9. (MORTON'S LINIMENT.) Calomel and camphor, of each 1 dr.; spermaceti
ointment, 4 dr.; oil of turpentine and cocoa-nut oil, of each 2 dr. As No.
5.
10. (WAHLER'S OINTMENT.) Black oxide of iron, bole, and oil of turpentine,
of each 1 dr.; resin cerate, 1 oz. For broken chilblains. We have found a
mixture of equal parts of calamine cerate and resin cerate answer quite as
well. See CERATE, OINTMENT.
11. (RUSSIAN REMEDY.) The rind of perfectly ripe cucumbers dried, with the
soft parts attached. For use they are placed with the inner side,
previously soaked in warm water, over the soft parts. (Med. Zeitung.)
12. (RHEIN.) Dissolve 1 _oz._ of tannin in a pint of water, and 74 grains
of iodine in 1-3/4 _oz._ of spirit of wine; the solutions are then mixed,
and enough water added to make the whole up to 2-1/2 pints. In applying
it, which is best done at bedtime, the mixture is gently warmed over a
slow fire; the affected part is dipped into it while still cold, and
retained in it till the liquid, on being stirred, feels uncomfortably hot.
The vessel is then withdrawn from the fire, and the affected part dried
over it. The vessel must be of earthenware or porcelain, and care must be
taken not to use too much iodine, especially when abrasions are present.
13. (L'UNION MÉDICALE.) Oxide of zinc, 2 parts; tannic acid, 1 part;
glycerin, 10 parts; balsam of Peru, 8 parts; camphor, 4 parts.
14. (SWEDIAUR'S PASTE.) Bitter almonds, 8 oz.; honey, 6 oz.; powdered
camphor and flour of mustard, of each 1/2 oz.; burnt alum and olibanum, of
each 1/2 oz.; yolks of 3 eggs; beat to a paste. To be applied night and
morning.
15. (VANCE'S CREAM.) Ointment of nitrate of mercury, 1 oz.; camphor, 1
dr.; oil of turpentine, 2 dr.; oil of olives, 4 dr.; mix well together. To
be applied by gentle friction 2 or 3 times daily.
_Obs._ All the preceding preparations are intended for chilblains before
they break. The liniments of ammonia, camphor, opium, soap, and
turpentine, as well as the compound camphor liniment of the British
Pharmacop[oe]ia, are also excellent preparations for the same purposes.
=CHIL'DREN (Care of).= See INFANCY.
=Children (Diseases of).= See the respective heads, and DISEASES.
=CHIL'LIES.= See CAPSICUM, PEPPERS.
=CHIM'NEYS= were not introduced into England until the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, and for a considerable period the principles of their
construction were ill-understood. When the air inside and outside a
chimney is at the same temperature, an equilibrium exists; there is no
draught in the chimney, because the downward tendency of that within is
counteracted by the upward pressure of that without. Let a fire be kindled
in the grate; hot air is evolved, the chimney is heated, the air it
contains suffers expansion, and a portion is expelled. The chimney now
contains a smaller weight of air than it did before; the external and
internal columns no longer equibalance each other, the warmer and lighter
air is forced upwards from below, and its place is occupied by cold, and
consequently heavier air. If the fire continues to burn, and the chimney
retains its temperature, the second portion of air is disposed of like the
first, and the ascending current continues, so long as the sides of the
chimney are hotter than the surrounding air. Should the reverse happen to
be the case, as sometimes occurs from sudden atmospheric changes, the
column of air within the chimney rapidly contracts in volume, the
deficiency is filled up from without, the column of air becomes heavier
than one of a corresponding height on the outside of it, or in the
apartment, and, obeying the common laws of gravitation, it falls out of
the throat of the chimney or fire-place just as a heavy body sinks in
water, and has its place occupied by air from above. In this way a
descending current, of more or less intensity and duration, is
established, and, if there is a fire in the grate, the chimney "smokes,"
or, if the grate is empty, perhaps the smoke from neighbouring chimneys
finds its way into our apartments. By the judicious arrangement of the
fire-place, and the throat and flue of a chimney, an upward current may be
constantly ensured so long as there is a fire in the grate, or the air of
the apartment is warmer than the external atmosphere.
Count Rumford was the first who scientifically investigated the
construction of chimneys. He showed that more heat is obtained from the
fire by reflection when the coverings are placed in an oblique position.
He also directed that the fire itself should be kept as near to the hearth
as possible, and that the throat of the chimney should be constructed much
narrower than was then the practice, in order to prevent the escape of so
much heated air as happened with wide throats. By contracting the open
part of the fire-place immediately over the fire, as by lessening the
width of the hobs, or by bringing the throat of the chimney closer to the
fire, and by contracting the throat of the chimney itself, within certain
limits, any desired amount of draught may be obtained. When the space
above the fuel is too small, the throat too near the burning fuel, or the
throat itself too contracted, the draught of a common chimney is often too
strong, and much fuel and heat is wasted. When the reverse is the case,
the draught is commonly too languid, the fire draws badly, a portion of
the smoke escapes into the room, and all the usual annoyances of a smoky
chimney are suffered. By a proper attention to these conditions a common
fire-place may be adapted for the combustion of bituminous or easy burning
coal, or of anthracite, and varieties of coal that require a considerable
draught. It may even be converted into a wind furnace; whilst the
inconvenience of smoky chimneys may be always avoided, and, when existing,
easily cured. This is presuming, however, that a sufficient supply of air
exists in front of the fire-place (_i.e._ in the apartment), not only for
the combustion of the fuel, but also for the upward current of the
chimney. Many chimneys smoke simply from the apartment being so
ill-ventilated that the supply here alluded to is not provided. It may be
further stated, as a rule, that the greater the length of a chimney the
stronger will be the draught. Hence, the chimneys of the upper rooms of a
house often smoke, whilst the fires in the rooms beneath them burn
pleasantly and vigorously. Such cases are commonly relieved by a
chimney-pot or cowl, of which numerous varieties are now before the
public. The more crooked or tortuous the course of a chimney the less
likely is it to be affected by eddies and gusts of wind from neighbouring
buildings or hills. See FIRE, GRATE, SMOKE PREVENTION, STOVE.
=CHI'NA.= In the purchase of china, glass, and earthenware, care should be
taken to select those patterns which in case of breakage can be the most
readily matched. Peculiar or rare patterns should be avoided, for if any
such be broken, it will generally be found very difficult and expensive,
and frequently impossible, to replace them.
China, glass, and earthenware, when very dirty, are best cleaned with
finely powdered fuller's earth and warm water, followed by rinsing in
clean water. A little clean soft soap may be added to the water instead of
fuller's earth. See PACKING, PORCELAIN.
=CHIN'OIDINE.= See QUINOIDINE.
=CHINOLINE BLUE.= See CYANINE.
=CHINTZ (to Wash).= Boil 2 lbs. of rice in two gallons of water till soft;
and pour the mixture into a tub; let it stand until it attains a warmth
generally used for coloured linens; then put the chintz in it, and wash it
with the rice instead of soap, until all the dirt has disappeared. Next
boil another 2 lb. of rice, as above, in another two gallons of water, but
strain the rice from the water, and mix it in warm water. Wash the chintz
in this till quite clean, and afterwards rinse it in the water the rice
was boiled in. This will answer the same end as starch, as no wet will
affect it, as it will be stiff while it is worn. If a gown, it must be
taken to pieces; and when dried, it must be hung as smooth as possible,
after which it must be dry-rubbed with a smooth stone, but no iron must be
used.
=CHIRETTA.= CHIRATA. The entire plant (_Ophelia chirata_) is employed in
medicine. Northern India. The plant is pulled up by the root when the
flowers begin to decay, and the capsules are formed. The dried plant,
sometimes with, but more commonly without, the root, is the form in which
the chiretta is generally met with in commerce. The whole plant is
intensely bitter, but is without odour. In its physiological action it
bears a great resemblance to gentian. Instead of a constipating, it
appears to possess a slightly relaxing effect. It is an excellent
stomachic and carminative, and is said to diminish the tendency to
acidity, and to be of great service in the dyspepsia accompanying gout. No
vegetable alkaloid has been obtained from it. If given in powder, the dose
of chiretta is twenty grains. It is, however, more generally given in the
form of an infusion or tincture (which _see_).
=CHI'TIN.= This name has been given to the hard, insoluble matter forming
the shells and elytra of insects. It is obtained by boiling the elytra of
the cockchafer with water, alcohol, ether, acetic acid, and alkalies.
=CHIT'TICK'S REMEDY.= Dr Chittick's remedy for stone consisted of a fixed
alkali, administered in veal broth. (Paris.)
=CHLORAL.= C_{2}HCl_{3}O. A peculiar liquid first obtained by Liebig, by
the action of chlorine on alcohol. The name was intended to express its
origin from chlorine and alcohol.
_Prep._ (Liebig.) Anhydrous alcohol is placed in a tubulated retort, and
dry chlorine gas passed through it, at first in the cold, but afterwards
with the application of a gentle heat, until the chlorine passes unchanged
through the liquor on raising it to the boiling temperature; on cooling,
the whole forms a crystalline mass of what was at one time thought to be
chloral hydrate, but which subsequent researches have shown to be chloral
alcoholate; this is melted by a gentle heat, and agitated with three times
its volume of oil of vitriol; on increasing the heat a little, an oily
stratum of impure chloral rises to the surface. It is purified by boiling
it for some time (to drive off free hydrochloric acid and alcohol), next
distilling it with an equal volume of oil of vitriol; and lastly,
rectifying it from some powdered quick-lime, the process being stopped as
soon as the surface of the lime becomes dry.
_Prop., &c._ Chloral is an oily liquid, possessing an ethereal smell; it
is soluble in alcohol, ether, and water; with a small quantity of the
latter it rapidly changes into a semi-solid crystalline mass (chloral
hydrate), which is soluble in a larger quantity of water; boils at 201°;
sp. gr. 1·502. It is decomposed by the caustic earths and alkalies. By age
it is converted into a white, solid, translucent substance (insoluble
chloral), which is reconverted by heat and by sulphuric acid into ordinary
chloral.
_Obs._ In operating as above the chlorine is most conveniently introduced
by a tube inserted into the tubulature of the retort, and a long tube,
bent upwards, should be connected with the beak to convey away the
hydrochloric acid gas extricated, and to allow the volatilised alcohol and
chloral to condense, and flow back into the retort.
=Chloral, Camphorated.= Hydrate of chloral and camphor, equal parts. Rub
them together in a warm mortar until they liquefy. It forms clear mixtures
with oil of turpentine and chloroform, but not with solution of ammonia.
It is a counter-irritant, and applied externally it has been found to give
relief in rheumatic pains and neuralgia. It should be painted on the
affected part with a camel's-hair brush.
=Chloral, Hydrate.= C_{2}HCl_{3}O. Aq. _Syn._ HYDRATE OF CHLORAL. _Prep._
"Pass dry chlorine gas, for several days, through absolute alcohol, sp.
gr. 0·795, until it becomes a thick viscid liquid of sp. gr. 1·57. At the
beginning of the operation the alcohol is well cooled to prevent
inflammation and explosion, but towards the end of the operation the
alcohol is heated nearly to the boiling point. The resulting liquid, which
after a day or two solidifies to a mass of crude chloral hydrate, is
agitated with four times its bulk of concentrated sulphuric acid, and the
anhydrous chloral which floats on the surface is separated and purified by
fractional distillation. The purified anhydrous chloral is placed in a
still, mixed with 11 per cent. of water, and distilled over chalk to
remove any hydrochloric acid that may be present; the resulting solid
distillate is then fused and poured out into shallow vessels to cast into
cakes." (Squire.) The purest chloral hydrate is said to be that which has
been crystallised two or three times out of pure bisulphide of
carbon.--_Prop._ White opaque solid, having a pungent odour resembling
that of a ripe melon. Soluble in water, glycerin, and alcohol. Gradually
volatilises in the air, and may be distilled without decomposition. From
100 gr. dissolved in 1/2 fl. oz. of water, well shaken with 1 fl. oz. of
solution of potash (B. P.), and allowed to stand for several hours, at
least 46 grain-measures of chloroform should separate.
Chloral hydrate may be obtained in crystals by mixing the cake with about
half its bulk of chloroform, and putting aside in a cool place. When the
crystallisation is complete (which is generally in about 8 or 10 days) the
crystals are freed from the mother liquor by a centrifugal machine, and
afterwards dried at a gentle heat. The mother liquor may be utilised for
future crystallisations.
_Uses._ An excellent sedative, antispasmodic, hypnotic, anodyne. It has
done good service in hypochondriacal and other nervous affections, as well
as in the insomnia of the insane, and of dipsomaniacs; also in asthma,
hooping-cough, and scarlet fever. It has also the reputation of being an
efficient preventive of sea-sickness, especially on short voyages, such as
crossing the channel, which can be accomplished during the sleep
occasioned by the agent.--_Dose_, from 10 to 60 gr.
It was introduced into medical practice by Dr Liebreich, of Berlin.
Immense quantities are imported into this country from Germany.
=CHLORALUM.= An impure aqueous solution of chloride of aluminum, sp. gr.
1·15, 1 fl. oz. of the liquid contains 75 grains of anhydrous chloride.
Introduced by Professor Gamgee as an antiseptic and disinfectant, for
which purposes it is recommended to dilute the article as sold with four
times its bulk of water.
=CHLO''RATE.= _Syn._ HYPEROXYMU''RIATE[dagger], CHLO''RAS, L. A compound
in which the hydrogen of chloric acid, HClO_{3}, is replaced by a metal or
other basic radical, _e.g._ KClO_{3}, chlorate of potassium. Chlorates may
be prepared by dissolving the hydrate or oxide in chloric acid, and
crystallising. The alkaline chlorates, however, are made by passing
chlorine into solutions of the hydrate or carbonate of potassium or
sodium, boiling the resulting liquid, and separating the chlorate from the
chloride, which is also formed by crystallisation. They are very similar
to the nitrates, both in their general properties and composition. They
are all decomposed at a red heat, metallic chlorides being formed and
oxygen gas given off. Like the nitrates, they deflagrate with inflammable
substances, but with greater facility and violence. A mixture of this kind
will detonate with a slight blow or friction. All the chlorates are
soluble in water.
_Char., Tests, &c._ The chlorates are known by their deflagrating when
placed on red-hot charcoal. By evolving a yellow gas when treated with
concentrated sulphuric acid, in the cold, which gas also communicates to
the liquid a red or yellow tinge. By evolving oxygen gas when heated alone
in a test-tube. This test is not characteristic, unless carried a stage
further, by dissolving the residual chloride out of the tube, and adding
to the filtered solution a few drops of nitrate of silver; then the
formation of a white precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid, will show that
the salt treated was a chlorate, and not a nitrate. Pure chlorates give no
precipitate with nitrate of silver.
=CHLORHY'DRIC ACID.= See HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
=CHLO''RIC ACID.= HClO_{3}. _Syn._ HYPEROXYMURIAT'IC ACID; ACIDUM
CHLO''RICUM, L. An acid discovered by Chenevix, but first obtained in a
separate form by Gay-Lussac.
=CHLO''RIDE= (-[)i]d). _Syn._ CHLO''RURET[dagger]; CHLORI'DUM, L. A
chemical compound of chlorine with a metal or other basic radical, _e.g._
NaCl, chloride of sodium; C_{2}H_{5}Cl, chloride of ethyl.
_Prep._ The majority of the metallic chlorides may be made by simply
dissolving the metal or its carbonate, oxide, or hydrate, in hydrochloric
acid (previously diluted with about twice its weight of water), and
evaporating and crystallising the solution in the usual manner. Zinc,
cadmium, iron, nickel, cobalt, and tin, dissolve readily in hydrochloric
acid; copper only in strong boiling acid; silver, mercury, and gold, not
at all. The insoluble chlorides, as those of silver and mercury, may be
readily prepared by precipitating any of their corresponding soluble salts
with hydrochloric acid, or a soluble chloride, such as common salt.
Anhydrous chlorides are generally prepared by the direct action of
chlorine on the bases.
_Char., Tests, &c._ Most of the metallic chlorides are soluble in water.
Many fuse when heated, and volatilise unchanged, but others are completely
or partially decomposed at a red heat. All, with the exception of those of
the alkali and earth metals, are decomposed at a red heat in a current of
hydrogen. They are recognised by the following reactions:--1. Heated with
a little peroxide of manganese and sulphuric acid, chlorine is evolved,
and easily detected by its colour, smell, and bleaching properties:--2.
The soluble chlorides may be readily detected by their solutions, slightly
acidulated with nitric acid, giving with a solution of nitrate of silver a
white, curdy precipitate (chloride of silver), insoluble in nitric acid,
freely soluble in liquor of ammonia, and blackened by the light:--3. The
insoluble chlorides may be tested by digesting them in a little liquor of
potassa, when a solution of chloride of potassium will be formed, which
may be treated as just directed (2); or the chloride may be dissolved in
nitric acid, and tested with nitrate of silver as before.
=CHLORIM'ETRY.= See CHLOROMETRY.
=CHLORINA'TED LIME.= See LIME.
=CHLORINA'TED SO'DA.= See SODIUM.
=CHLO''RINE.= _Syn._ CHLORIN'IUM, L.; CHLORE, Fr.; CHLOR, Ger. An
elementary substance discovered by Scheele in 1774, and at first supposed
to be a compound body. In 1809 MM. Gay-Lussac and Thénard suggested the
probability of it being a simple substance; but it was reserved for Sir H.
Davy, shortly afterwards, to demonstrate the truth of the suggestion of
these foreign chemists.
_Nat. Hist._ It exists in nature chiefly in the form of chloride of
sodium, which constitutes rock salt when deposited in inland beds, sea
salt when dissolved in masses of water. The sea also contains chlorides of
potassium, calcium, and magnesium. It is a constituent of several
well-known minerals. It has been met with in the air of volcanic
districts, combined with hydrogen, as hydrochloric acid.
_Prep._ Strong hydrochloric acid is poured on half of its weight of
finely-powdered peroxide of manganese, previously placed in a glass flask
or retort; chlorine gas is immediately evolved, even in the cold, but much
more rapidly on the application of a gentle heat, and is collected in
clean, dry bottles by displacement. The tube conducting the gas is so
arranged as to reach to the bottom of the bottle, and the chlorine, being
heavier than the air, displaces the latter without mixing with it. The
bottle is known to be full by the gas, easily perceived by its green
colour, overflowing the top of the vessel. The bottle is then closed up
with an accurately fitting stopper, previously greased, and an empty one
put in its place, which is subsequently treated in like manner. To free
the gas entirely from hydrochloric acid it is passed through a wash bottle
containing a small quantity of water; and to render it quite dry it is
passed over fused chloride of calcium. When the presence of moisture is no
object chlorine may be collected over warm water, or, what is better, a
saturated solution of common salt, in the pneumatic trough. The mercurial
trough cannot be employed, as the chlorine rapidly acts upon the metal,
and becomes absorbed.
_Commercial._--From oil of vitriol and water, of each 7 parts, cautiously
mixed, and allowed to cool; chloride of sodium (common salt), 4 parts,
mixed intimately with peroxide of manganese, 3 parts. The dilute acid is
placed in a retort or other generating vessel, and the powder added. The
gas comes off slowly at first, but the application of a gentle heat causes
it to rush forth in large quantities. Of late years, owing to the general
demand for bleaching agents, numerous new methods and suggestions for
obtaining chlorine have been patented, of which the following are the most
important.
1. Elliott. By this method the reconversion of the chloride of manganese
to peroxide was attempted as follows:--The manganese residues left in the
still are first heated to dryness. They are then roasted in a current of
steam, the result being the formation of hydrochloric acid (which is
condensed), and a residue consisting of a mixture of protoxide and
peroxide of manganese.
2. Gatty. In this process the manganese residues, after evaporation to a
suitable consistence, are mixed with nitrate of soda, and the nitrate of
manganese and chloride of sodium formed, when dried, are strongly heated
in an iron retort, the fumes of nitric acid which come off being employed
in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. The residue in the retort,
consisting of peroxide of manganese, being lixiviated, yields the peroxide
in a pure state:
Mn(NO_{3})_{2} + 2(NaCl) + O_{2} = MnO_{2} + 2NaCl + 2(NO_{3}).
3. Hoffman. This process consisted in the regeneration of the manganese by
means of soda waste. In this process the chloride of manganese is, by the
addition of the yellow ley obtained from the lixiviation of soda waste,
converted into sulphide of manganese. The precipitate so obtained consists
of
Sulphide of manganese 55·00
Sulphur 40·00
Protoxide of manganese 5
------
100·00
This is dried and then calcined, the sulphurous acid evolved being
conducted into the sulphuric acid chamber.