9. (RICE CUSTARDS,--Rundell.) Boil 1/2 a cupful of the best ground rice in
a pint of milk until dissolved, then mix it with a quart of cream; flavour
with nutmeg, mace, and a little brandy, and put it into a cup or a dish.
=CUTCH.= See CATECHU.
=CUTTLE-FISH.= The bone or skeleton of the _Sepia officinalis_ of Linnæus,
or common cuttle-fish (CUTTLE-FISH BONE; OS SE'PIÆ), is used by the
law-stationers to erase ink-marks from paper and parchment, an application
familiar to most schoolboys of the present generation. Reduced to powder
(PUL'VIS SE'PIÆ), it forms a valuable dentifrice and polishing powder, and
is used for forming the moulds for small silver castings.
[Illustration]
The _Sepias_, which inhabit the seas of all quarters of the globe, like
the other _cephalapoda_, are carnivorous. They are able to exercise
considerable locomotive powers, by means of their tentaculæ or arms which
surround the mouth, and which are usually provided with numerous suckers.
Head downward, they walk on these arms at the bottom of the ocean. The
_sepias_ are also fleet swimmers; effecting their progress through the
water either by making the expansion of their skin perform the same office
as fins; or by the forcible projection of water from the cavity of their
mouths, the reaction accompanying which operation drives them rapidly
through the water in a different direction. They are provided sometimes
with eight, and sometimes with ten tentaculæ, and have naked bodies. The
black fluid which the animal is capable of ejecting from its ink-sac, when
pursued by its enemies, was formerly employed in the manufacture of the
pigment called from its source "sepia."
[Illustration]
=CUTS.= These are incised wounds of greater or less extent, and must be
treated accordingly. The divided parts should be drawn close together, and
held so with small pieces of strapping or adhesive plaster stretched
across the wound. If the part is covered with blood, it should be first
wiped with a damp sponge. When the wound is large and it is much exposed,
a good method is to sew the parts up. The application of a little creasote
or a spirituous solution of creasote will generally stop local bleeding,
provided it is applied to the clean extremities of the wounded vessels. A
good way is to place a piece of lint, moistened with creasote, on the
wound, previously wiped clean, or to pour a drop or two of that liquid on
it. An excellent method is to cover the part with a film of collodion.
Friar's balsam, quick-drying copal varnish, tincture of galls, copperas
water, black ink, &c., are popular remedies applied in the same way. A bit
of the fur plucked from a black beaver hat is an excellent remedy to stop
the bleeding from a cut produced by the razor in shaving. A cobweb is said
to possess the same property.
=CY'ANATE.= _Syn._ CY'ANAS, L. A salt in which the hydrogen of cyanic acid
is replaced by a metal or other basic radical.
=CYAN'IC ACID.= HCNO. _Syn._ ACIDUM CYAN'ICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Cyanuric
acid, deprived of its water of crystallisation, is distilled in a retort,
and the product collected in a well-cooled receiver.
2. (Liebig.) A current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas is passed through
water in which cyanate of silver is diffused, the process being suspended
before all the cyanate of silver is decomposed.
_Prop., &c._ Cyanic acid is a limpid, colourless liquid; it reddens
litmus; is sour to the taste; possesses a modified sulphurous odour,
similar to that which is always perceived when any of its salts are
decomposed by an acid; it forms salt with the bases called CYANATES; when
in contact with water it suffers decomposition in a few hours, and is
converted into bicarbonate of ammonia; it cannot be preserved for any
time, as shortly after its preparation it spontaneously passes into a
white, opaque, solid mass, to which the name CYAMELIDE has been given. By
distillation this new substance is reconverted into cyanic acid.
=CY'ANIDE.= _Syn._ CYAN'URET; CYAN'IDUM, CYANURE'TUM, L. The compound
formed by the union of cyanogen with a metal or other radical. See
CYANOGEN, HYDROCYANIC ACID, and the respective bases.
=Cyanide, Al'kaline.= _Syn._ CRUDE CYANIDE OF POTASSIUM AND SODIUM.
_Prep._ (R. Wagner.) Dry ferrocyanide of potassium, 4 parts, dry carbonate
of soda, 1 part, are melted together in an iron crucible at a red heat,
and continually stirred until the iron rod comes out covered with a white
crust, when the heat is withdrawn, and after a few moments' repose the
supernatant liquid portion is poured out on a clean iron slab. This crude
mixed cyanide is quite as useful as the more expensive one of Liebig, and
is equally fit for technical applications, as electrotyping, gilding,
silvering, &c. See POTASSIUM, CYANIDE OF.
=CY'ANINE.= A base discovered by Mr G. Williams in CHINOLINE BLUE. See
_below_.
=Cyanine, I'odide of.= _Syn._ CHIN'OLINE BLUE. The action of iodide of
amyl upon chinoline gives rise to iodide of amylchinoline. Addition of
excess of soda to an aqueous solution of this iodide produces a black
resinous precipitate, which dissolves in alcohol with a magnificent blue
colour. This precipitate is the IODIDE OF CYANINE, or CHINOLINE BLUE. Many
attempts have been made to use it in dyeing; they have, however, failed on
account of the instability of the colour.
=CYAN'OGEN.= CN or Cy. A highly important compound radical or quasi
element, discovered by M. Gay Lussac in 1815.
Best obtained by carefully igniting dry cyanide of mercury in a small
retort, and collecting the gas over mercury.
_Prop., &c._ A colourless gas, possessing a pungent and peculiar odour,
resembling that of peach-kernels or prussic acid; under a pressure of
about 4 atmospheres, at a temperature of 45°, it assumes the liquid form
(Faraday), and this fluid again becomes gaseous on withdrawal of the
pressure; water absorbs nearly 5 times its bulk of cyanogen at 60° Fahr.,
and alcohol about 23 times its volume; with hydrogen it forms hydrocyanic
acid, and with the metals a most interesting and important class of bodies
called cyanides or cyanurets; when kindled, it burns with a beautiful
purple flame, carbonic acid and nitrogen being evolved. Sp gr. 1·806. See
HYDROCYANIC ACID, &c.
Forms a bromide and iodide when the cyanide of mercury is distilled with
bromine or iodine, and which are colourless, volatile, highly poisonous
solids; and two isomeric chlorides, one a very volatile liquid, prepared
by passing chlorine over moist cyanide of mercury, and the other in white
volatile needles, prepared by exposing aqueous hydrocyanic acid to
chlorine in sunshine.
=CYANU''RIC ACID.= H_{3}C_{3}N_{3}O_{3}. _Syn._ PYRO-U''RIC ACID[dagger].
A peculiar acid, discovered by Scheele. It is a product of the
decomposition of the soluble cyanates by dilute acids, or of urea by heat,
&c.
=CY'DER.= See CIDER.
=CY'DONINE.= The peculiar gum of quince seed. It resembles bassorin in
most of its properties.
=CY'MIDINE.= An oily base, homologous with aniline, obtained by the action
of iron filings and acetic acid on nitro-cymol.
=CY'MOL.= A peculiar hydrocarbon found in oil of cumin, in admixture with
cuminol. The two bodies are separable in a great measure by distillation,
cymol being the most volatile portion of the oil.
=CYNAPINE.= An alkaloid obtained from _Æthusa cynapium_, or _fool's
parsley_. It possesses no practical interest.
=CYSTICERCI.= These parasites are embryo tænia or tapeworm, infesting the
bodies of men and different animals. One variety of the _cysticerci_ has
its habitat in the organisms of men, pigs, oxen, horses, camels, sheep,
and roe-deer; another in the muscles and internal organs of cattle; a
third is found in cattle, sheep, horses, the reindeer, squirrels, certain
kinds of monkeys, and occasionally in man; whilst a fourth--the _Cystercus
cellulosæ_--is more especially met with in measly pork. Professor Gamgee
believes that probably 5 per cent. of the pigs in Ireland are affected
with this last _cystercus_.
The following figure represents a piece of measly pork infested with
cysticerci. Professor Leuckart seems to have shown pretty conclusively
that man may become infested with a certain form of tapeworm by partaking
of imperfectly cooked veal or beef, infested with the second variety of
the parasite.
[Illustration]
=CYST'INE.= C_{3}NH_{7}SO_{2}. _Syn._ CYST'IC OXIDE. Obtained from cystic
oxide calculi (in powder) by digestion in solution of ammonia. By
spontaneous evaporation the ammoniacal solution deposits small, colourless
crystals of cystic oxide. It forms a saline compound with hydrochloric
acid, and is decomposed by the strong alkalies.
=CY'TISINE.= A purgative bitter principle, extracted from the _Cytisus
Laburnum_ (Linn.), or _common laburnum_, and some other plants.
=DAGUERRE'OTYPE.= See PHOTOGRAPHY.
=DA''HLIA DYE= (d[=a]le'-y'[)a]). The shade of colour which is commonly
termed 'dahlia' is a reddish lilac. It is produced by combining a blue or
purple with red when a compound colour is used. Upon wool and silk it can
be obtained directly by means of archil or cudbear, either alone or
'blued' by a small quantity of sulphate of indigo. Upon cotton indifferent
shades of dahlia are obtained by macerating in sumac liquor, working in
tin solution, and dyeing in logwood mixed with some red wood.
=DA''HLINE.= A species of fecula obtained from the tubers of the dahlia.
It is identical with inuline. It is not employed in the arts.
=DAIR'Y.= The place where milk is kept, and cheese and butter made. The
best situation for a dairy is on the north side of the dwelling-house, in
order that it may be sheltered from the sun during the heat of the day.
Ample means should be provided to ensure ventilation, and at the same time
to exclude flies and other insects. The temperature should be preserved,
as much as possible, in an equable state, ranging from 45° to 55° Fahr. To
lessen the influence of external variations of temperature, the walls
should be double, or of considerable thickness, and the windows provided
with shutters or doors. In summer the beat may be lessened by sprinkling
water on the floor, which will produce considerable cold by its
evaporation. Dairies built of mud or 'cob' are preferred in the West of
England; and this preference arises from the uniform temperature they
maintain, on account of the great thickness of the walls, and their being
very bad conductors of heat. In large dairy-farms, where butter and cheese
are made, the dairy is generally a separate building, and divided into 3
or 4 apartments; one of which is called the 'milk-room,' a second the
'churning-room,' a third the 'cheese-room,' containing the cheese-press,
&c.; and a fourth the 'drying-room,' where the cheeses are placed to dry
and harden. To these may be added a scullery, furnished with boiler,
water, &c., for scalding and cleaning the dairy utensils.
Cleanliness is very essential in all the operations of the dairy, and in
none more so than in the milking of the cows. The hands and arms of the
milkmaid should be kept scrupulously clean, and should be well washed with
soap and water after touching the udder of a sick cow, as without this
precaution the sores may be conveyed to the healthy ones. The milk-cans
should be scalded out daily, and, as well as all the other dairy utensils,
should be kept clean and dry. Before placing the milk on the shelves of
the dairy it should be strained through a hair sieve or a searce covered
with clean cheese-cloth, as by this precaution any stray hairs that may
have fallen into the milk-pail will be taken out.
The average produce of a milch cow, supplied with good pasturage, is about
3 gallons daily from Lady-day to Michaelmas, and from that time to
February about 1 gallon daily. Cows of good breed will be profitable
milkers, to 14 or 15 years of age, if well fed. See BUTTER, CHEESE, CREAM,
&c.
=D'ALBESPYRE'S BLISTERING TISSUE.= Lard and ship's pitch, of each 1 part;
resina flav. and yellow wax, of each, 4 parts; finely powdered
cantharides, 6 parts; melted together, and spread over taffety.
=DAMAS'CUS BLADES.= See STEEL.
=DAMENPULVER--Ladies' Powder= (J. Pohlmann, Vienna). A face powder
composed of 14 parts white lead, 7 of talc, 1 of magnesia, coloured with
carmine and perfumed with volatile oil.
=DAMMAR.= A resin employed in mounting many microscopic objects; such as
teeth, hair, hard bone, and most tissues which have been previously
hardened by treatment with alcohol and chromic acid. Dammar is prepared
for use as follows:--
_a._ Gum dammar, 1/2 oz.; oil turpentine, 1 oz.; dissolve and filter.
_b._ Gum mastic, 1/2 oz.; chloroform, 2 oz.; dissolve and filter. Add
solution _a_ to solution _b_. (Dr Klein.)
If allowed to become thick by drying, dammar may be used as luting.
=DAMP=, under any form, should be avoided. A humid atmosphere or situation
is one of the commonest causes of agues, asthmas, rheumatism, and numerous
other diseases.
=Damp Linen= is very injurious, and should be especially avoided. In
travelling, when it is expected that the bed has not been properly aired,
a good plan is to sleep between the blankets. To ascertain this point the
bed may be warmed, and a cold, dry, glass tumbler immediately afterwards
introduced between the sheets, in an inverted position. After it has
remained a few seconds, it should be examined, when, if it is found dry,
and undimmed by steam, it may be fairly presumed that the bed is well
aired; but if the reverse should be the case, it should be avoided. When
it is impossible to prevent the use of damp linen, as articles of dress,
the best way to obviate any ill effects is to keep constantly in motion
and avoid remaining near the fire, or in a warm apartment, or in a draught
of cold air until sufficient time has elapsed to allow of the escape of
the moisture. The effect of evaporation is the reduction of the
temperature of the body; hence the depressing action of damp linen.
=Damp Walls.= Ivy planted against the sound wall of a house is said to
exclude dampness. If a wall is already damp, ivy planted against it will,
when grown up, cause it to become dry, provided the brickwork is sound and
the dampness does not arise from moisture attracted upwards from the
foundation. Sometimes, when ivy is propagated from flowering branches, it
will not adhere to a wall at all; the way to get over this difficulty is
to cut it back to near the surface of the ground. The young wood which
will then form will take hold and cling immediately to almost anything.
The following is said to be a good application for damp walls:--Dissolve
3/4 lb. of mottled soap in 1 gallon of water. This composition is to be
laid over the brickwork steadily and carefully with a large thick brush,
but not in such a manner as to form a froth or lather on the surface. It
must be allowed 24 hours to dry on the walls. Now mix 1/2 lb. alum with 4
gallons of water; let it stand 24 hours, and then apply it over the
coating of soap. The operation must be performed in dry weather.
=DAM'SON.= A species of small black plum, much used in the preparation of
tarts, &c. Damsons are rather apt to disagree with delicate stomachs, and
also to affect the bowels. See PLUM.
=DAN'CING.= The practice of dancing as an amusement or exercise must be
almost as old as the human race itself. Yet, notwithstanding its antiquity
and prevalence amongst all nations, both barbarous and refined, the
propriety and advantages of its cultivation are of a very questionable
character. In a hygienic point of view it can claim no preference, as an
exercise, over the more simple ones of walking and running; whilst, from
the associations it frequently induces, and the heated and confined
atmosphere in which its votaries commonly assemble to indulge in it, it
becomes the fertile parent of immorality and consumption. A celebrated
cyclopædist has, perhaps harshly, but truthfully, defined dancing to be "a
silly amusement for the idle and thoughtless."
=DANDELI'ON.= _Syn._ PISS-A-BED; TARAX'ACUM (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. A common
British plant of the natural order Compositæ. It is known among botanists
by the names _Taraxacum officinale_, _T. dens leonis_, and _Leontodon
Taraxacum_ (Linn.). Its root (_Taraxaci Radix_, B. P.) is employed in
medicine, being diuretic and tonic. It is roasted and used as coffee, and
when mixed with an equal weight of foreign coffee constitutes the article
once so much puffed under the name of 'dandelion coffee.' A similar
mixture prepared with chocolate forms the 'dandelion chocolate' of the
shops. The blanched leaves are used in salads, and the inspissated juice,
extract, and decoction are employed in medicine, and are considered as
detergent, aperitive, and deobstruent. Ground roasted dandelion root
cannot now be sold under the name of 'dandelion coffee' or mixed with
coffee unless it has previously paid the chicory duty. See DECOCTION,
EXTRACT, &c.
=DANDRIFF.= This is a scaly disease affecting the head, and giving rise to
the formation of the small troublesome particles known as scurf. A
serviceable application is two drachms of borax dissolved in a pint of
camphor water; the head to be washed with this lotion once or twice a
week, or much benefit may also be derived by washing the head with tepid
water, agitated with a piece of quillar bark until a strong lather is
produced; or with water containing salt of tartar, in the proportion of
two drachms of the salt to a pint of tepid water. As a general rule, the
use of soap is to be discountenanced.
=DAN'IELL'S BATTERY.= See VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
=DAPH'NIN.= A peculiar bitter principle, discovered by Vauquelin in the
_Daphne mezereum_ or _mezereon_. It is procured by separating the resin
from the alcoholic tincture of the bark by evaporation; afterwards,
diluting the residue with water, filtering, and adding acetate of lead. A
yellow substance falls down, which, when decomposed by sulphuretted
hydrogen, yields daphnin, under the form of small, colourless,
transparent, radiated needles. It is bitter; volatile; sparingly soluble
in cold water; freely soluble in hot water, and in alcohol and ether. It
possesses basic properties. See MEZEREON.
=DARNEL.= The powder of the seed of the _Lolium temulentum_, a poisonous
grass, is not unfrequently found mixed with the flour of wheat, oats, and
other cereals, and when these latter, under these circumstances, are
partaken of as food, they give rise to more or less alarming symptoms of
poisoning, which are thus enumerated by Dr Pareira:--Headache, giddiness,
languor, ringing in the ears, confusion of sight, dilated pupil, delirium,
heaviness, somnolency, trembling convulsions, paralysis, and great
gastro-intestinal irritation. One of the most specific signs of poisoning
by darnel seeds is said by Seeger to be the trembling of the whole body.
Dr Taylor mentions a case in which thirty persons who had partaken of
bread containing darnel seeds were violently attacked with the above
symptoms; and another case is on record of sixty persons in a prison at
Cologne being similarly attacked from the same cause. Hassall states that
the flour of the darnel seed presents the following appearance under the
microscope:--"The starch corpuscles are polygonal, and resemble in this
respect those of rice. They are, however, much smaller, and frequently
united into compound grains of various sizes, the larger grains consisting
of some fifty or sixty starch corpuscles." The structure of the testa is
very different from that of either rice or oat, or indeed any of the other
cereal grains. It is formed of three coats or membranes. The cells of the
outer coat form but a single layer, and, contrary to the arrangement which
exists in the oat, their long axes are disposed transversely, in which
respect they resemble rice. The fibres of the husk of rice and the cells
of the testa of Lolium are, however, very distinct in other respects. In
the former the cells are long and narrow, forming fibres, while in the
latter they are but two or three times as broad.
[Illustration]
The cells of the second coat, which are ranged in two layers, follow a
vertical disposition, an arrangement which is contrary to that which
obtains in all the other cereal grains with the exception of rice. The
cells of the third coat form but a single layer, and resemble those of
other grains.
=DATU'RA.= _Syn._ THORN-APPLE; STRAMO'NIUM (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. A genus of
plants belonging to the nightshade order, or '_Atropaceæ_,' The species
_Datura Stramonium_ is an important medicinal plant, the leaves and seeds
being officinal in B. P. It is anodyne and sedative, but not hypnotic,
though it will often induce sleep by relieving pain. It affects the
constitution in much the same way as belladonna.--_Dose_, 1 to 4 or 5 gr.,
in asthma, gout, headache, neuralgic and rheumatic pains, &c. In spasmodic
asthma smoking the leaf often gives instantaneous relief, but must be
exhibited with care, as the whole plant is intensely poisonous. No
antidote is known. Another species, namely, _Datura tatula_, is now
preferred for cigars or cigarettes. Cigars are made from _Datura
Stramonium_ more frequently than from _Datura tatula_. They are
recommended for asthma. See ASTHMA, CIGARS (Stramonium), DATURIA
(_below_).
=DATU'RIA.= _Syn._ DATU'RINE, DATURIN'A, HYOSCY'AMINE. An organic alkali,
discovered by Geiger and Hesse in _Datura Stramonium_ or thorn apple. It
occurs also in _Hyoscyamus niger_ or henbane. It is best obtained from the
seeds. Daturia dissolves in 280 parts of cold and 72 parts of boiling
water; it is very soluble in alcohol, less so in ether. It tastes bitter,
dilates the pupil strongly, and is very poisonous. It may be sublimed
unaltered, and may be obtained in prismatic crystals by the addition of
water to its alcoholic solution. With the acids it forms salts, which are
mostly crystallisable.
=DAVIDS-THEE--David's Tea= (B. Fragner, Prague). Recommended as a domestic
remedy for chronic catarrh of the lungs and air passages, and especially
for tuberculosis. A mixture of equal parts of great centaury, hyssop,
chervil (Scandix odorata), white horehound, milfoil, Iceland moss, and
carduus benedictus.
=Davids-Thee, Echter Karolinenthaler--Genuine Karolin's Dale David's Tea=
(Kràl). Recommended for the same diseases as the preceding. A mixture of
white horehound, milfoil, Iceland moss, great centaury, and ground ivy.
According to a communication from a Bohemian apothecary the original
prescription reads thus:--Herba cerefolii (Scandicis, chervil), hb.
centaurii minoris (lesser centaury), hb. marrub. (horehound), flor.
millefol. (milfoil flowers), lichen. Isl., of each 6 parts; hb. hyssopi, 3
parts; hb. cardui benedicti, 2 parts. (A. Selle.)
=DEAD, DISPOSAL OF.= As every dead body during the process of the
decomposition it undergoes gives rise to products that are not only in the
highest degree offensive, but in an especial sense dangerous to the health
and lives of a community, the disposal of the dead in a manner best
calculated to ensure, with the removal of the corpse from amongst the
survivors, the least injurious consequences of its subsequent decay,
becomes a problem of supreme importance to the sanitarian.
Probably amongst the nations of antiquity the Romans, with their eminently
practical minds, and as we may infer from their other enlightened sanitary
arrangements, were the only ancient people who were not guided either by
superstitious or religious ideas in the disposal of their dead, at one
time burned, but afterwards buried them. The Greeks practised cremation,
the Egyptians embalmment (previously disembowelling the body), under the
belief that after the lapse of many thousands of years the soul would
return to its earthly mansion. The Hebrews sometimes burned their dead,
and sometimes interred them. Amongst the ancient Hindoos the body was got
rid of sometimes by cremation, sometimes by being cast into the Ganges, or
other sacred river, and sometimes by exposure, until eaten by vultures.
The Icthyophagi, or fish-eaters, appear to be the only people of antiquity
who disposed of their dead by throwing them into the sea.
Amongst modern civilised nations interment is the method almost
universally adopted for disposing of the dead.
Embalmment has been of late years occasionally practised in America, and
was frequently adopted during the late civil war in many cases, since it
afforded the means of sending the bodies of the slain to surviving
relatives at long distances. Sir Henry Thompson's advocacy of cremation
was the means of causing the establishment in England a few years back of
a society for its introduction; but neither here nor in Germany, where it
has occasionally been employed, has the practice being adopted, save in a
very few instances, most of which seem to have been merely experimental.
In Calcutta cremation is still practised to some extent by the native
population; the process being very effectively carried out by a French
company, which has been established for some years. We may mention here an
important modification of the ordinary form of interment proposed by Mr
Sydney Hadden. Mr Hadden's proposal is to dispense with the coffin, and to
place the corpse instead in a large wickerwork receptacle filled with
flowers, then inter it.
Of the three modes of disposal of the dead, viz. by burial, by burning,
and by consignment to the sea, the first, as we have already said, is the
almost invariably prevalent custom amongst civilised communities. That in
a sanitary point of view it is less to be commended than either of the
other methods is, we think, not difficult of demonstration. When a body is
burned the resulting gaseous products of combustion, which most probably
consist mainly of carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, and nitrogen, diffuse
harmlessly into the atmosphere, and there remains behind only the calcined
bones which formed the skeleton. An experiment by Sir Henry Thompson has
shown that cremation may be performed without giving rise to odour of any
kind at a comparatively small expense, and within a very moderate space of
time. He burned a body weighing 227 lbs. in fifty-five minutes by placing
it in a cylindrical metallic vessel seven feet long and six feet in
diameter, previously heated to incandescence. The evolved gases were made
to pass over a large surface of strongly heated fire-bricks, which formed
part of the furnace in which the metallic vessel was placed. The furnace
and its fittings were designed by Dr Siemens. The remaining ashes weighed
about 5 lbs. In his pamphlet 'On Cremation,' Sir Henry Thompson has
proposed that the custom, if adopted, should be carried out in the
following manner: "When death occurs, and the necessary certificate has
been given, the body is placed in a light wood shell, then in a suitable
outside receptacle preparatory to removal for religious rites or
otherwise. After a proper time has elapsed it is conveyed to the spot
where cremation is to be performed. There nothing need be seen by the last
attendant or attendants than the placing of a shell within a small
compartment, and the closing of the door upon it. It slides down into the
heated chamber, and is left there an hour until the necessary changes have
taken place. The ashes are then placed at the disposal of the attendants."
Sir Henry suggests that, previous to the burning of any corpse, proper
officers appointed for the purpose should examine into and certify as to
the cause of death, and if satisfied that it has resulted from natural
events, that they should give the certificate he alludes to.
Sir Henry Thompson proposes that the functions of the officers appointed
for this purpose should be the same as those of the _medicins
verificateurs_, who are medical inspectors appointed by the municipality
of Paris and the other large cities, whose duty consists in visiting each
house where a death occurs, in assuring themselves that the person is
really dead, and that there are no suspicious circumstances attending the
demise.
In Paris alone there are more than eighty of such medical functionaries.
Burial by casting the corpse into the depths of the sea possesses the
great advantage over ordinary interment of removing it from near the
habitation of man, whilst the sea water, by its antiseptic properties,
would be as little favorable to the dissemination of noxious putrescent
compounds as cremation is. On the contrary, if the dead are disposed of by
the ordinary method of burial, the objectionable effects arising from
their decomposition in the earth are, under the most favorable conditions,
only partially overcome; and the reason is obvious, since whilst deep-sea
burial prevents animal decay altogether, and burning destroys the body,
which, if not got rid of, would become putrid; burial in the earth permits
its slow and lengthened decomposition to go on unchecked, and to thus very
frequently become a source of contamination and danger to health.[251]
[Footnote 251: "After death the buried body returns to its elements and
gradually, and often by the means of other forms of life which prey on it,
a large amount of it forms carbonic acid, ammonia, sulphuretted and
carburetted hydrogen, nitrous and nitric acids, and various more complex
gaseous products, many of which are very fetid, but which, however, are
eventually all oxidised into the simpler combination. The non-volatile
substances, the salts, become constituents of the soil, pass into plants,
or are carried away into the water percolating through the ground. The
hardest parts, the bones, remain in some soils for many centuries,
and even for long periods retain a portion of their animal
constituents."--PARKES.]
The atmosphere in the vicinity of graveyards and cemeteries is notoriously
unhealthy, whilst water taken from wells situated near them is often so
impure as to be wholly unfit for drinking. Several instances are on record
in which the disturbance of an old graveyard has frequently been the means
of disseminating disease. But although the disposal of the dead by means
either of cremation or by consignment of the body to the deep caverns of
the ocean are methods, in a hygienic point of view, immeasurably superior
to earth-burial, there are, we think, certain obstacles to their adoption,
even to a limited extent, by civilised communities, at any rate, for many
years to come.
"Both cremation and deep-sea burial are open to the objection, that should
the proposed officers appointed to inquire into the circumstances
attending death have been mistaken in their verdict, as for instance in
overlooking, or not suspecting a case of secret poisoning, not only would
the murderer escape detection, but a sense of possible immunity from
punishment might act as an encouragement to others who were equally guilty
minded. The proposal that the stomach should be preserved, and kept for a
certain time, and, in case of suspicion justifying it, examination, would
in many instances fail to lead to detection, since, if certain alkaloids
had been employed, they would have to be searched for, not in the stomach,
but in the tissues of the dead body. Again, an obstacle to the universal
adoption of deep-sea burial would be, in the case of vast continents, the
difficulty of transmission from their interior, of the corpse, to the
shore. But even if these objections against cremation and sea-burial could
be overcome (and possibly they may be eventually), there would still
remain the invincible repugnance of the survivors to what sentiment and
feeling will persist in regarding as cruel indignity and irreverence
toward the dead.
"Yet the eventual disposal of our frames is the same in all cases; and it
is probably a matter merely of custom which makes us think that there is a
want of affection, or of care, if the bodies of the dead are not suffered
to repose in the earth that bore them.
"In reality, neither affection nor religion can be outraged by any manner
of disposal of the dead which is done with proper solemnity and respect to
the earthly dwelling-place of our friends. The question should be placed
entirely on sanitary grounds, and we shall then judge it rightly.
"What is the use of preserving for a few more years the remains which will
be an object of indifference to future generations? The next logical step
would be to enshrine these remains in some way so as to ensure their
preservation, and we should return to the vast burial mounds in Egypt.
"At present the question is not an urgent one, but if peace continue, and
if the population of Europe increase, it will become so in another century
or two.
"Already in this country we have seen, in our own time, a great change;
the objectionable practice of interment under and round churches in towns
has been given up, and the population is buried at a distance from their
habitations. For the present that measure will probably suffice, but in a
few years the question will again inevitably present itself."[252]
[Footnote 252: Parkes.]
Since however, for the reasons above specified, earth-burial seems to be
the only means of disposing of the dead likely to prevail for many years
to come, the question arises as to how its attendant evils can be as much
as possible minimised. The following suggestions, that may assist to
effect this, are offered:--As quickly as possible after death the body
should be covered with sawdust, to which carbolic acid has been added, a
precaution which not only prevents the escape of fetid gases, but also of
putrescent fluids from a badly jointed coffin. Charcoal, although an
excellent disinfectant, from its colour, could not out of consideration
for the feelings of the relatives or friends, be used until the coffin
with its contents had been screwed down.
It is always desirable (save for some special reason) that the corpse
should be interred within three or four days of the demise. If a body has
to be kept above ground for some time, Mr Herbert Barker recommends a thin
layer of sawdust and sulphate of zinc to be placed over it, in the
proportion of two parts of the former to one of the latter. The coffin
should be made of a material impervious to the air, and of such strength
as to withstand the pressure of the overlying earth.
Mr Wynter Blyth, in his 'Dictionary of Hygiène,' recommends a coffin
described by Mr Baker in his evidence before the sanitary commission. "The
body being first of all placed in a common shell, this shell is placed in
the coffin; the interval between the two is filled with common pitch, and
then the outside coffin is coated over with pitch; so that it is as
perfectly air-tight as a leaden shell. If desired a glass can be placed so
as to leave the face exposed to the view of a jury when necessary with
regard to the interment.
"The advantages of deep over shallow burying are obvious. The greater the
mass of superincumbent earth into which the gaseous products of
decomposition diffuse, the better the chance of their absorption and
removal by the soil, and the less risk of their consequent escape into the
contiguous atmosphere, as well as of the danger of contamination to the
water of wells, &c. The depth of the grave varies in different countries.
In Austria it is 6 ft. 2 in.; in Hesse Darmstadt, from 5 ft. 7 in. to 6
ft. 6 in.; Munich, 6 ft. 7 in.; Stuttgard, 6 ft. 6 in.; Russia from 6 ft.
10 in. In our country the practice is generally to make the depth about 6
feet, but then coffins may be placed one on the other, so that, as an
actual fact, they often very closely approach the surface. The regulations
followed at Stuttgard are much to be commended. In the cemeteries there
the space allotted for each grave is an oblong piece of land 10 feet in
length and 5 feet broad. In France the graves vary in depth from 1-1/4
metres (4·921 feet) to 2 metres (6·561 feet). They are 8 decimètres (2·264
feet) in breadth, and distant the one from the other from 3 to 4
decimètres (11·911 inches to 1·132 feet.)" (Blyth.)
To render a cemetery therefore as little prejudicial as possible to a
community, not alone should deep burial be enforced, but only one body
should be permitted to be deposited in a grave, at least, till after the
lapse of some years. Some sanitary authorities recommend the use of
quicklime or charcoal, advising them to be thrown into the grave previous
to its being closed. Of the two, charcoal is the preferable disinfectant,
although it does not entirely prevent putrefaction, nor the evolution of
bad-smelling gases. No more efficient means of absorbing organic matters,
and carbonic acid given off by the decaying corpse in the earth, can be
devised than that of rapidly growing trees and shrubs in abundance around
the graves.
For the funereal cypress and yew, which are slowly growing trees, why
should a needless sentiment prevent the substitution of the much more
sanitary and less sombre-looking eucalyptus in countries where this plant
will flourish?
Old burial-grounds which have become offensive may be best disinfected by
covering the ground with fresh earth to the depth of several inches, and
by planting it with trees and sowing it with grass seed. Twenty-six city
graveyards covering a superficial area of about 48,000 square yards, and
in which, according to moderate calculation, there were not less than
48,000 tons of human remains, were successfully dealt with in this manner.
In the case of church vaults they should be first opened, a quantity of
quicklime thrown into them, and thus freely exposed to the external air.
The coffins should then be rearranged crossways like bricks in a building,
and filled in with dry earth or masons' rubbish, mixed with about 5 or 10
per cent. of vegetable charcoal. The vaults should next be ventilated by
means of an upcast and downcast shaft of the size of a rain-water pipe,
and the whole should then be closed in. In 1860, two hundred and fifty
vaults in seventy-one city churches were thus disinfected.[253] These
vaults contained the coffins and remains of at least 11,000 dead bodies,
which, previous to the adoption of the above measures, were very
offensive.[253] When bodies are removed from the vaults to other places,
Dr Letheby recommends them to be in closed coffins and in cases containing
an abundant supply of carbonate of lime powder.
[Footnote 253: Letheby.]
The disposal of the dead frequently becomes a matter of considerable
difficulty in time of war or during a siege. Under these circumstances
cremation may be found the most desirable method of getting rid of them.
If the bodies are buried they should always be at as great a distance as
possible from one another, and as deep as they can be. If procurable,
charcoal should be thrown over them; if it cannot be obtained sawdust and
sulphate of zinc, or carbolic acid, may be employed. Quicklime is also
commonly used, but it is less useful.
At Metz, in 1870, the following plan was adopted:--A pit of about 17 feet
in depth was filled with dead disposed of as follows:--A row of bodies was
laid side by side; above this a second row was placed, with the heads laid
against the feet of the first row; the third row were placed across, and
the fourth row in the same way, but with the heads to the feet of the
former; the fifth row was placed as No. 1, and so on.
Between each layer of bodies about an inch of lime, in powder, was placed.
From 90 to 100 bodies were thus arranged on a length of 6-1/2 feet, and
reached to about 6 feet to the surface; the pit was then filled up with
earth, and though 8400 bodies were put in that pit there were no
perceptible emanations at any time.
Around Metz the graves of men, horses, and cattle were disinfected with
lime, charcoal, and sulphate of iron. Immense exertions were made to clean
and disinfect the camps and battle fields, and in the month of May, 1871,
from 1200 to 1600 labourers were employed by the Germans. Wherever
practicable the ground was sown with oats or barley or grass. The hillocks
formed by the graves were planted with trees.
In many cases at Metz bodies were dug up by the Germans, when there was
any fear of water-courses being contaminated, or if houses were near. On
account of the danger to the workmen, graves containing more than six
bodies were left untouched, and the work was always done under the
immediate superintendence of a physician. The earth was removed carefully,
but not far enough to uncover the corpse; then one end of the corpse was
uncovered, and as soon as the uniform or parts of the body were seen,
chloride of lime and sawdust, or charcoal and carbolic acid, put in; the
whole earth round the body was thus treated, and the body at length laid
bare, lifted and carried away. The second body was then treated in the
same way.
Near Sedan, where there were many bodies very superficially buried,
burning was had recourse to. Straw mixed with pitch was put into the
graves, and was lighted; one ton of pitch sufficed for from 15 to 20
bodies. Opinions as to this practice were divided, and it is not certain
how many graves were thus dealt with. It seems probable that only the
surface of the body was burnt, and when many bodies were together in the
grave, some were not touched at all. On the whole the experiment appears
to have been unsuccessful.
The Belgian experience at Sedan was in favour of employing chloride of
lime, nitric acid, sulphate of iron, and chlorine gas. Carbolic acid did
not answer so well. The sulphate of zinc and charcoal, which Barker found
so useful, was not tried.[254]
[Footnote 254: Parkes.]
Various statutes have been framed for the burial of the dead and for the
management and selection of the burial-grounds. In the carrying out of
these enactments the local authorities have only an indirect voice,
exception being made in the case of a local government district in which
the vestry determines to appoint a burial board. The vestry then has power
to constitute the local board so appointed the burial board of such
district or parish, and to rule that the expenses of such burial board
shall be met by a rate levied on such parish, after the manner of a
general district rate.
Vict. 21 and 22, c. 90, s. 49, enacts that if such parish has been
declared a ward for the election of members of the local board, such
members are to form the burial board for the parish.
By Vict. 24 and 25, c. 61, s. 21, it is enacted that a sanitary authority
may provide a proper place for the reception of dead bodies, as well as
for those which are to be subjected to a post-mortem examination.
A sanitary authority is also empowered to make arrangements for interment.
Any urban sanitary authority has the power of regulating these matters by
by-laws. When once constituted a burial board, a sanitary authority has to
see to the carrying out of the Burial Acts, to repair the fences of
disused burial grounds, and generally to keep in proper order and regulate
all burial grounds within its jurisdiction.
The law enacts that the proper sanitary authority shall close any burial
ground which is detrimental to the health of those living in its
neighbourhood, or of persons frequenting any church; and throws upon such
sanitary body the duty of providing a proper place of interment elsewhere.
It may be well to know that by common law it is incumbent upon any person
under whose roof a death has taken place to provide the corpse with
interment. Such person may neither cast the body forth, nor carry it
uncovered to the grave, but he must give it decent burial. This obligation
is imposed upon public bodies as well as on private persons.
Upon presentation of a certificate signed by a properly qualified medical
practitioner, a justice of the peace may order, under certain
circumstances, the removal of the dead body to a mortuary.
Interment within the walls, or underneath the pavement or floor of any
church, or other place of public worship, built in any urban district,
has since August 31st, 1848, been interdicted under a penalty of £50.
=DEAF'NESS.= An imperfection or absence of the sense of hearing. When
deafness is present in infancy and childhood, it is accompanied with
dumbness, or imperfect articulation, in consequence of the impossibility
of conveying a knowledge of the sounds necessary for the exercise of the
imitative faculty of speech. Deafness frequently arises from some
imperfection or obstruction of the passage leading to the membrane of the
tympanum or drum of the ear. In some cases this passage is totally closed
by a membrane, or some malformation of the tube, which may frequently be
removed by a surgical operation. Even instances of partial obliteration of
this passage have occurred, which have been successfully treated. The
researches of Mr Yearsley have established the fact, that enlarged tonsils
are a very common cause of deafness; and when such is the case, their
excision will generally effect a cure. To this form of the affection Mr
Yearsley applies the term 'throat deafness.' Another cause of deafness is
the presence of foreign bodies in the aural passages or the accumulation
of hardened wax. In these cases the best treatment is to inject warm water
into the ear by means of a proper syringe. When deafness arises from
imperfection of the tympanum or drum of the ear, the effects of the
application of the artificial membrana tympani invented by Mr Yearsley
(moistened cotton wool) are generally immediate and truly wonderful. By
its aid persons previously so deaf as to be incapable of bearing their
share in conversation have been enabled to hear an ordinary whisper.
Insects may be destroyed by pouring a spoonful of warm olive oil, or
camphorated oil, into the ear over night, retaining it there until the
next morning by means of a piece of cotton wool, when it may be washed out
with a little mild soap and warm water. When there is a deficiency of the
natural secretion of wax, or a dryness of the aural passage, mild
oleaginous stimulants may be employed. For this purpose a little olive
oil, almond oil, to which a few drops of oil of turpentine, oil of
juniper, or camphor liniment, have been added, may be used with advantage.
A piece of cotton wool moistened with glycerin is an excellent application
in such cases. When deafness is accompanied with continued acute pain, or
a discharge of purulent matter, inflammation of the tympanum, or some
other portion of the internal ear, probably exists, and medical advice
should be sought as soon as possible. The deafness that frequently
accompanies a violent cold is generally caused by obstructions in the
Eustachian tubes, and goes off as soon as the secretions return to a
healthy state. In some forms of deafness blisters behind the ears are
useful. A clove of garlic wrapped in cotton or gauze, or a few drops of
the juice introduced into the ear, is extremely efficacious in nervous
deafness. When imperfect hearing depends upon obtundity of the auditory
nerve, or an extensive obliteration or malformation of the internal ear,
it scarcely admits of cure.
=Deafness, Taylor's Remedy for.= _Prep._ From oil of almonds, 1 lb.;
garlic, bruised, 2 oz.; alkanet root, 1/2 oz.; digest for a week, and
strain. A little is poured into the ear in deafness.
=DEATH.= In cases of sudden death interment should be deferred till signs
of putrefaction begin to appear, especially when no gradation of disease
has preceded, as in cases of apoplexy, hysterics, external injuries,
drowning, suffocation, &c. No sooner has breathing apparently ceased, and
the visage assumed a ghastly or a death-like hue, than the patient, after
his eyes are closed, is too often hurried into a coffin, and the body,
scarcely yet cold, is precipitated into the grave. So extremely fallacious
are the signs of death that the semblance has been frequently mistaken for
the reality. By prompt means and judicious treatment, many persons, when
in such a condition, have been happily restored to their families and
friends. The effects of sound upon animal life is astonishing. The beat of
a drum, for instance, has had a very beneficial effect upon persons in a
state of suspended animation. At one time a scream, extorted by grief,
proved the means of resuscitating a person who was supposed to be dead,
and who had exhibited the usual recent marks of the extinction of life. In
cases of catalepsy or trance, having the semblance of death, the action of
the lungs and heart continues, though in a nearly imperceptible degree. By
placing a cold mirror or piece of highly polished metal immediately over
the mouth of the patient, symptoms of moisture will appear upon the
surface if the most feeble respiration takes place.
=DEBIL'ITY.= _Syn._ DEBIL'ITAS, L. Weakness; languor; feebleness. When
this arises from a diseased action of the stomach, the occasional use of
mild aperients, followed by bitters and tonics, may be had recourse to.
When from a general laxity of the solids, and there are no symptoms of
fever, nor a tendency of blood to the head, a course of chalybeates
generally proves advantageous. See ANÆMIA, ATROPHY, &c.
=DECANTA'TION.= The operation of pouring or drawing off the clear portion
of a liquid from the impurities or grosser matter that has subsided. It is
commonly performed, either by gently inclining the vessel, or by the use
of a syphon or pump. In the laboratory it is much resorted to in the
purification of precipitates, or other similar operations, where repeated
edulcoration or washing is required, for which purpose it is preferable to
filtration, from being less troublesome and more economical. In these
cases, after a sufficient time having been allowed for the subsidence of
the precipitate or powder, or for the clearing of the supernatant fluid,
the latter is decanted, and its place supplied by a fresh portion of
water, which, after sufficient agitation, is similarly treated, and the
whole operation repeated as often as necessary.
=DECANT'ERS.= There is often much difficulty experienced in cleaning
decanters, especially after port wine has stood in them for some time. The
best way is to wash them out with a little pearlash and warm water, adding
a spoonful or two of fresh-slaked lime, if necessary. To facilitate the
action of the fluid against the sides of the glass, a few small cinders or
pieces of raw potato may be used. A spoonful of strong oil of vitriol will
also rapidly remove any kind of dirt from glass bottles. Decanters which
have become furred by holding hard water may be cleaned with a spoonful of
hydrochloric acid ('spirits of salt'), diluted with 3 or 4 times its
weight of water. See STOPPERS.
=DECARBONISA'TION.= This operation is performed on cast iron, to convert
it into soft iron. The articles to be decarbonised are packed in finely
powdered hæmatite, or native oxide of iron, to which iron filings are
often added, and exposed for some time to a strong red heat, by which the
excess of carbon is abstracted or burnt out. The process somewhat
resembles annealing or cementation.
=DECAY'.= See EREMACAUSIS.
=DEC'IMALS.= _Syn._ DECIMAL FRACTIONS. Fractions which have for their
denominator 10, or some power of ten; as 100, 1000, &c.; the number of
ciphers in the denominator being always equal to the number of figures in
the numerator. Thus, ·2, ·25, ·125, respectively represent 2/10, 25/100,
125/1000. The denominator of decimals is never written, the dot placed
before the first figure of the numerator expressing its value. Ciphers
placed on the right hand of a decimal fraction do not alter its value; for
·5, ·50, ·500, are each equal to 1/2; but ciphers placed on the left hand
of a decimal diminish its value in a tenfold proportion; thus, ·3, ·03,
·003, respectively answer to the common fractions 3/10, 3/100, and 3/1000.
Every figure on the left-hand side of the dot or decimal sign is a whole
number.
ADDITION and SUBTRACTION OF DECIMALS are performed in the same manner as
with common numbers, care being taken to place the numbers under each
other according to their several values; as, tens under tens, hundreds
under hundreds, &c.
MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS is performed in precisely the same manner as
with whole numbers, merely pointing off as many figures in the product as
there are decimals in the multiplier and multiplicand put together.
DIVISION OF DECIMALS. As the last, but pointing off as many figures in the
quotient as the decimal places in the dividend exceed those of the
divisor. If there are not figures enough in the quotient, the deficiency
must be supplied by prefixing left-hand ciphers. Ciphers are also added to
the right hand of the dividend, or to a remainder, where there are more
figures in the divisor than in the dividend, by which the quotient may be
carried on to any extent.
A vulgar fraction is reduced to a decimal by dividing the numerator
(increased sufficiently with ciphers) by the denominator. Thus, 1/2 = ·5,
1/8 = ·125, &c.
The value of a decimal, of any denomination, is found by multiplying it by
the number of parts in the next less denomination, and cutting off as many
places to the right hand as there are decimals, and so on until the terms
are exhausted. Thus, ·634 oz. is =
·634
8
-----
5·072 drachms.
60
-----
4·320
or, 5 dr. 4-1/3 gr. (nearly).
The constant use of decimals in the laboratory, in the surveys of the
Excise, and in numerous chemical calculations, induces us to press the
subject on the attention of operatives and others of neglected education.
An attentive perusal of the above, and a few hours' application, will make
the matter familiar to them.
=DECOC'TION.= _Syn._ DECOCT'UM, L. An aqueous solution of the active
principles of any substance obtained by boiling; also the process of
preparing such solutions.
The effect of decoction in water differs greatly from that of infusion. At
the temperature of 212° Fahr., the essential oils and aromatic principles
of vegetables are dissipated or decomposed; while by infusion in hot
water, in covered vessels, they remain for the most part uninjured. The
solvent powers of boiling water are, however, much greater than those of
hot water; and many vegetable principles scarcely acted on by the one are
freely soluble in the other. This is the case with many of the alkaloids,
on which the medicinal virtues of several vegetables depend. On the other
hand, the solutions of many substances, though more readily made by
boiling, are speedily weakened or rendered inert by ebullition, in
consequence of the active principles being either volatilised along with
the steam, or oxidised or decomposed by exposure to the atmosphere. This
is particularly the case with substances abounding in extractive or
astringent matter. When the medicinal properties of vegetables are
volatile, or are injured by a strong heat, infusion should be had recourse
to, in preference to boiling; but when a solution of the fixed
constituents is alone sought, decoction is preferable.
The substances employed for making decoctions should be well bruised, or
reduced to a very coarse powder, or, if fresh and soft, they should be
sliced small. In the former case, any very fine powder or adhering dust
should be removed with a sieve, as its presence tends to make the product
thick and disagreeable, and also more troublesome to strain. The vessel in
which the ebullition is conducted should be furnished with an accurately
fitting cover, the better to exclude the air; and the application of the
heat should be so conducted that the fluid may be kept simmering, or only
gently boiling, as violent boiling is not only quite unnecessary, but
absolutely injurious to the quality of the product. In every case the
liquor should be strained whilst hot, but not boiling, and the best method
of doing this is to employ a fine hair sieve, or a coarse flannel bag. In
general it is found that, as decoctions cool, a sediment is formed, in
consequence of the boiling water dissolving a larger portion of vegetable
matter than it can retain in solution when cold. This deposit for the most
part consists of the active principles of the solution, and, unless when
otherwise ordered, should be mingled with the clear liquid by agitation,
when the decoction enters into extemporaneous compositions, or when the
dose is taken.
The length of time occupied by the ebullition is another point demanding
some attention. Long boiling is in no case necessary, and should be
avoided, especially in decoctions prepared from aromatic vegetables, or
those abounding in extractive. The Colleges, in such cases, direct the
ingredients "to be boiled for a short time," or "for ten minutes;" or they
limit the period of the ebullition by stating the quantity that must be
volatilised, as--"boil to a pint, and strain." The last method is
generally employed for those substances that do not suffer by lengthened
boiling.
In preparing compound decoctions those ingredients should be boiled first
which least readily give up their active principles to the menstruum, and
those which most readily part with them should be added afterwards. In
many cases it is proper simply to infuse the more aromatic substances in
the hot decoction of the other ingredients, by which means their volatile
principles will be better preserved.
Distilled water, or perfectly clean rain water, should alone be used for
decoctions, extracts, and infusions. Spring and river water, from
containing lime, have much less solvent matter.
The aqueous solutions of organic matter, from the nature of their
constituents, rapidly ferment or putrefy, at the ordinary temperature of
the atmosphere. Neither decoctions nor infusions are fit to be used in
dispensing, unless made the same day. They should, consequently, be only
prepared in small quantities at a time, and any unconsumed portion should
be rejected, as it would be imprudent for the dispenser to risk his own
reputation, and the welfare of the patient, by employing an article of
dubious quality.
It has of late years become a general practice for the wholesale houses to
vend preparations under the name of 'Concentrated Decoctions,' which, with
the exception of the compound decoction of aloes, are stated to be of 8
times the pharmacop[oe]ial strength; so that one drachm of these liquids
added to seven drachms of water forms extemporaneous decoctions,
professedly resembling those of the pharmacop[oe]ia. The decoction of
aloes is made of only four times the usual strength, as the nature of its
composition would not permit of further concentration. Such preparations
are, however, very imperfect substitutes for the freshly made decoctions.
The extreme difficulty of forming concentrated solutions of vegetable
matter with bulky ingredients too often leads to the omission of a portion
of the materials, or to the practice of concentrating the liquid by long
evaporation. In the first case the strength is, of course, less than it
should be; and in the second, the quality is injured, and perhaps the
preparation is rendered nearly inert by the lengthened exposure to heat,
and the consequent volatilisation or decomposition of its active
constituents. The common practice of adding a considerable portion of
spirit to these preparations, which is absolutely necessary to preserve
them, is also objectionable, as, in many of the cases in which decoctions
are prescribed, this article, even in small quantities, exerts a
prejudicial action. Some concentrated decoctions have been recently
offered for sale which do not contain alcohol, being preserved by the
addition of sulphurous acid, or sulphite of lime.
=Decoction of Alconorque.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ALCONORCO. American alconorque
bark, 1/2 oz.; water, 16 oz,; boil to 8 oz., and strain.--_Dose_, 1 oz.
two or three times a day, in phthisis.
=Decoction of Alder.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ALNI. Bark of common alder, 1 oz.;
water, 20 oz.; boil to 16 oz.
=Decoction of Alder, Black.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM RHAMNI FRANGULÆ. Black alder
bark, dried, 1 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to 1 pint, and strain.
=Decoction of Al'oes.= _Syn._ COMPOUND D. OF A., BALSAM OF LIFE; BAUME DE
VIE, Fr.; DECOCTUM AL'OËS (Ph. E.), D. A. COMPOS'ITUM (B. P. and Ph. D.),
L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Extract of liquorice, 1 oz.; extract of socotrine
aloes, 2 dr.; powdered myrrh and saffron, of each, 1-1/2 dr.; carbonate of
potassa, 1 dr.; tincture of cardamoms, 8 oz.; water, a sufficiency.
Coarsely powder the extract of aloes and myrrh, and put them, together
with the carbonate of potash and extract of liquorice, into a covered
vessel, with a pint of distilled water; boil gently for five minutes, then
add the saffron; let the vessel with contents cool, then add the tincture
of cardamoms, and, covering the vessels closely, allow the ingredients
to macerate two hours, finally strain through flannel, pouring as much
distilled water over the contents of the strainer as will make the product
measure 30 oz.
2. (Ph. E.) Aloes, myrrh, and saffron, of each 1 dr.; extract of
liquorice, 1/2 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 40 gr.; water, 16 fl. oz.; boil
to 12 fl. oz.; strain, and add of compound tincture of cardamoms 4 fl. oz.