1. _Folded_, which is done correctly by observing the 'marks' or
'signatures' at the bottom of the pages. As the sheets are folded they are
laid upon each other in proper order, and are ready to undergo--
2. The operation of beating. This is performed by either laying them upon
a large stone and striking them with a heavy smoothed-faced hammer, or by
passing them through a rolling-press. The former method is usually adopted
in the small way, and the latter on the large scale.
[Illustration]
3. The sheets are next fastened to bands, which is done by taking them up
one by one, and sewing them to pieces of cord, stretched in a little frame
screwed or fastened to the counter or table, called the sewing press. (See
_engr._) The number of bands used is generally 6 for a folio, 5 for a
quarto, and so on proportionally, less than 4 being seldom employed even
for small sizes. The ends of the cords being cut off to within about 2
inches of the back, the sheets are ready for--
4. _Glueing._ The back being knocked into shape with a hammer, and the
sheets placed in the cutting-press, which is then slightly screwed up,
melted glue is thinly and evenly applied. After a short time, to permit it
to become sufficiently set and hard, the book is removed from the press,
and the back properly adjusted with a hammer, when it is again put into
the cutting-press, where it is screwed up very tight, and is then ready
for--
5. _Cutting._ The instrument employed for this purpose is of a peculiar
shape, and called a plough or plough-knife, which consists of a stout flat
knife, double-edged at the 'cutting point,' firmly set in a kind of frame,
in which it may be adjusted by screws.
6. _Affixing the boards._ The bands are now scraped out fine at the ends,
and fastened to the pasteboard intended to form the covers, which is then
properly adjusted, and further shaped, if necessary, with a large pair of
shears. The edges now undergo the operation of--
7. _Sprinkling_, _gilding_, or other adornment. The first is performed
with a stiff brush made of hog's bristles, dipped in the colour; the brush
being held in the one hand, and the hairs moved with the other, so as to
scatter the colour in minute drops equally over the surface.
8. The external covering of leather, fancy cloth, or paper, is now
applied, having been previously soaked in paste, to make it properly
adhere. One or more of the blank leaves of the book are next pasted
against the inside of the cover, to screen the ends that are turned over
when the book is finished; or for choice work, is handed to a 'finisher'
for--
9. _Lettering_, _gilding_, &c. Ordinary gold-leaf is applied by means of
white of egg, the pattern being given by pressure with heated brass tools,
having the design or letters on their surfaces. The whole is then glazed
over with white of egg and polished.
10. _Burnishing book edges._ This is performed with a wolf's or dog's
tooth, or a steel burnisher. Place the books in a screw press, with boards
on each side of them, and other boards distributed between each volume.
First rub the edges well with the tooth to give them a lustre. After
sprinkling, or staining, or when the edges have become dry, burnish the
front; then turning the press, burnish the edges at the top and bottom of
the volume. Burnish the gilt edges in the same manner, after having
applied the gold; but observe in gilding to put the gold first upon the
front, and allow it to dry; and on no account commence the burnishing
until the gold is quite dry.
The succession of the above operations sometimes slightly varies with the
workmen, and with the nature of the binding. The examination of a bound
book during their perusal will, however, render the whole quite familiar
to the reader.
There are several varieties of binding, of which only the following
deserve notice here:--
BOARDS. A book rather loosely done up, without cutting the edges, and
covered with coloured paper or cloth, is said to be in 'boards.'
CLOTH, CLOTH-BINDING. This is the style of binding in which the majority
of works are now issued. It admits of great neatness and even beauty, is
cheap, and when well executed is very durable.--The prepared cloth
(hard-glazed or varnished calico), cut by a pattern to the proper size, is
passed rapidly between the engraved cylinders of a rolling-press, by which
the design is given to it. Paste is now applied to each piece of cloth,
which is then placed over the volume previously prepared to receive it. In
many cases the covers are prepared separately before being embossed, and
are afterwards fastened in the finished state to the book by means of a
piece of canvas or calico previously affixed to its back for the purpose,
when all that is required is to paste the ends of it to the inside of the
boards, with the last blank leaf over it. Books in cloth are seldom cut at
the edges, unless they are otherwise highly finished.
HALF-BINDING. Books forwarded in boards, and finished with leather backs
and corners, are said to be 'half-bound.'
LEATHER-BINDING. A book is only said to be 'bound,' or 'fully-bound,' when
both its backs and sides are wholly covered with one piece of
leather.--The leather is wetted by immersion in water, wrung or squeezed,
stretched on a smooth board, cut to the proper size, pared thin on the
edges, and covered with paste. It is then applied to the book (previously
forwarded in boards, and cut), drawn tightly over it, turned down on the
inside, rubbed smooth with a folding-stick, and otherwise adjusted; after
which it is placed in some suitable situation, at a distance from a fire,
to dry.
Rough calf requires to be damped on the grain side with a sponge and water
before pasting and covering.
Russia-leather is well soaked in water for an hour, taken out, beaten, and
rubbed; after which the paste is well worked into the flesh side before
covering.
Morocco is first 'grained' by rubbing it on a board, with the grain side
inside, and, after being pasted, left to soak for about a quarter of an
hour; after which it is drawn on with a piece of woollen cloth, to
preserve the grain.
Roan is either soaked in water, or left to soak when pasted.
SCHOOL-BINDING. Originally applied to school-books strongly sewn and 'done
up' in sheep-skin, which was either left of a plain brown, or sprinkled or
marbled with copperas water. Similar works of a cheaper class are now
often 'done up' in canvas, brown-holland, and even coarse and strong
coloured glazed calico.
_Concluding Remarks._ Numerous patents for improvements in binding books,
several of which possess very great merit and usefulness, have been
obtained during the last 30 years. Among these, one known as 'Hancock's
Patent Binding,' from its extreme novelty, simplicity, durability, and
inexpensiveness, deserves a passing notice here. By Mr Wm. Hancock's
method the sheets are folded in double leaves, and by being properly
placed together and adjusted (by setting them vertically, with the edges
forming the back of the book downwards, in a concave mould so formed that
whilst giving shape it may leave the whole breadth, and nearly the whole
length exposed), and firmly secured by a few turns of packthread, the book
is subjected to the action of a press, and a strong and quick-drying
solution of india rubber is smeared over the back with the finger, when
the whole is left for 3 or 4 hours, or longer, to dry. The operation is
repeated as often as necessary, after which fillets of cloth are cemented
on with the same varnish, and the book is ready to have the boards
attached. The sheets of books that cannot be folded in 'double leaves' may
be strongly stitched through, separately, before adjusting them in the
mould. In this way several of the usual operations of binding are
dispensed with. We most willingly bear testimony to the strength and
durability of this method, as well as to the great convenience it affords
in allowing the books to open perfectly flat upon a table, or to be
distorted in any possible manner, without injury to their backs. It is,
undoubtedly, the best way of binding books for travellers. The Editor of
the last edition of this work once had a large trunk of books, among which
was a massive volume bound on Hancock's plan. All the rest were nearly
torn to pieces by a few months' journey, but this one remained uninjured
even after five years, during which time it accompanied him in his
travels, extending, collectively, to upwards of 23,000 miles. See GILDING,
MARBLING, SPRINKLES, STAINS, &c.
=BOONEKAMP OF MAAGBITTER.= Dried orange berries, 100 grammes; bitter
orange peel, 30 grammes; gentian root, 60 grammes; cascarilla bark, 30
grammes; turmeric, 15 grammes; cinnamon, 25 grammes; cloves, 15 grammes;
rhubarb, 7-1/2 grammes; 90 per cent. spirit, 750 grammes: water, 1650
grammes; star-anise oil, 40 drops; sugar, 250 grammes; digested,
expressed, and filtered. (Hager.)
=BOOTS and SHOES.= The cleaning of boots and shoes forms no unimportant
part of the domestic duties of a large establishment; as on it being
properly performed depend both their appearance and durability. A votary
of St Crispin, in whom we place considerable reliance, assures us that to
effect this object in the best style, all that is necessary is to employ
very little blacking (merely enough to moisten the surface of the
leather), and to brush it off whilst still damp. Never make the surface
wet, nor allow the blacking to dry before applying the polishing brush.
For this purpose a portion only of the boot or shoe should be attended to
at a time. The dirt is, of course, to be carefully brushed off before
applying the blacking. When it is desired to restore the shape of a boot
or shoe, as well as to clean it, boot trees may be used. Of the brushes,
we are told that there should be at least three--one (dirt brush) with
bristles stiff, but not wiry nor scratchy, to remove mud and dirt; another
(blacking-brush), with fine, flexible hair, and plenty of it, for applying
the blacking; and a third (polishing-brush), covered with long, fine,
springy, and slightly stiff hair, for giving the polish. The employment of
inferior or worn-out brushes is said to be false economy, and proves
particularly destructive to the lighter classes of leather.
The occasional use of a little oil or grease to the uppers of boots and
shoes increases their softness and durability, as well as the 'depth,' but
not the brilliancy of the polish, from common blacking. For this purpose
some good tallow or 'dubbing' may be used; the absorption being aided by a
very gentle heat. The soles or bottoms of new boots and shoes may be
thoroughly saturated with similar substances, by which means their
durability will be fully doubled. The common practice among the shoemakers
is to moisten the surface of the leather with a wet sponge before applying
the oil or grease; by which (they say) its pores are opened and its
absorbent powers increased.
_Varnish for Boots and Shoes._--1. Boil together in a pipkin one pint of
linseed oil; 1/2 _lb._ of mutton suet, the same quantity of beeswax, and a
small piece of resin; and when the mixture becomes milk-warm, apply it
with a hair brush. After two applications the articles will become
waterproof. Great caution must be exercised in melting the above
ingredients, lest the mixture boils over, and so give rise to a
conflagration.
2. Common tar may be made warm and brushed over the soles of boots or
shoes. These latter are then put near the fire so that the tar may be
absorbed. When the absorption has taken place, a second or third
application may be given with advantage. This application is not suitable
for the upper leathers.
3. India-rubber varnish will be found very useful for anointing the upper
leather of boots and shoes; but the lower parts, which are exposed to the
wear and tear caused by friction with the ground, are but little benefited
by its application.
Patent-leather boots and shoes are best cleaned with a little sweet oil or
milk (preferably the first), the dirt having been previously removed in
the usual way.
India-rubber goloshes and overshoes may be cleaned with a sponge or brush,
and water, care being taken not to wet the linings. The same applies to
gutta percha. See BLACKING, LEATHER, WATERPROOFING, &c.
The reasons why boots and shoes so commonly cause corns, and fatigue, and
give pain in wear, are explained in our article on the FEET (which _see_).
Paramount in importance to the appearance of boots or shoes on the wearer
is the desideratum, not only of having them so made as to ensure personal
comfort in walking, but additionally to have them so constructed as to
protect the feet from wet during damp and rainy weather. The evils arising
from getting the feet damp cannot be overstated; amongst them are to be
included--cold, cough, bronchitis, inflammation of the lungs, and
rheumatism. In those inheriting a constitutional consumptive taint, a cold
caught from wearing damp or leaky boots has very frequently been known to
have precipitated the disease, that has ended in more or less speedy
death. Hence arises not only the duty of changing damp boots or shoes as
soon as ever the opportunity offers, but the wisdom of adopting the
preventive precaution of wearing them of such stout construction as to be
impervious to water during rainy weather. If the dangers arising from a
neglect of this advice are visited with such serious consequences upon
adults and grown persons, they affect infants and children with even far
greater intensity, because of the much more tender and sensitive
organisation of the latter. It therefore behoves every mother not only to
see that her children are shod with good thick boots or shoes, but to take
especial care that whenever these are damp they are removed at once.
Mr Chavasse, in his excellent work, 'Counsel to a Mother,' recommends
"boots for walking out of doors and shoes for the house." He adds, "that
the constant wearing of boots in the house is weakening to the ankles, as
weakening as tight lacing is to the waist; indeed it acts much in the same
way, namely, by wasting away, by pressure, the ligaments of the ankles, as
stays waste away the muscles of the waist." In support of his argument he
quotes Dr Humphrey, who says, "The notion is in both instances fortified
by the fact that those persons who have been accustomed to the pressure
either upon the ankle or upon the waist, feel a want of it when it is
removed, and are uncomfortable without it. They forget, or are
unconscious, that the feeling of the want has been engendered by the
appliance, and that had they never resorted to the latter, they would
never have experienced the former. The deduction to be drawn from Dr
Hutchinson's opinion is that no more fertile source of weak ankles exists
than that of wearing laced boots during childhood. Boots with elastic
sides, as exerting much more equal pressure, and allowing full scope for
the ankles to play, are far preferable to tightly laced-up boots.
=BOOT-POW'DER.= French chalk reduced to powder by scraping or grating.
Used to facilitate the 'getting on' of new or tight boots, a little of it
being rubbed on the insides of the backs, heels, and insteps.
=BOOT-TOP LIQ'UID.= _Syn._ BOOT'-TOP COMPOSI''TION. There are numerous
articles of this class extant, but, with few exceptions, they are most
unchemical mixtures, not infrequently containing ingredients which are
either unnecessary, or opposed to the action of the rest. The following
are examples:--
_Prep._ _a._ WHITE-TOP:--1. Oxalic acid and white vitriol, of each 1
_oz._; water, 1-1/2 pint; dissolve. It is applied with a sponge, the
leather having been previously washed with water; after a short time it is
washed off with water, when the boot-tops are either dried in a current of
air or by a gentle heat; they are lastly either polished with a brush, so
as to appear like new leather, or they are left rough, as the case may
require.
2. Sour milk, 1 quart; butter of antimony, cream of tartar, tartaric acid,
and burnt alum, of each 2 oz.; mix.
3. Sour milk (skimmed), 3 pints; cream of tartar, 2 _oz._; alum and oxalic
acid, of each 1 _oz._
4. Alum, cream of tartar, magnesia, and oxalic acid, of each 1 _oz._; salt
of sorrel and sugar lead, of each 1/4 _oz._; water, 1 quart. The preceding
are for white tops.
_b._ BROWN-TOP:--Alum, annatto, and oxalic acid, of each 1 _oz._;
isinglass and sugar of lead, of each 1/2 _oz._; salt of sorrel, 1/4 _oz._;
water, 1 quart; boil for 10 minutes.
_c._ Saffron, 15 grains; boiling water, 2 _oz._; infuse and strain. Add
tincture of rhubarb 1-1/2 _oz._; concentrated infusion of rhubarb, to make
up to 4 _oz._
=BORACIC ACID= (-r[)a]s'-). H_{3}BO_{3}. _Syn._ BORIC ACID, SEDATIVE
SALT[dagger], S. S. OF VIT'RIOL[dagger]; ACIDUM BORACICUM (-r[)a]s'-), L.;
ACIDE BORACIQUE, A. BORIQUE, Fr.; BORAXSÄURE, &c., Ger. The pure acid is
obtained from common borax. That of commerce is extracted from the boracic
acid lagoons of Tuscany.
_Prep._ 1. Borax, 1 part; boiling water, 4 parts; dissolve, and add
sulphuric acid until the solution acquires a distinctly acid reaction, for
which purpose about 1/2 the weight of the borax will be required. As the
solution cools, crystals of BORACIC ACID will be deposited. These may be
purified by placing them on a filter, and washing them with a little very
cold water, followed by re-solution, in boiling water, and
recrystallisation. Nearly pure.
2. As the last, but substituting hydrochloric acid for the sulphuric acid,
there ordered. Very nearly pure.
3. By exposing the product of the first crystallisation of either of the
preceding formulæ to heat in a platinum crucible, and redissolving and
recrystallising the residuum. Chemically pure. Used in analysis.
_Prop., &c._ Odourless; bitter-tasted; dissolves in 25 times its weight of
cold water, and in 3 times its weight of boiling water; very soluble in
alcohol, which then burns with a bright green flame; reddens litmus;
browns turmeric-paper (properties characteristic of this substance); when
strongly heated it forms a brittle glass (VITRIFIED BORACIC ACID) on
cooling. The crystallised acid contains 3 atoms, or 43·5% of water. Its
salts are called BO''RATES.
_Uses._ Boracic acid was once administered internally, in large doses, as
an anodyne, antispasmodic, and sedative, but is now scarcely ever employed
as a medicine. The crude acid is used in the manufacture of borax; the
pure acid in the manufacture of certain chemicals.
Boracic acid is extensively used in Sweden and other countries for the
preservation of milk. Meat which has been soaked in a solution of the acid
for a few seconds, and milk to which a small quantity has been added, will
keep much longer than they would otherwise do. In Sweden alone boracic
acid to the amount of 75,000_l._ was consumed in one year. It is said to
be a perfectly harmless antiseptic.
=BORACIC ANHYDRIDE.= See BORIC ANHYDRIDE.
=BORATE.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BO''RAS, L.; BORAXSÄURE SALZE, Ger. A salt in
which the hydrogen of boracic acid is replaced by a basic radical. The
borates may be formed by either digesting the hydrate of the base in a
solution of the acid, with the assistance of heat, or from a solution of
borax and a soluble salt of the base, by double decomposition. They are
all decomposed by the stronger acids.
_Tests._ The borates may be tested by digesting them in a slight excess of
oil of vitriol, evaporating the resulting solution to dryness, powdering
the residuum, and dissolving it in alcohol; the resulting solution
possesses the property of burning with a green flame if the sample
examined was a borate, or contained a notable quantity of one. See BORACIC
ACID.
=BORAX.= [Eng., Fr.; Ger., L., B. P.] 2NaBO_{2}.B_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._
BIBO''RATE OF SO'DA, BO''RATE OF S*, SUBBO''RATE OF S.[dagger], GOLD
SOLDER[dagger]*, REFINED' TINC'AL[dagger]*; SO'DÆ BIBO''RAS, S. BO''RAS,
L.; CHRYSOCOLLE, &c., Fr.; BORAXSAURES NATRON, &c., Ger. COMmercial
biborate of soda. Borax is obtained either by purifying native borate of
soda (TINC'AL, TINC'AR), or by saturating crude boracic acid with the
alkali. It is never prepared on the small scale unless for chemical
analysis.
_Prop._ Crystals, six-sided prisms, which contain 10 equiv. of water, and
effloresce in dry air; soluble in 20 parts of cold, and in 6 parts of
boiling water; solution has an alkaline reaction on test-paper; by heat it
loses its water of crystallisation, and at a higher temperature fuses to a
glass-like substance (see _below_).
_Pur._ This may be ascertained by determining the quantity of sulphuric
acid required to neutralise a given weight of the sample under
examination, as indicated by litmus paper. Common salt and alum are
frequently mixed with borax to lower the value. The first may be detected
by a solution in hot water giving a curdy-white precipitate with nitrate
of silver, soluble in ammonia; the last, by water of ammonia, giving a
bulky-white pulverulent precipitate. The former must be distinguished from
the white pulverulent precipitate of borate of silver, which is thrown
down from pure borax.
_Uses, &c._ Borax is extensively employed as a flux for metals, for
soldering, and in medicine. Internally it is diuretic, sedative,
emmenagogue, and refrigerant, in doses of 15 to 40 gr.; externally, made
into a gargle for sore throat, and in powder as a detergent in aphthæ, and
ulcerations of the month. Dissolved in rose-water, it is used as a
cosmetic; and mixed with about 8 times its weight of lard, forms a useful
ointment in piles and sore nipples.
The 'Comptes Rendus' (lxxx, 473) contains the results of some experiments
made by M. Schnetzler, with the view of testing the antifermentative and
anti-putrefactive properties of borax.
When the leaves of the _Elodea Canadensis_ were plunged into a
concentrated solution of borax, the living matter of the cell was killed,
and the same result followed with the fresh leaves and spores of the
_Vaucheria clavata_, the spores of the grape fungus (_Oidium sacchari_),
and of yeast moulds, &c. Infusoria, rotifera, and _entomostraca_, placed
in water containing borax, quickly ceased to move and then died. The larvæ
of frogs placed in a solution of borax were killed in less than an hour
after immersion. M. Schnetzler thinks the deduction to be drawn from these
facts is that borax ought to act antagonistically to fermentation, if this
latter be a chemical phenomenon accomplished under the influence of the
life of the yeast. To test the correctness of this hypothesis experiments
were undertaken with a view of determining the action of borax upon
fermentable matters.
Ripe grapes and currants after being kept two years in a concentrated
solution of borax, in a closed vessel, presented no trace of fermentation,
although, however well preserved, they were not eatable. As a counter test
grapes were placed in a well-closed vessel filled with ordinary water,
when after a time, according to the temperature, fermentation took place,
with evolution of carbonic acid. Thirty cubic centimètres of fresh milk
were placed in a test tube with one gram of borax. The cream quickly
formed a rather thick layer on the upper portion. Although the test tube
was closed by a cork a mould was formed upon the cream, but the remainder
of the liquid underwent no acid fermentation, and retained during several
months the appearance of very clear creamed milk, and although afterwards
under the influence of summer heat the liquid became perfectly limpid, and
deposited the casein as a soft white matter, neither the deposit nor the
liquid had an acid taste, and after three months they still had the odour
of fresh milk. Fresh milk put into a well-closed tube without borax
underwent fermentation in two or three days. A piece of sheep's brain
treated with powdered borax, after eight days, although it evolved
sulphuretted hydrogen, gave no indications of putrefaction, and after
retaining a soft consistence during some months, became hard and almost
horny without any disagreeable smell.
A pound of beef was placed in a concentrated solution of borax, in a tin
case not hermetically sealed.
The liquid into which the colouring matter of the blood, and some of the
soluble nitrogenous substances of the meat had diffused, was three times
removed during a year and a half, and the meat washed with cold water; but
at the end of the above time it had not the least odour of putrefaction.
It was of a yellowish colour, but soft and tender as fresh meat. Removed
from the borax solution the meat remained in the same state in the air.
Beef, veal and portions of sheeps' brains were placed in a vessel which
was filled with solution of borax and hermetically sealed. The liquid soon
became clear red, and this colour remained during several months without
alteration. The meat presented not the least disagreeable smell as long
as excess of air was prevented. Meat placed in water in a flask
hermetically sealed became rotten in a few days.
The peculiar odour of the meat preserved in borax in contact with air the
author considers to be due to the decomposition of matters which result
from the metamorphosis of substances that constitute the muscular and
intermuscular fibre. Although probably the use of borax will not be
applicable to the preservation of meat for culinary purposes, the author
considers that it may be economically substituted for alcohol in the
preservation of anatomical specimens. Moreover, its power of suspending
life in the lower organisms would seem to indicate its probable
utilisation in the treatment of wounds, &c.
In support of the above views as to the antiseptic properties of borax, M.
Schnetzler refers to a letter from an English traveller in California, who
there observed that in a soil containing borax the carcass of a horse had,
for four months, remained without decomposition, the flesh continuing
perfectly fresh, and the eye retaining its clearness and brightness. For
most of the proposed applications of salicylic acid to the preservation of
milk, and the products derived from it, it is affirmed that borax is
equally efficacious, and has the advantage of being cheaper and more
convenient.
=Borax, Glass of.= Borax dried at a gentle heat, and then melted by
increasing the heat until it forms a vitreous mass on being cooled. Used
in soldering, and as a flux, particularly in blowpipe experiments.
=BO''RIC ACID.= See BORACIC ACID.
=BORIC ANHYDRIDE.= B_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ ANHYDROUS BORACIC ACID, BORACIC
ANHYDRIDE, BORIC OXIDE. The only known oxide of boron. It can be produced
by burning boron in oxygen, in the air, or in nitrous oxide, but is most
easily and economically prepared by strongly heating boracic acid so as to
deprive it of water. It is a brittle vitreous solid, not volatilised by
heat except in the presence of water. Dissolves in water, forming boracic
acid. Its alcoholic solution burns with a green flame, like that of
boracic acid.
=BO'RON.= B. The base of boracic acid. It was discovered by Homberg in
1702; but, from attracting little notice, was soon forgotten. It was
rediscovered, almost simultaneously, by Sir H. Davy and by Gay-Lussac and
Thénard, in 1807-8.
_Prep._ Boron is prepared by a process similar to that employed to obtain
silicium:--Potassium and perfectly dry boracic acid, or, preferably,
boro-fluoride of potassium, intimately mixed together, are placed in a
glass adopter-tube, and submitted to a low red heat. When cold, the loose
cork that fastened its mouth is removed, and hot water poured in, in
successive portions, until the whole matter is detached and all its
soluble portion dissolved; the liquid is next allowed to settle, and the
precipitate washed first with a solution of sal-ammoniac, and afterwards
with alcohol; the residuum (boron) is lastly dried in a capsule, and put
into a well-stoppered phial.
_Prop., &c._ A solid, tasteless, and inodorous powder, of a dark
greyish-brown colour. With sulphur it unites at high temperatures, forming
sulphurets (sulphides of boron); and when placed in chlorine gas it
spontaneously inflames, and a gaseous chloride of boron is formed. The
compounds of boron with basic radicals are termed BORIDES.
_Obs._ Among the most remarkable of the recent discoveries in chemistry
are those of MM. Wohler and Deville, relative to silica and boron. Each of
these substances is now proved to exist in three very different states,
analogous to the three known states of carbon, namely, charcoal, graphite,
and diamond. The last of these states is, of course, the most interesting.
Crystallised boron possesses a hardness, brightness, and refractive power
comparable to those of the diamond; it burns in chlorine, without residue,
and with circumstances resembling those of the combustion of diamond in
oxygen; it is not acted on by any of the acids, and appears to be the
least alterable of all the simple bodies. Its powder is already used in
the arts, instead of diamond-dust; and it seems not improbable that, when
obtained by the chemist in crystals of a larger size, it may rival even
the diamond as a gem.
Some late experiments by Wohler and Deville seem to have established the
fact, that the so-called "graphitoidal" boron is really a boride of
aluminium. Its formation on fusing aluminium with amorphous boron or boric
oxide appears to take place more particularly when the heat applied is
neither very strong nor long continued.
=Boron, Terflu'oride of.= See FLUOBORIC ACID.
=BOTHRIOCEPHALUS CORDATUS.= Leuckart was the first to describe this
creature, which is a parasitic worm infesting the human intestines. It is,
however, much more commonly met with in dogs than in man. The annexed
engraving depicts--_b_, the head (back view), magnified five diameters;
_b'_, upper part of body and head, magnified two diameters; _a_ is a
portion of the worm, natural size. See BOTHRIOCEPHALUS LATUS.
[Illustration]
=BOTHRIOCEPHALUS LATUS.= A parasitic worm infesting the human intestines.
Although classed with the tapeworms, it differs essentially from _tænia_.
The head is of an elongated form, compressed with an anterior obtuse
prominence into which the mouth opens.
[Illustration]
The animal has the power of elongating and contracting the neck, so that
it appears sometimes short, sometimes long. The joints or segments
commence about three inches from the head; the anterior ones are nearly
square, but the remainder are much elongated transversely. Each segment
contains on its flat surface two orifices, the anterior connected with a
male, the posterior with a female organ of generation. The parasite is of
a brown colour, and from six to twenty feet in length.
Those who are affected by this worm never pass the single segments from
the bowels, but void them in chains of many links. The ova are also
frequently to be met with in the fæces; they are of an ovoid shape; the
capsule is perfectly translucent, and the yolk is distinguishable. The
yolk undergoes segmentation, and ultimately develops an embryo with six
hooks at the anterior extremity, cased in a mantle studded with vibratory
cilia, and the lid of the capsule then opens up; and the embryo escapes.
If they do not obtain access to the intestines of an animal within a week,
they lose their ciliated mantle and perish. Drinking-water is supposed to
be the chief if not the only medium through which the parasite gains
admissions to the intestines in man. It seems to be unknown in England,
except when imported; but is common in Russia, Sweden, Norway, Lapland,
Finland, Poland, and Switzerland.
=BOTS.= The larvæ of the gad-fly. The eggs are deposited by the female fly
on the horse's shoulder and on parts of the body within reach of the
tongue, by which they are carried to the mouth and find their way to the
stomach. They usually resist all attempts to expel them. The most
promising treatment consists in rubbing down in hot water about 2 or 3
_drms._ each of aloes and assaf[oe]tida; and when the solution has cooled,
adding to it 1 _oz._ each of turpentine and ether. Repeat this dose two or
three times a week, omitting the aloes if necessary.
=BOT'TLES= (b[)o]t'lz). See GLASS, INFANCY, LACTATION, PHIALS, &c.
=BOTT'LING= (b[)o]t'l-[)i]ng.) See CORKS, MALT LIQUORS, WINE, &c.
=BOUGIE= (b[=o][=o]'-zh[=e]). [Fr.] _Syn._ CE'REUS, CERE'OLUS,[227]
CANDE'LA PROBATO''RIA*, L. In _surgery_, a long slender instrument,
originally of wax,[228] introduced into the urethra, [oe]sophagus, or
rectum, in stricture and other diseases of those organs.
[Footnote 227: Properly, a 'little bougie.']
[Footnote 228: Hence the name.]
_Prep._ 1. (Prof. Pickel's.) Amber (melted), 1 part; boiled oil, 3 parts;
mix, cool a little, and further add of oil of turpentine, 1 part; spread
the mixture, at 3 successive intervals, upon loose spun-silk cord or web;
dry in a heat of 150° Fahr., and repeat the process until the instrument
has acquired the proper size; lastly, polish it, first with pumice-stone,
and afterwards with tripoli and oil. This is the original receipt of the
once celebrated French professor Pickel, and is still generally used,
slightly modified, on the Continent. At the present time, in Paris, a
little caoutchouc, equal to about 1/20th of the weight of the oil
employed, is generally added. For the best ELAS'TIC BOUGIES the process
usually occupies from 6 to 8 weeks, to allow full time for the drying and
hardening of the composition. When the bougie is required to be hollow, a
piece of polished metallic wire is introduced into the axis of the silk;
or tin-foil is rolled round the wire and the composition applied as
before. When dry and hard the wire is withdrawn.
2. (Hunter's.) Yellow wax, 2 parts; red lead, 3 parts; olive oil, 6 parts;
slowly boiled together until combination takes place; strips of soft linen
(rather wider at the one end than the other) are then dipped into the
composition, rolled up firmly, and finished off on a polished slab.