sufficient
90° alcohol for its solution (from 6 to 12 grams). Any alcohol evaporated
is replaced, and then to the cooled solution is added, sulphuric ether
rectified at 65°, to half the weight of the alcohol employed; after
mixing, distilled water equal to the weight of the alcohol and ether
combined is added, and the flask is closed and shaken. Two layers are
formed: the upper is coloured, and consists of the ether which has taken
up the fat oil; the lower is colourless, and contains the digitalin, which
being now free quickly crystallises. The flask is placed in a cool place.
Two days afterwards the whole is thrown into a small cylinder furnished
with a moderately tight cotton plug; the mother liquor runs off, and then
the coloured layer, and the small quantity that remains adherent to the
crystals, is removed by a little ether. Thus obtained, this first
crystallisation of digitalin is slightly coloured; it is sufficiently
pure, however, for its weight to be taken in an analysis; one tenth being
deducted for the digitalin it still contains. To obtain it perfectly
white, two purifications are necessary, but first a treatment with
chloroform is indispensable to separate the remainder of the digitalin
which injures its purity.
The digitalin, well dried and reduced to a fine powder, is dissolved in 20
parts of chloroform, and the solution is filtered in a cylinder through a
tight cotton plug. The liquor passes limpid; it is distilled to dryness,
and a little alcohol is poured into the retort, and evaporated to remove
the last traces of chloroform.
The digitalin is dissolved in 30 grams of 90° alcohol, 5 grams of washed
granular animal black added, and the whole boiled for 10 minutes; the
liquor is filtered and the charcoal exhausted as before indicated; and,
lastly, it is distilled, the digitalin in dry crystals is found on the
sides of the vessel, but it is still slightly coloured. To obtain it
perfectly white it is dissolved with heat in exactly sufficient 90°
alcohol (about 6 to 8 grams); to the solution is added ether equal to half
the weight of alcohol employed, and double the quantity of distilled
water, and the flask is closed and agitated; the crystallisation commences
quickly. The ether does not separate. It is exposed to the coolness of the
night, and by the next day nearly the whole of the digitalin is deposited
in small groups of white needles, that which retains colouring matter
remaining in the mother liquor. The whole is thrown into a cylinder and
the crystals washed with ether as before described. 1000 grams of Vosges
digitalis of good quality yields about 1 gram of crystallised digitalin.
Digitalin occurs under the form of very white light crystals, consisting
of short slender needles, grouped around the same axis. It is very bitter
and scarcely soluble in water. 90° alcohol dissolves it well, anhydrous
alcohol dissolves it less freely. Pure ether dissolves only traces.
Chloroform is its best solvent. Brought into contact with a small quantity
of hydrochloric acid, digitalin is coloured emerald green, and this
reaction is favoured by a very slight heat. From 'Formulæ for New
Medicaments, adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society.'
=DILL.= _Syn._ ANETHUM (Ph. L. & E.), L. The fruit (seed) of _Anethum
graveolens_, or garden dill, _Anethi fructus_, B. P. Dill is an aromatic
stimulant and carminative. The Cossacks employ it as a condiment; and in
this country it is frequently employed to heighten the relish of soups and
pickles, especially cucumbers. DILL WATER is a favorite remedy of nurses
to promote the secretion of milk, and to relieve the flatulence and
griping of infants.--_Dose_, of the powder, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr., or more.
Oil of dill (OLEUM ANETHI) and dill water (AQUA ANETHI) are officinal in
the pharmacop[oe]ias.
=DIL'UENTS.= _Syn._ DILUENTIA, D. _Aqueous liquors_; so named because they
increase the fluid portion of the blood. Tea, barley-water, water-gruel,
and similar articles, are the most common diluents, after pure water. The
copious use of diluents is recommended in all acute inflammatory diseases
not of a congestive character, and to promote the action of diuretics and
sudorifics.
=DINNER PILLS.= See PILLS.
=DIOS'MA.= _Syn._ BOOKOO, BUKU; FOLIA BAROSMÆ, F. DIOSMÆ, L.; BUCHU (Ph.
L.), BUCKU (Ph. E.), DIOSMA (Ph. L. 1836). "The leaves of _Barosma
serratifolia_, _B. crenulata_, and _B. crenata_." (Ph. L.) These species
were all included by De Candolle in the genus _Diosma_. Buchu is
principally employed in chronic affections of the urino-genital organs,
especially that of the mucous membrane of the bladder, attended with
copious discharge of mucus.--_Dose_, 20 gr. to 1/2 dr. of the powder,
taken in wine; or made into an infusion or decoction.
The officinal buchu leaves are "glabrous, glandular; either
linear-lanceolate with small serrations, or ovato-oblong, obtuse,
crenated, ovate or obovate, serrated." (Ph. L.) Their odour somewhat
resembles that of rue, and their taste is warm and mint-like.
=DIOS'MINE.= A bitter extractive matter, obtained by Brande from buchu
leaves. It is very soluble in water, but not in alcohol and ether.
=DIPHTHERIA.= A contagious disease affecting the throat and adjoining
parts. A false membrane forms on the mucous lining of the several parts of
the throat. This alarming malady generally commences with a little
soreness of throat attended with fever; sometimes, however, the fever may
not come on for some days after the sore throat has shown itself. An
ash-coloured spot makes its appearance on one or both tonsils. This
spreads to other parts, extending in doing so, over the soft palate and
uvula, inclosing the latter in a sheath. Sometimes a thin red line
surrounds the opaque membrane thus formed. As the disease proceeds this
opaque and false membrane tends to enlarge itself, and may spread down the
gullet into the stomach, or, what is more dangerous still, it may involve
the mucous membrane of the larynx, and thence extend along the windpipe
into the bronchial tubes. When this is the case the disease is accompanied
with cough, and the peculiar noise of croup; harsh, noisy breathing. There
also frequently runs from the nostrils a thin acrid secretion, smelling
very offensively, and often tainting the whole atmosphere of the room.
By the inexperienced diphtheria is almost always mistaken for ulcerated
sore throat.
As in croup, part of the exudation or false membrane is often coughed up;
sometimes it peels off from the tonsils. Some pathologists think that
minute particles of this membrane, loosely adhering to drinking vessels,
linen, sheets, the night-dress, &c., of the patient, may be the means of
communicating the disease; by others, however, this surmise is not
accepted. The absence of certainty on this point does not remove the
stringent necessity of thoroughly cleansing and disinfecting everything
with which the secretions of the patient come into contact.
The foregoing has been written with the object of enabling the reader to
detect the only symptoms by which this dangerous disease manifests itself,
in order that he may seek medical assistance with which to combat the
complaint as promptly as possible.
After stating thus much, it is needless to say that we only recommend the
adoption of the following treatment, in the extreme case of emigrants and
others unable to obtain the services of a medical practitioner. A
saturated solution of borax in the form of a gargle should be first used,
and used without stint. Should this fail to arrest the formation of the
membrane, then a strong solution of alum should be employed instead; or
alum in powder should be applied to the throat every half hour or hour.
When children are to be submitted to this treatment, the alum instead of
being used as a gargle may be mixed with honey, and in this condition laid
on the parts with a feather; or the powdered alum may be blown on the
affected parts with a tube. Tincture of perchloride of iron, diluted
hydrochloric acid, and chlorate of potash are also said to have been used
successfully as topical applications. The diet should consist of rich
nourishing food, such as strong beef tea and mutton broth, aided by port
wine. The internal remedies embrace quinine or bark, tincture of
perchloride of iron, pernitrate of iron, chlorate of potash, and small,
but repeated doses of the mineral acids. Dr Gardner, in his useful work
'Household Medicine,' says, "a definite plan said to have been successful
is to employ as a gargle a solution of chlorinated soda half an ounce,
syrup half an ounce, water six ounces, mixed. At the same time give
internally four drops of the solution every two hours, for two days, then
add quinine. We may add that if this latter prescription be used the diet
before indicated should be adopted."
=DISCU'TIENTS.= In _surgery_, substances or agents which disperse or
resolve tumours, &c. See DIGESTIVES.
=DISH-COVERS.= As these are made of various materials they must be
cleaned and polished with the substances best adapted for each. All kinds
of dish-covers directly they come from table should be washed free from
grease and wiped dry.
Plated and silver dish-covers should be polished with plate powder; that
free from mercury should be preferred. When dish-covers (as is usually the
case) are made of block tin, they should be polished, by first rubbing
them with sweet oil, and then dusting over the oil finely powdered
whiting; finishing off the polishing with soft rags. All the best covers
are provided with movable handles, which must be removed during the
process of cleaning.
=DISINFECT'ANT.= An agent which absorbs, neutralises, or destroys,
putrescent effluvia, miasmata, or specific contagia, and thus removes the
causes of infection. The principal disinfectants are chlorine, iodine,
bromine, the so-called chlorides of lime and soda, chloride of zinc,
ozone, carbolic acid, the alkaline manganates and permanganates, peat
charcoal, the fumes of nitric and nitrous acid, sulphurous acids, heat,
and ventilation. The last two are the most efficient and easily applied.
The clothing, bedding, &c., of patients labouring under contagious
diseases may be effectually (?) disinfected by exposure to a temperature a
little higher than that of boiling water, for about an hour. Neither the
texture nor colour of textile fabrics is injured by a heat of even 250°
Fahr. (Dr Henry.) See DISINFECTING CHAMBERS.
It is a practice at some of the workhouses to bake the clothes of the
paupers who have the itch, or who are infested with vermin. The soaking
and boiling of clothes in the absence of being able to bake them is by no
means a bad method for disinfecting them. The process is rendered the more
effective by adding to the water in which they are immersed or boiled 1
part of strong solution of chloride of lime to 20 or 30 parts of water; or
carbolic acid in the proportion of 1 part of the pure acid to 100 parts of
water. In the German army, if the clothes cannot be baked they are soaked
for 24 hours in water containing 1 part of sulphate of zinc to 120 of
water, or 1 part of chloride of zinc to 240 of water, after which they are
washed in soap and water and dried.
Quicklime rapidly absorbs carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, and
several other noxious gases, and is therefore commonly used as a wash for
the walls of buildings. Acetic acid, camphor, fragrant pastilles,
cascarilla, brown paper, and other similar substances, are frequently
burnt or volatilised by heat, for the purpose of disguising unpleasant
odours, but are of little value as disinfectants. The sulphates of iron
and zinc have the property of rapidly destroying noxious effluvia. A
quantity of either of these sulphates thrown into a cesspool, for
instance, will in a few hours render the matter therein quite scentless.
Of gaseous disinfectants, "sulphurous acid gas (obtained by burning
sulphur) is preferable, on theoretical grounds, to chlorine. No agent
checks so effectually the first development of animal and vegetable life.
All animal odours and emanations are immediately and most effectually
destroyed by it." (Graham.) See ANTISEPTIC, DEODORISER, FUMIGATION,
INFECTION, OZONE, CARBOLIC ACID, SALICYLIC ACID, BACTERIA as originators
of disease, LIME, CHLORIDE, CHARCOAL, also the DISINFECTING COMPOUNDS
given _below_.
Dr Wynter Blyth divides disinfectants into two great classes:--Gaseous,
and solid or liquid.