=Bezoar, Ar'gentine[dagger]=; B. LUNA''RE, L. Made by distilling butter of
antimony with a solution of nitrate of silver. Once highly esteemed in
epilepsy and head diseases.
=Bezoar, Min'eral=; B. MINERA'LE, L. Powder of algaroth deflagrated with
nitre in a red-hot crucible, and then well washed with water. Once used as
a diaphoretic. Other similar preparations were B. JOVIA'LE (from tin), and
B. MARTIALE (from iron).
=Bezoar, Sat'urnine=, B. OF LEAD; B. SATUR'NI, L. Made by distilling a
mixture of oxide of lead, butter of antimony, and nitric acid. Once highly
esteemed in diseases of the spleen.
=BHAURTA.= In Indian cookery, a dish made of mashed potatoes and onions,
strongly spiced with capsicum, and sometimes also with curry-powder,
shaped in a mould, and then slightly baked.
=BIBAS'IC.= _Syn._ BIBAS'ICUS, L.; BIBASIQUE, Fr. In _chemistry_, having
two bases, or two atoms of the base or basic radical in its composition.
See ACID, NOMENCLATURE, SALT, &c.
=BIB'ERON= (b[)i]b'-r[=o]n_g_). [Fr.] A sucking-bottle or 'artificial
mother.' See BOTTLES.
=BI'BIRINE= (b[=e]'-). See BEBEERINE.
=BIB'ULOUS= (-[=u]-). _Syn._ BIB'ULUS, L.; SPONGIEUX, Fr. Absorptive;
spongy.
=BICAR'BONATE.= A salt in which only half the hydrogen in (hypothetical)
carbonic acid (H_{2}CO_{3}) is replaced by a metal, _e.g._ bicarbonate of
sodium, NaHCO_{3}.
=BICE= (b[=i]se), _Syn._ BLUE BICE. See BLUE PIGMENTS.
=Bice, Green.= See GREEN PIGMENTS.
=BICKEL'SCHER THEE=, for constipation, flatulence, hemorrhoids, loss of
appetite, stomach complaints, and similar diseases. Cassia lignea and
anise, of each 3 parts; cumin and fennel seed, each 4 parts; senna leaves,
20 parts; to be bruised together. (Selle and Hager.)
=BI'DERY= (b[=e]'-). _Syn._ VI'DRY. An alloy of which the chief seat of
the manufacture is the city of Bider', near Hyderabad, India. It was first
brought under the notice of the British public at the International
Exhibition of 1851, where many articles made of it were greatly admired
for the elegance of their forms, and the gracefulness of their engraved
and enchased patterns.
_Prep._ 1. Zinc, 31 parts; copper and lead, of each 2 parts; melted
together, with the usual precautions, under a mixture of resin and
beeswax, to prevent oxidation.[171]
[Footnote 171: These are very nearly the proportions which Dr Hamilton
says he saw used in India.]
2. (Dr Heyne.) Copper, 8 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 1 part; melted
together, as before. For use, the resulting alloy is remelted, and to
every 3 parts of it 16 parts of zinc are added.
_Prop., &c._ Colour between that of pewter and zinc; does not corrode by
exposure to air or damp; yields little to the hammer, and can only be
broken by extreme violence. It possesses a convenient degree of
fusibility, above that of zinc and tin, but much lower than that of
copper. For the turner it is usually cast in moulds of baked clay; but
otherwise in moulds of iron or other hard metal. The beautiful black
colour which the finished articles possess is imparted by dipping them
into a solution of sal-ammoniac, saltpetre, sea-salt, and blue vitriol.
See BRASS, BRONZE, PEWTER, &c.
=BIDET'= (b[)i]d-[)e]t'; -[=a]'--Fr.). An article of bedroom furniture
conveniently formed for laving the lower part of the body. Besides the
value of its use as an instrument of personal cleanliness and health, it
offers a ready means of medicating the parts, often highly serviceable in
piles, prolapsus, affections of the scrotum and prostate gland, strangury,
ischuria, suppressed or difficult menstruation, &c. See ABLUTION, BATHS,
&c.
=BIELEFELDER TROPFEN--BIELEFIELDER DROPS= (Bansi). A spirituous extract of
wormwood, unripe oranges, rhubarb, cascarilla, cloves, and gentian.
(Hager.)
=BIEN'NIAL= (b[=i]-[)e]n'-y'[)a]l). _Syn._ BIEN'NIS, L.; BIENNAL,
BISANNUEL, DE DEUX ANS, Fr.; ZWEIJÄHRIG, Ger. Occurring once in, or
lasting, two years. In _botany_ and _gardening_, applied to plants that do
not produce flowers and seed until the second year or season of their
growth, and which then die; subst., a biennial plant.
The existence of the biennials, like that of the annuals, may be prolonged
by art; indeed, many of them, by carefully removing the flowers ere the
seed-vessels begin to form, may be made to bloom a second season, and even
for several seasons following, like perennials. See ANNUALS, FLOWERS,
PLANTS, &c.
=BIFF'IN.= A baked apple, flattened by pressure.
_Prep._ The apples are placed in a cool oven 6 or 7 times in succession,
and flattened each time by gentle pressure, gradually applied, as soon as
they are soft enough to bear it; after which they are taken out, and as
soon as cold put on clean dishes or glass plates. The sour or tart variety
of apples is the best for baking. If the process be well managed, the
appearance of the prepared fruit is very rich and the flavour delicious.
=BIL'BERRY.= The whortleberry.
=Bilberry, Bear's.= Uva ursi.
=BILE.= _Syn._ BI'LIS,[172] CHO'LE,[173] FEL,[174] L.; BILE, FIEL, GALLE,
Fr.; GALLE, &c., Ger. A bitter fluid secreted by the liver, from venous
blood; in part flowing from the intestines, and in part regurgitating into
the gall-bladder. Its composition is of a very complex character; and its
uses in the animal economy appear to be--to separate the chyle from the
chyme, to promote the digestion and assimilation of oleaginous substances,
and to assist in exciting the peristaltic action of the intestines. The
fæces appear to owe their colour chiefly to the presence of bile; as,
without it, they possess a dirty pipe-clay colour. Several of the
substances which enter into its composition, or which are formed from
those which do so, are noticed elsewhere, under their respective names.
Its analysis, detection, and uses in the arts are given under GALL.
[Footnote 172: Properly, the 'gall' after it leaves the 'gall-bladder'--a
sense retained in its English analogue.]
[Footnote 173: [Greek: Cholê], Gr.]
[Footnote 174: Strictly, the gall-bladder with the gall.]
=Bile= (of Animals). See GALL.
=BILE, Bil'iousness.= Under these terms are popularly included all those
slight affections of the stomach usually accompanied with derangement of
the head and bowels, apparently arising from excess of bile. Persons
subject to attacks of this description should be particularly careful to
avoid excess in both eating and drinking, and should more especially shun
those articles of food and those liquors which, from experience, they find
are apt to disagree with them. A mutton chop, slightly under-dressed, is
an excellent article for the breakfast, or the lunch, of bilious patients;
and good beef or mutton, either broiled or roasted, so that the gravy be
retained, is better for dinner than many dishes apparently more delicate.
These, with fresh game and venison, form a good variety from which to
choose a bill of fare. New beer and porter should be particularly avoided,
as well as boiled meat, stews, soups, greasy or rich puddings, much butter
or fat, and most articles of pastry, as they are very indigestible, and,
by overtasking the powers of the stomach, very apt to derange it. Strong
cheese,[175] salads (particularly cucumbers), over-ripe or unripe fruit,
new bread and rolls, cabbages and green vegetables, and especially peas,
beans, nuts, almonds, and the like, are also objectionable for parties
with delicate stomachs or a bilious tendency. The bread eaten by such
persons should be perfectly free from alum, and preferably prepared with
meal retaining the whole of the bran in it; and should be two days, or at
the least one day old. The quantity of animal food per day, except for the
laborious, should be limited to from 6 or 8 to 12 _oz._; and warm slops of
all kinds, except moderately strong tea and coffee, should be taken as
seldom as possible, and, in general, avoided altogether. Even cocoa and
chocolate prove injurious to the delicate and bilious. Out-door exercise
and plenty of fresh air are essential to the health of such persons. Those
who indulge in them freely are never attacked with affections of this
kind, unless it be after gluttonising or heavy drinking. Above all things
heavy and late suppers should be abandoned; indeed, the better plan is to
take nothing more than a hard biscuit, or dry crust, after tea.
[Footnote 175: Rotten cheese is absolute poison to the bilious.]
In general, attacks of bile may be prevented by the exercise of moderate
judgment and temperance in living; and in those hitherto subject to them
by the occasional use of an aloetic, mercurial, or saline aperient; and
they may be generally rapidly removed by an emetic, followed by a dose of
castor oil, Epsom salts, or Seidlitz powder. A tumbler of pure cold water
taken on retiring to rest, and another (or even two) on rising in the
morning, will often remove both the tendency and the fit, when all the
usual remedies have failed. See ABERNETHY MEDICINES, ANTIBILIOUS,
DYSPEPSIA, STOMACH AFFECTIONS, &c.
=BILHARZIA HÆMATOBIA.= A fluke-like parasite. It is bisexual. The body of
the male is thread-shaped, round, white, and flattened anteriorly. The
female is thin and delicate. This creature was discovered in the portal
vein and bladder of man by Bilharz, of Cairo, after whom it was named. It
is especially prevalent in those who dwell by the banks of the Nile, and
is also very frequently met with amongst the inhabitants of the Cape of
Good Hope. It is the cause of very serious disturbance in the human
economy, and not infrequently of death.
The main symptoms of the disease this dangerous parasite sets up are those
which point to derangement of the urinary organs; but its effects are not
confined to these, since there seems little room to doubt that it is the
chief cause of the dysentery so prevalent in Egypt, the eggs of the
diatoma being found deposited within the intestinal vessels, or beneath
the exudations of the swollen mucous membrane. Dr Harley has found the ova
in the urine of persons affected with hæmaturia at the Cape of Good Hope.
When death ensues from the presence of this parasite the post-mortem
appearances are various. In the bowels, congestion, deposits upon the
mucous membrane, and extensive ulcerations, degeneration and atrophy of
the kidneys, dependent upon an infiltrated state of the ureters, and
blocking of the portal vein, due to the presence of myriads of the
parasites, are some of the most important pathological changes.
=BIL'IARY AFFECTIONS= (-y[)a]r-e). See BILE (_antè_), CALCULI, JAUNDICE,
LIVER, &c.
=BI'LINE= (-l[)i]n). _Syn._ BILI'NA, L. This name has been loosely applied
to two substances:--1. Bile, or pure bile, freed from the mucus of the
gall-bladder, and gently evaporated to dryness. A gummy pale yellow mass,
white when powdered:--2. Tauro-cholalic or choleic acid. See GALL, &c.
=BIL'IOUS= (-y[)u]s). _Syn._ BILIO'SUS, L.; BILIEUX, Fr.; GALLIG,
GALLICHT, &c., Ger. Pertaining to, caused by, full of, or having excess of
bile. See BILE, BILIOUSNESS.
=BILIPH'EINE= (-e-[)i]n). Cholepyrrhine.
=BILIV'ERDINE= (-d[)i]n). A green colouring matter, identical with
chlorophyll, found in bile, and in the green dejections of children.
=BILL OF FARE.= In _cookery_, _domestic economy_, &c., a list of things
ready dressed or prepared for the table (CARTE, C. D'UN RESTAURANT, MENU,
&c., Fr.); also a list of articles of food in season. For Tables of the
latter, see FOOD.
=BI'NARY.= _Syn._ BINA''RIUS, L.; BINAIRE, Fr. Consisting of two parts. In
_chemistry_, compounded of two elements, or of two bodies performing the
function of elements.
BINOC'ULAR (-[=u]-). Having two eyes. In _optics_, of or with two eyes, as
binoc'ular v[)i]''sion; or formed with two eye-pieces or tubes, so as to
be used with two eyes, as a b. mi'croscope, b. tel'escope, &c.
=BIRCH.= _Syn._ BE'TULA, L.; BOULEAU, Fr.; BIRKE, Ger. The common name of
trees of the genus _be'tula_; appr., _b. al'ba_ (Linn.), or white birch;
also its wood. See BETULINE, and _below_.
BIRCH, BLACK. _Syn._ CHER'RY B., SWEET B., MOUNT'AIN MAHOG'ANY;
BETULEN'TA, L. A forest tree of N. America. Wood used for cabinet work;
bark yields a volatile oil similar in odour and taste to that of
gualtheria; juice obtained by tapping, saccharine, and yields BIRCH-SUGAR.
=Birch, White.= _Syn._ BIRCH, (or) COMMON B.; BE'TULA, L. A tree found in
the woods of England. Wood neither very hard nor durable; leaves formerly
used in itch and dropsy; bark febrifuge, yields a pyroligneous oil by
distillation. See OILS (and _above_).
BIRD[176] [Eng., Sax.] _Syn._ A'VIS, L.; OISEAU, Fr.; VOGEL, Ger. Any
fowl or animal of the feathered kind. In fashionable and gourmandic cant,
appr. a partridge. See BIRDS (_below_).
[Footnote 176: Properly, a 'chicken' or 'young flying animal,'--It is
remarkable, as observed by Webster, that a nation should lay aside the
proper generic name of flying animals--'fowl' (_fugel_, _fugl_, Sax.;
_vogel_, Ger., Dut.; _fugl_, Dan.; _fogel_, Sw.; from the root of the
Lat., _fugio_, _fugo_), and substitute the name of the young of those
animals as the generic term.]
=BIRD'LIME.= _Syn._ VIS'CUS, L.; GLU, Fr.; VOGELLEIM, Ger. _Prep._ The
middle bark of the holly (gathered in June or July) is boiled for 6 to 8
hours in water, or until it becomes quite soft and tender; the water is
then drained off, and it is placed in a heap, in a pit underground
(commonly on layers of fern), and covered with stones. Here it is left to
ferment for 2 or 3 weeks, and watered, if necessary, until it assumes a
mucilaginous state. It is next pounded in a mortar until reduced to a
uniform mass, which is then well kneaded with the hands in running water,
until all the refuse matter is worked out. It is, lastly, placed in an
earthen vessel, and covered with a little water; in which state it may be
preserved from season to season. In about a week it is fit for use.
_Prop._ Greenish coloured: very gluey, stringy, and tenacious; when
air-dried, brittle and pulverisable, but capable of gradually assuming its
previous viscosity when moistened.
_Uses._ To cover twigs to catch birds, and other small animals. It is said
to be discutient, but is now never employed in medicine.
_Obs._ Birdlime may also be made from mistletoe berries, the young shoots
of the elder, the bark of the wayfaring-tree, and some other vegetables,
by a similar process to that above described. Should any of it stick to
the hands it may be removed by means of a little oil of turpentine.
A kind of factitious birdlime is made by boiling linseed oil either with,
or without, a little yellow resin, until it forms a viscid, stringy paste
when cold. This is chiefly used, spread on paper or cloth, to catch
insects. See FLY-PAPERS, &c.
=BIRDS.= _Syn._ A'VES, L. Birds, besides their value as food, play an
important part in the economy of organic nature, and particularly in that
of the vegetable kingdom. They are the best friends of the agriculturist
and the gardener; and their presence, in numbers, appears essential to
keep down the innumerable races of insects that prey upon our cereals,
fruits, and culinary vegetables. M. Florent Prevost, who has for fifty
years presided over the Natural History Museum of Paris, and who has, like
the ancient Roman augurs, examined the entrails and stomach of fowls with
scientific curiosity, avers, as the result of his long experience, that
birds, of whatever sort, are an unmitigated blessing to the farmer, and
that the detritus and organic particles found by inspection of them in
whole hecatombs, which, by the assistance of the Royal Forest Rangers, he
has sacrificed on the altar of utility, show an immense preponderance of
insect corpuscula in their digestive organs, whilst the traces of cereal
or other valuable products are infinitesimal in comparison. It is found
that even sparrows, rooks, and owls--three of the feathered tribe the most
persecuted by the farmer--are, in reality, the faithful and vigilant
conservators of his fruits and crops. In one of the smaller states of
Germany, where, owing to public rewards being given to their destroyers,
the whole race of sparrows were exterminated, the crops failed to such an
alarming extent that it became necessary to offer large premiums for the
reintroduction of these useful birds from other parts. In some of the
agricultural districts of France, where the destruction of small birds has
been carried on with relentless activity for years, insects have so
prodigiously multiplied as to attack everything green around them. Even
the forest trees are, in many cases, denuded of leaves by them, and are
rapidly perishing. Venomous species of caterpillars, previously scarcely
known except to entomologists, have now become common; and cases of
children losing their lives from attacks of them whilst birdnesting have
been published in newspapers.[177] In our own country the extension of
sparrow-clubs--associations disgraceful to the boasted intelligence of the
nineteenth century--threatens similar results. Already the gardener finds
his fruit-crops lessening year by year; and that many of them,
particularly of the smaller and sweeter fruits, have become so precarious,
that they now scarcely pay for cultivation. In our own neighbourhood,
where small birds have for some years been destroyed by bushels at a time,
it is almost impossible to raise a currant, gooseberry, cherry, or plum;
whilst seedling flowers and culinary vegetables often entirely disappear
on the first night after being planted, or are so completely deprived of
the succulent portion of their leaves and stems, that the remaining
skeleton of network in a few days withers and dies. But this is not
all--the columns of our diurnals bring us continual reports of failing
grain-crops in the neighbourhoods in which these bird-clubs have existed
for any length of time, and that even on land previously remarkable for
its fertility.[178] Did this loss fall only on the benighted beings who so
wilfully cast back the blessings of an all-wise protecting Providence, it
would be a just retribution; but, unfortunately, it affects the whole
nation, and threatens, ere long, unless arrested by legislation, to prove
a national calamity. The only apparent remedy for the evil, at present, is
the diffusion of information tending to show that the farmer and the
gardener, in destroying small birds, destroy their best friends.
[Footnote 177: A striking fatal case of this description is given in the
'Times' of June 12, 1862.]
[Footnote 178: See the 'Times' and other leading 'journals' for 1862.]
[For further information respecting birds, see AVES, BIRD (_antè_), GAME,
GERMAN PASTE, NESTS (Edible), POULTRY, PUTREFACTION, TAXIDERMY, TRUSSING,
&c.]
=BIRKENBALSAM--BIRCH BALSAM= (Dr Friedreich Lengiel). A cosmetic against
wrinkles, small-pock marks, freckles, mole spots, red noses, acne, &c. 5
grammes water glass, 2 grammes potash, 1 gramme soap, 5 grammes gum
arabic, 10 grammes glycerin, 400 grammes water. (Schädler.)
=BIS'COTIN.= [Fr.] A small biscuit. In _cookery_, &c., a species of
confection made of eggs, flour, marmalade, and sugar, variously compounded
and flavoured according to the taste of the operator.
=BIS'CUIT= (-k[)i]t). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BUCCELLA'TUM, PA'NIS BIS COC'TUS,
L.; SWIEBACK, Ger.; BISCOTTO, It.; BIZCOCHO, Sp. Literally, 'twice-baked,'
appr., a well-known variety of hard, dry, unleavened bread, made in thin
flat pieces. Those prepared for seamen (SEA'-BISCUITS, CAP'TAIN'S B.[179])
are composed of flour and water only. When made of fine flour and a few
caraway seeds are added, they are commonly called AB'ERNE'THY BISCUITS.
Fancy biscuits generally contain a little sugar and butter, to which
almonds, caraways, mace, ginger, lemon, and other articles, technically
called 'flavourings,' are frequently added.
[Footnote 179: A captain's biscuit differs from a common 'sea biscuit' in
being made of finer flour.]
_Prep._ On the small scale, biscuits are made by forming the flour and
water into a dough by the common process of hand-kneading, occasionally
assisted with a lever, as in making ordinary bread. The dough is then
rolled into a sheet, and cut into pieces of the desired size and form.
These, after being stamped, are exposed to the heat of a moderately quick
oven, when a few minutes (12 to 18, according to their size) are
sufficient to bake them.
On the large scale, the whole manual process, from preparing the dough to
the point at which the newly-made biscuits are ready for baking is now
generally performed by machinery. The articles so prepared are commonly
known in trade as 'MACHINE-MADE BISCUITS,' and are not only much cheaper,
but of fully equal quality to those 'made by hand.' In the bakehouses of
her Majesty's Victualling Yards at Deptford, Gosport, and Plymouth, the
ingenious machinery invented by Mr T. T. Grant is employed. These
establishments are said to be capable of producing annually above 8000
tons of sea-biscuits, at a saving of upwards of 12,000_l._ a year, from
the cost that would have been incurred for the purpose on the old system.
Under the latter it is stated that wages, and wear and tear of utensils,
cost about 1_s._ 6_d._ per cwt. of biscuit; whilst under the new system
the cost is only 5_d._
The allowance of biscuit to each seaman in the royal navy is 1 _lb._ per
day; or, on the average, six biscuits.
=Biscuits Depuratifs= (Olivier) are made with meal, milk, and sugar. Each
biscuit contains 1 centigramme corrosive sublimate. (Foy.)
=Biscuits, Fancy.= The varieties of these are almost innumerable. In a
printed list now before us we observe the names of upwards of one hundred
different kinds. These are produced by varying the number and proportions,
of the ingredients used in their composition, and the form and size in
which they are turned out of hand. They are further modified by the
relative heat of the oven, as well as the length of time they are allowed
to remain in it. It would, therefore, be waste of space to give particular
directions for the preparation of each. The proportion of butter and
sugar, or either of them, may be from 1 _oz._ and upwards, to flour, 1
_lb._; according to the degree of richness desired. In a few cases milk,
or eggs, or both, are introduced. The 'flavourings' embrace a wide range
of substances--bitter almonds, caraways, cassia, cinnamon, ginger, mace,
nutmeg, lemon, orange-peel, orange-flower water, essence of peach
kernels, vanilla, &c., &c.; many of which give their name to the
biscuit.--AR'ROW-ROOT BISCUITS are usually made of equal parts of
arrow-root and flour; MEAT'-BISCUITS, from about 1 part of lean meat
(minced small and pulped) beaten to a dough with about 2 parts of flour,
and a little seasoning, no water being added;[180] SODA BISCUITS, by
adding 1 to 2 _dr._ of carbonate of soda to each _lb._ of flour. In most
other cases, the mere inspection of the biscuit will convey to the
experienced biscuit-baker and cook sufficient information to enable him to
produce an exactly similar one, or at least a very close imitation. The
richest kind of SPONGE-BISCUITS, as we are informed, are made as
follows:--Add the whites and yelks of 12 eggs, previously well beaten, to
1-1/2 _lb._ of finely powdered sugar, and whisk it until it rises in
bubbles, then add 1 _lb._ of the finest pastry-flour, and the grated rind
of 2 lemons. Put it into 'shapes,' sift a little sugar over them, and bake
them in buttered tin moulds, in a moderately quick oven, for nearly half
an hour.[181]
[Footnote 180: For the MEAT-BISCUITS used in the navy, and by travellers,
see MEAT.]
[Footnote 181: A few fancy biscuits will be found noticed in their
alphabetical places. See CRACKNELS, MACAROONS, &c.]
=Biscuits Purgatifs= (Caroz). Each biscuit contains 2 decigrammes
scammony. (Reveil.)
=Biscuits Purgatifs= (Sulot). Each biscuit contains 6 decigrammes
scammony.
=Biscuits Purgatifs et Vermifuges= (Ferd. Gräf, Aschbach) contain 1/4
gramme resina scammonii in each.
=Biscuits Purgatifs et Vermifuges au Calomel= (Sulot). There are 3
decigrammes of calomel in each. (Reveil.)
=Biscuits Vermifuges à la Santonine= (Sulot.) Each biscuit contains 5
centigrammes of san tonin. (Reveil.)
BISCUITS, DEV'ILED, in _cookery_, are captain's biscuits (or any similar
kind) buttered on both sides, peppered well, and then covered on one side
with a slice of good cheese formed into a paste with made mustard; the
whole being seasoned with a little cayenne pepper is, lastly, grilled.
Chopped anchovies, or essence of anchovies, is a good addition.
=BISMUTH.= Bi. BISMUTH, ETAIN DE GLACE, Fr.; BISMUTH, WISMUTH, W.-METALL,
Ger. One of the metals.
[Illustration: Bismuth furnace in section.
_a_, Eliquation-tube.[182]
_b_, End at which it is charged.
_c_, End from which the metal flows.
_d_, Receiving-pan.
_e_, Water-trough.
_f_, Grate, &c.[183]
_g, g_, Draught-holes.]
[Footnote 182: Several of these tubes are usually set side by side
together.]
[Footnote 183: Usually one to each eliquation-tube.]
_Sources._ Bismuth occurs in the mineral kingdom in the metallic state
(NA'TIVE BISMUTH), and in combination with sulphur (BIS'M[)U]TH[)I]NE),
and with oxygen (B. O'CHRE, &c.). That of commerce is mostly imported from
Saxony, where it is chiefly obtained from native bismuth by the simple
process of eliquation. The ore, sorted by hand from the gangue, and broken
into pieces of about the size of nuts, is introduced into the ignited iron
pipes of the furnace (see _engr._) until these latter are filled to about
one half their diameter and to three fourths of their length. From these
the liquefied metal is allowed to flow into iron pans containing some
coal-dust, and from these into a trough of water, in which it is
granulated and cooled. It is subsequently remelted and cast into moulds so
as to form 'bars' varying in weight from 25 to 56 _lbs._ each. In this
state it usually contains a small admixture of arsenic, iron, lead, and
sulphur; from the first of which it may be freed by exposure for some
time, under charcoal, at a dull red heat. It is best obtained in a pure
condition by heating to redness, in a covered crucible, a mixture of
oxide, or subnitrate of bismuth, with half its weight of charcoal.
_Prop._ Colour greyish-white with a reddish tint; crystalline; very
brittle (may be powdered); melts at about 480° Fahr., and does not
re-solidify until cooled to 6 or 7° below this point; it volatilises at a
strong heat, and, in close vessels, the fumes condense unchanged in
crystalline laminæ; little acted on by the air, but when exposed to it at
a high temperature burns with a faint blue flame, emitting yellow fumes
which condense into a yellow pulverulent oxide; when slowly cooled, in
large masses, it forms large cubic crystals or octahedrons of great
beauty; nitric acid, somewhat dilute, dissolves it freely. It is highly
diamagnetic. Sp. gr. 9·8 to 9·83, which, by careful hammering, may be
increased to 9·8827. A bar of bismuth, when heated from 32° to 212°,
expands exactly 1/710 in length.
_Uses, &c._ Bismuth enters into the composition of STEREOTYPE-METAL,
SOLDER, PEWTER, FUSIBLE METALS, and several other alloys. Added to other
metals it renders them more fusible. An alloy of tin, nickel, bismuth, and
silver is said to hinder iron from rusting. A mixture of bismuth, lead,
and tin is much employed for taking impressions from dies, forming moulds,
and for other purposes.
Bismuth salts are usually insoluble, or decomposed by any quantity of
water into free acid and a basic salt. They are nearly all colourless,
and, except the chloride, more volatile. They are easily recognised by the
following reactions:--
Their saturated or concentrated solutions giving a white precipitate on
dilution with water:--Sulphuretted hydrogen blackens them, or gives a
black precipitate:--The nitric solution is unaffected by the addition of
sulphuric acid:--Chromate of potassium gives a yellow precipitate, which
differs from that from lead, by being soluble in nitric acid, and
insoluble in potassa.
Von Kobbell takes a mixture of potassium iodide and flowers of sulphur in
equal proportions, and heats the whole on charcoal before the blowpipe;
the production of bright scarlet, very volatile bismuth iodide ensues,
even when only traces of bismuth are present.
For a method of volumetrically estimating bismuth, consult a paper by Mr
Pattison Muir, in the 'Journal of the Chemical Society,' April, 1876.
=Bismuth, Car'bonate.= (Ph. B.) Mix nitric acid, four fluid ounces, with
three fluid ounces of distilled water, and add in successive portions
purified bismuth, in small pieces, two ounces. When effervescence has
ceased apply for ten minutes a heat approaching ebullition; then decant
the solution from any insoluble matter. Evaporate to two fluid ounces, and
add this in small quantities at a time to a cold filtered solution of six
ounces of carbonate of ammonia, in two pints of distilled water,
constantly stirring. Collect precipitate on a calico filter; wash till
washings pass tasteless. Remove water by slight pressure of the hands, and
dry at a heat not exceeding 150°.--_Dose_, 5 to 20 grains.
=Bismuth, Chlorides of:=
=Basic Chlo''ride.= Bi_{3}Cl_{8}. _Syn._ SUBCHLO''RIDE OF BISMUTH,
PEARL'-POWDER; BISMU'THI SUBCHLORI'DUM, L. _Prep._ A dilute solution of
hydrochloric acid is dropped into another of bismuth (prepared by
dissolving that metal in nitric acid); and the resulting precipitate,
after being well washed in pure water, is dried in the shade.--_Prop.,
Uses, &c._ Similar to those of the subnitrate.
=Chlo''ride.= BiCl_{3}. _Syn._ TERCHLO''RIDE OF BISMUTH. _Prep._ A mixture
of corrosive sublimate, 2 parts; bismuth, 1 part; (both in powder) is
exposed to heat until all the 'mercury' present is expelled, after which
it is at once put into bottles. A greyish-white, granular substance.
=Bismuth, Nitrates of=:
=Basic, Nitrate.= BiONO_{3}. _Syn._ PEARL-WHITE, BISMUTH SUBNITRATE;
BISMUTHI SUBNITRAS, B. BISMUTHI NITRAS, L.; BLANC DE FARD, B. D'ESPAGNE*,
&c., Fr.; PERLWEISS, SCHMINKWEISS, &c., Ger. _Prep._ Bismuth, 1 oz.;
nitric acid, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; distilled water, 3 pints; mix 1 fl. oz. of the
water with the acid, and dissolve the bismuth in the mixture; throw the
solution into the remainder of the water, and, after repose, pour off the
supernatant liquor, drain the powder that has subsided on a linen cloth,
wash it with distilled water, and dry it with a gentle heat.
_Prop._ A pearly white, inodorous powder, insoluble in water, but freely
soluble in nitric acid; long exposure to a strong light turns it greyish.
When prepared from a neutral solution, it consists of very fine
microscopic crystalline laminæ; but when prepared from acid solutions,
with less water, the crystals are acicular, and more silky and lustrous.
When moistened it exhibits an acid reaction with litmus paper.
_Pois., &c._ Like the other salts of bismuth, it causes vomiting, purging,
giddiness, cramp, insensibility, &c. No certain antidote is known. The
treatment may consist of an emetic, followed by the copious use of
emollient drinks, as weak broth, barley water, milk and water, &c.; and
subsequently, when necessary to prevent inflammation, by a low diet and
aperients.
_Uses, &c._ In _medicine_, as a sedative, an astringent, or tonic, and an
antispasmodic, in chronic affections of the stomach unaccompanied by
organic disease of that organ, and apparently of a nervous character;
particularly in gastrodynia, troublesome sickness and vomiting, pyrosis or
waterbrash, and generally in gastro-intestinal affections attended with
fluxes; also in intermittent fever, spasmodic asthma, &c.--_Dose_, 5 to
10, or even 20 gr.
Externally, made into an ointment with 4 parts of lard, it has long been
employed in certain chronic skin diseases. Under the name of PEARL-WHITE
it is commonly used by ladies as a cosmetic; but it is stated that it
injures the skin, producing, after a time, paralysis of its minute
vessels, rendering it yellow and leather-like--an effect which,
unfortunately, it is usually attempted to conceal by its freer and more
frequent application. In very large doses it is poisonous.
Both the basic nitrate and the basic chloride of bismuth pass under the
names of PEARL-WHITE and PEARL-POWDER, owing to their extreme whiteness
and beauty. That of the druggists, however, is usually the former; that of
the perfumers usually the latter, but not unfrequently both.
=Bismuth Powder=, for beautifying the skin and removing freckles. (From
North America.) Consists of calcium carbonate, with much clay, and is free
from injurious metals. (Chandler.)
=Bismuth, Purified.= (Ph. Br.) Put bismuth, 10 ounces, and 1 ounce of
powdered nitrate of potash, into a crucible, and heat them until both are
fused. Continue the heat, constantly stirring, for fifteen minutes, or
till the salt has solidified into a slag above the metal. Remove the salt,
add nitrate of potash, 1 ounce, to bismuth in crucible, and repeat the
process. Pour the fused bismuth into a suitable mould, and let it cool.
=Nitrate.= Bi(NO_{3})_{3}. _Syn._ NEUTRAL NITRATE, TERNITRATE. Purified
bismuth (in small fragments), 2 oz.; nitric acid, 6 oz.; dissolve with
heat, adding more acid, if necessary, to effect entire solution of the
metal; to the resulting solution add half its volume of distilled water,
filter through powdered glass, and evaporate until crystals form.
_Use._ Chiefly in chemistry, and as a source of the pure oxide and the
subnitrate.
=Bismuth Oxides=:--
=Bismuthous Oxide.= Bi_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ TEROXIDE OF BISMUTH, PROTOXIDE OF
BISMUTH. From either the neutral or the basic nitrate, by exposure, in a
crucible, to gentle ignition. Pure. A straw-yellow powder, of rather
difficult solubility.
HY'DRATED:--By gradually dropping an acid solution of bismuthous nitrate
into a concentrated solution of potassium hydrate perfectly free from
carbonic acid, and washing and drying the resulting precipitate. Pure. A
rich-looking white powder.
_Prop., &c._ Fuses at a high temperature, and then acts as a powerful flux
on siliceous matter without itself imparting colour, a property of which
the enameller and gilder has long availed himself. Like the basic nitrate,
it has been used as an antispasmodic and as a cosmetic. Sp. gr. 8·211 to
8·355.
=Bismuthic Oxide.= Bi_{2}O_{5}. _Syn._ BISMUTHIC ANHYDRIDE, BISMUTHIC
ACID. Suspend teroxide of bismuth in a strong solution of potassa, and
pass chlorine through the mixture until decomposition is complete; treat
the powder with dilute nitric acid (to remove any undecomposed teroxide),
after which wash it in cold water, and dry it.
_Prop., &c._ A reddish powder, soluble in water. Its salts, of which
little are known, are called BIS'MUTHATES. When heated it loses oxygen,
and a bismuthate of bismuth is formed.
=Bismuthous Sulphide.= Bi_{2}S_{3}. This compound occurs native
(BIS'M[)U]TH[)I]NE), and may be easily prepared artificially by either
fusing its elements together, or by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through
a solution of nitrate of bismuth.
=Bismuthous Valerianate.= _Syn._ BISMU'THI VALERIA'NAS, L. _Prep._ An acid
solution of nitrate of bismuth is decomposed with a solution of
valerianate of soda in water containing a little free valerianic acid; the
precipitate is carefully washed in distilled water, and dried in the
shade. Recommended as superior to the subnitrate in some forms of
gastrodynia, dyspepsia, intermittents, &c.--_Dose_, 2 to 6 gr., or more.
=BIS'TRE= (-ter). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BISTER, Ger. _Prep._ 1. The most
compact, best coloured, and well-burnt portions of the soot of beechwood,
or of peat,[184] are selected, reduced to powder and sifted through a very
fine lawn sieve. It is then digested in clear warm water for several
hours, with frequent stirring; after which it is allowed to settle, when
the liquid portion is decanted from the sediment. This process is repeated
a second, and even a third time. The paste is next poured into a tall
narrow vessel, which is then filled with pure cold water, and well
agitated. The grosser parts only are now allowed to subside,[185] and the
supernatant liquor, containing the finer portion of the BISTRE in
suspension, is poured off into another vessel, where it is left to deposit
its contents. The deposit is next collected, and carefully dried and
powdered; or it is only partially dried, and at once made into cakes with
gum-water or isinglass-size, and then allowed to dry and harden for sale.
[Footnote 184: The first is usually employed in England.]
[Footnote 185: Two or three minutes suffice for this purpose.]
2. (Dr MacCulloch.) The tar-like liquid obtained from the dry distillation
of wood is again carefully distilled until all volatile matter has passed
over, and a brittle, pitch-like residuum is obtained, which is either
brown or black according to the time and temperature employed; after which
the heat is still further prolonged, but with increased care, until the
brittle substance becomes pulverulent and carbonaceous. It is then ground
and elutriated with pure cold water, as before.
_Uses, &c._ As a water colour to tint drawings, in the same way as Indian
ink, to which it is esteemed superior when the subjects are intended to be
afterwards tinted with other colours. It occupies the same place among
water colours that brown-pink does in oil.
According to Dr MacCulloch, bistre from wood-tar, when carefully prepared,
has great depth and beauty of colour, with all the fine properties of
sepia; but that if the whole of the oils and acids have not been removed
by the process, it is apt to collect in little flocks which interfere with
its use.
=BITES= and =STINGS=. _Syn._ MOR'S[=U]S (-S[=U]S, _sing._) ET IC'T[=U]S
(-T[)U]S, _s._), L. The treatment of the bites of non-venomous and
non-rabid animals is the same as that of ordinary lacerated or punctured
wounds, as the case may be; that of the bites and stings of venomous and
rabid animals, serpents, insects, &c., often require, in addition, the use
of special antidotes to destroy the virus or to prevent its absorption, or
to neutralise its effects when absorbed and to promote its elimination
from the system.
The bites and stings of ANTS, BEES, WASPS, HORNETS, and similar insects
common to this climate may be treated by washing the part with spirit of
hartshorn or dilute liquor of ammonia or eau de luce, or a weak solution
of chloride of lime. Should considerable inflammation ensue, and the part
become much swollen, a thing that rarely occurs, leeches may be applied,
and a cooling purgative given. The stings of venomous reptiles may be
similarly treated, excepting that the strength of the solutions of
ammonia, chloride of lime, &c., should be stronger than in the former
case, so as to produce some pain and smarting. In cases where the venom is
of a very poisonous description, the wound should be first well washed
with water of ammonia, and afterwards seared with lunar caustic in every
part, including the interior and deep-seated portions. In extreme cases
the surface of the wound, both internal and external, may be removed with
the knife; or, in the case of a small joint, as a finger, the injured
portion may be amputated. Prior to the use of the washes or caustic,
dry-cupping or suction with the mouth may be had recourse to with great
advantage. A ligature placed on the limb, above the wound, as soon as
possible after the accident, will impede the absorption of the poison
whilst the other treatment is in progress. A similar plan may be followed
after the bite of a dog supposed to be mad. It has, indeed, been lately
asserted by one of our most celebrated veterinarians that he and his
colleagues have been repeatedly bitten by dogs that have afterwards been
proved to be mad, but from having fearlessly applied caustic to the parts
they have escaped uninjured.
The poison inserted by the stings and bites of several venomous reptiles
is so rapidly absorbed, and of so fatal a description, as frequently to
occasion death within a very short space of time, and before any remedy or
antidote, under ordinary circumstances, can be applied. But even in these
extreme cases it is probable that absorption, and consequently the
rapidity of the action of the poison, might be considerably impeded or
lessened by the immediate application of a ligature above the part, as
before described, the patient accompanying the treatment by swallowing a
large quantity of liquid, by which partial plethora would be produced, and
the functions of the absorbents for a time nearly-suspended. A few minutes
thus gained would permit of the application of appropriate antidotes, by
which the poison might be neutralised before it would become necessary to
remove the ligature, whilst the kidneys would be in full action.
Unfortunately, these wounds are generally inflicted in parts of the world
where precautionary measures are seldom thought of, and generally at times
when people are least prepared to meet them, as well as so suddenly and
unexpectedly as to stagger even those observers who may be in no absolute
danger themselves. Such is the bite of the East Indian CO'BRA DI CAPEL'LO,
against which two Asiatic (arsenical) pills are often prescribed by the
Hindoos; but which are generally scarcely swallowed before the poison of
the serpent has rendered the patient a stiffened corpse. Eau de luce, a
favorite remedy in India, when liberally employed both internally and
externally, is said to prove sometimes more successful. The bite of the
PUFF-ADDER is of a similar, or even a more fatal description than that of
the cobra. When the venom of any of these animals or of a rabid dog is
once fully absorbed into the system, there appears to be no treatment that
can save the patient. A bottle of Madeira wine or 1/2 a pint of brandy or
rum diluted with twice its weight of water, drank in two doses about 3 or
4 minutes apart, is a popular remedy in India in such cases. Its effect is
to impede absorption.
The secret antidote so long successfully employed by Mr Underwood, the
'snake-king' of Australia, for the bites of the WHIP-SNAKE and the
DIAMOND-SNAKE, two of the most venomous of that region, is now positively
asserted to be the common male fern (_polypo'dium fi'lix mas_, Linn.). Of
the powdered root, or preferably, of the green leaves of this plant
nearest the root, he prepares a sort of decoction, or broth, which he
takes or administers liberally. A more convenient preparation would,
perhaps, be a tincture prepared by digesting 1 _oz._ of the dried, or 3
_oz._ of the fresh leaves (bruised), in a pint of proof spirit or strong
brandy or rum for a fortnight; as in this state it could be kept for any
length of time, if well corked, without deterioration.
For HORSES AND CATTLE. Mr Finlay Dun recommends ammonia solution; solution
of caustic potash; carbolic acid; prussic acid and chloroform.
[See HYDROPHOBIA, POISONS, SNAKE-BITES, STINGS, VENOM, WOUNDS, &c.[186]]
[Footnote 186: Notices of several chemical and neurotic antidotes, of
great promise, will also be found in different parts of this volume. The
names of the respective animals may likewise be referred to.]
=BITT'ER.= [Eng., Ger.] _Syn._ AMA''RUS, L.; AMER, Fr. Tasting like
wormwood, quassia, or other similar vegetables; subst., a bitter plant,
bark, or root (= AMA''RUM, L.; see _below_).
=Bitter App'le[double-dagger].= Colocynth.
=Bitter Cup.= A cup or tumbler formed by the turner out of quassia wood.
Liquor, by standing in it a short time, becomes bitter and stomachic. They
are now common in the shops.
=Bitter Earth*.= Magnesia.
=Bitter Herbs.= See BITTERS (_infrà_) and SPECIES (Bitter).
=Bitter Salt[dagger]=, Bitter Pur''ging-salt. Sulphate of magnesia.
=Bitt'er-sweet.= Woody nightshade.
=Bitt'er-wort[double-dagger]= (-w[)u]rt). Gentian.
=BITT'ERN.= The 'mother-water' or 'bitter liquor' of salt-works from which
the chloride of sodium (sea-salt) has been separated by crystallisation.
=Bittern.= An intoxicating poisonous mixture sold by the brewers'
druggists, composed of 1 part each of extract of quassia and powdered
sulphate of iron, with 2 parts of extract of cocculus indicus, 4 parts of
Spanish liquorice, and about 8 parts of treacle; the liquorice being first
boiled with a little water until dissolved, and the solution evaporated to
a proper consistence before adding the other ingredients. Used by
fraudulent brewers and publicans to impart a false bitter and apparent
strength to their liquors.
=BITT'ERS= (-[)e]rz). _Syn._ AMA''RA, &c., L. Vegetable bitters are
commonly regarded as tonic and stomachic, and to improve the appetite when
taken occasionally and in moderation. The best time is early in the
morning, or half an hour or an hour before a meal. An excessive, or a too
prolonged use of them, tends to weaken the stomach, and to induce
nervousness. They should not be taken for a longer period than about 8 or
10 days at a time, allowing a similar period to elapse before again having
recourse to them.
Among the most useful and generally employed bitters are--calumba,
cascarilla, chamomiles, gentian, hops, orange peel, quassia, and wormwood.
=Bitters.= In the liquor-trade, a compound prepared by steeping vegetable
bitters, and some aromatics as flavouring, in weak spirit, for some 8 or
10 days; a little sugar or syrup being subsequently added to the strained
or decanted tincture. In that of the taverns and gin-shops the menstruum
is usually gin, or plain spirit reduced to a corresponding strength.
BRAN'DY-BITTERS and WINE'-BITTERS are prepared in a similar way with
common British brandy, or some cheap white wine (Cape or raisin), as the
case may be. Each maker has usually his own formulæ, which he modifies to
suit the price and the palate of his customer.--This class of liquors has
been justly charged with being the fertile cause of habitual intemperance,
of disease, and even of death! Their occasional use as tonics or
stomachics is also objectionable, owing to the trash, and even deleterious
substances, which so frequently enter into their composition. See
LIQUEURS.
=BITU'MEN.= [Eng., L.] _Syn._ BITUME, Fr.; ERDPECH, ERDTHEER, &c., Ger. A
term of a very comprehensive character, and, in general, very loosely
applied, including a variety of inflammable mineral substances,
consisting of varying proportions of hydrocarbons, having a strong smell
and differing in consistence, all the varieties being found in the earth,
of which asphaltum, naphtha, and petroleum may be mentioned as examples.
Asphalt is very extensively disseminated throughout Europe, Asia, and
America. Considerable quantities are exported from the West Indian
Islands, and from the Dead Sea, in Judæa; hence its commercial name,
'Jewish bitumen,' or 'Jew's pitch.' The different kinds vary greatly in
quality, according to the amount of earthy matter and other impurities
contained in them; they may all, however, be reduced to a state of equal
purity by boiling or macerating them in hot water, by which means the
earthy and siliceous matters are more or less completely removed. These
latter fall to the bottom of the vessel, and the bitumen rises to the
surface, or forms clots on the sides of the boiler, when it is skimmed
off, and thrown into a large cooler, where more water separates. At the
Seyssel and Bechelbronn bitumen works the bitumen so obtained is thrown
into large cauldrons and boiled for some time, by which means the volatile
products and water accompanying it are driven off, and the remaining sand
and impurities fall to the bottom of the cauldron, leaving the purified
asphalt in the form of a thick fatty pitch, in which state it comes into
the market or is applied to various purposes. In the following table we
give the composition of a few bitumens:
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent.
Viscous bitumen
of Bechelbronn 88·0 12·0 -- --
Virgin bitumen
of Bechelbronn 88·0 11·0 -- 1·0
Liquid bitumen from
Hatten, Lower Rhine 88·0 11·6 -- 0·4
|_______________|
Solid bitumen of Coxatambo, |
near Cuença, in Peru 88·7 9·7 1·6
_Annexed is a table of the analysis of several
asphalts, centesimally represented_:--
Bitumen of Bitumen of
Bitumen of Pont de Chateau, Bitumen of Monastier,
Bastennes. Auvergne. Abruzzi. Haute Loire.
_______|_______ _______|_______
| | | |
Crude. Pure. Crude. Pure.
Oily matters } {20·0 -- -- -- -- 7·0
Carbon } Bitumen { 3·7 76·13 77·5 77·64 81·8 3·5
Hydrogen -- 9·41 9·6 7·86 8·4 --
Nitrogen -- } { 12·4 1·02 1·0 --
Oxygen -- } 12·66 { 0·5 8·35 8·8 --
Water -- -- -- -- -- 4·5
Gas and vapour -- -- -- -- -- 4·0
Quartz sand and mica } { -- -- -- -- 60·0
Clay } 76·3 { -- -- -- -- Ferrug. 21·0
Ashes -- 1·80 -- 5·13 -- --
----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0
The solid bitumens are now extensively employed in the manufacture of
bituminous mastic or cement and similar compositions, which are used for
the lining of water-cisterns, and for various other hydraulic purposes; as
also for roofs, floors, roads, pavements, &c. For the last purpose the
native varieties of 'asphaltic rock,' consisting of a mixture of bitumen
and calcareous earth, when tempered with a proper quantity of crushed
granite, or calcareous sand or gravel, is found to be the most substantial
and durable. The plan followed in laying down such pavements in Paris,
where they have been the most extensively adopted, is--The ground having
been made uniformly smooth, is edged, in the usual manner, with
curb-stones rising about 4 inches above its level, and then covered, to
the depth of 3 inches, with concrete (made with about 1-6th part of good
hydraulic lime), which is well pressed upon its bed, the surface being
subsequently smoothed over with a very thin coating of hydraulic mortar.
On this, when perfectly dry,[187] the 'bituminous mastic,' rendered
semi-fluid by being cautiously heated in a suitable iron cauldron,[188] is
evenly spread over so as to form a layer three quarters of an inch, or for
less solid work, half an inch thick. Some coarse sand is lastly sifted
over and pressed down on the surface, when the work is complete; and in a
few days the pavement becomes sufficiently compact and solid to be thrown
open to foot passengers.
[Footnote 187: On this point depends the success of the work. Absolute
dryness is a _sine quâ non_ in the process. The mastic must also be laid
down in dry weather. If laid in wet, damp, or even foggy weather, it will
be liable to separate from its bed, and gradually to break up. This is why
so much of the asphalt and bituminous pavement laid down in London has
proved a failure.]
[Footnote 188: It is here that the mixture of the bitumen (previously
crushed sufficiently small to pass through meshes 10 to the inch) is made
with the sand or gravel; a small portion of mineral tar or coal-tar (3 to
7 or 8%) being commonly added to promote their fusion and complete union.]
An important precaution to be observed in making asphalt pavements or
roads is to boil the bitumen which is employed thoroughly, so as to expel
the water and volatile oils, which if allowed to remain are found to
render the mastic more liable to be affected by the extremes of heat and
cold, as well as less able to stand the wear and tear of traffic.
_Claridge's Process._ This consists in fusing the blocks of mastic in a
suitable boiler, similar to that seen in fig. 1, and in adding a quantity
of mineral tar, in the proportion of 1 _lb._ to every _cwt._ of the
mastic. The tar is first fused in the boiler, 56 _lbs._ of the mastic are
then introduced, and the whole repeatedly stirred so as to prevent the
formation of a deposit. When the contents of the boiler are melted, the
cauldron is covered over for a quarter of an hour, after which the
remainder of the mastic is added, and its fusion proceeded with as before,
the process being repeated until the boiler is full, allowing an interval
of from ten to fifteen minutes between each operation.
When the mastic is sufficiently fluid it will drop freely from the
stirrer, and jets of light smoke are observed to issue from it. If stiff
mastic be required, the proportion of tar is lessened, and a quantity of
coarse grit or river sand, to the amount of 20 or 30 _lbs._ to the _cwt._,
is added.
[Illustration: 1.]
In laying the asphalt the greatest attention and care must be paid to the
preparation of a solid and dry foundation.
This is usually accomplished by removing or ramming the loose earth, and
placing upon the bed a layer of coarse sand mixed with powdered limestone,
in the proportion of seven parts of the former to one of the latter, and
the whole is pressed or beaten solid; upon this a second layer of finer
materials is laid compacted and levelled; the bed thus prepared is allowed
to dry before coating it with mastic.
Fig. 2 shows the manner in which ordinary asphalting is laid down. In this
figure C is the bed of coarse concrete, B the second and finer layer of
the same material, and A the superior layer of asphalt.
[Illustration: 2.]
The base or concrete must be perfectly dry when the mastic is poured on,
or the work will be a failure, for the moisture will be converted into
steam, which, issuing through the fluid mastic, will cause the formation
of holes in the latter or blister it, and ultimately the surface will
crack. To counteract in some measure the evil arising from the formation
of steam, fine cinder dust is sifted over the bed of concrete previous to
the application of the mastic.
When asphalting suspension bridges, a sheet of canvas is usually spread
over the concrete.
In asphalting damp places, such as cellars and foundations, a brick invert
is always laid in asphalt beneath the concrete. This is done by placing
the bricks in rows, at the proper depth and slope, and pouring a coating
of asphalt about a quarter of an inch thick upon them. Before the mastic
solidifies, the bricks are separated a little by passing a knife between
them, thus affording the mastic an opening by which to seal up more
thoroughly the connection. The concrete is afterwards laid upon this bed,
and the layer of mastic upon this in the usual way. The thickness of the
layer of mastic varies according to the attrition to which it is to be
subjected; but the usual depth is from a quarter to one and a quarter
inch.
_Artificial Asphalt._ This is prepared from coal tar by distilling off the
volatile oils which hold the tar in solution, the result being that a kind
of fatty pitch is left, which must be boiled until a sample, when cooled,
becomes nearly solid. The operation may be accomplished in the open air,
but if this means of evaporation be adopted, the process is attended with
a very unpleasant odour, and the volatile oils are dissipated. These
volatile oils are used for the preparation of varnish, for lubricating
machinery, and for the manufacture of a superior kind of lampblack. They
have also been employed to increase the illuminating power of coal-gas,
which purpose they accomplish by imparting their vapours to gas passed
over them when they are placed in shallow vessels. Various forms of
patent apparatus have been designed for this purpose.
When it is required to collect the oils, the coal tar is placed in a
retort made of sheet iron, with a convex bottom, which is placed
immediately over a fire. The products of the combustion after striking the
bottom of the retort circulate round it, then proceed under a second
boiler to heat the tar contained in it, and from which the retort is
replenished when necessary. This vessel, when three quarters full,
contains nearly 24 _cwts._ of tar; it should be perfectly embedded in
masonry; the capital itself by which the volatile products escape should
be surrounded with materials that are bad conductors of heat, such as
ashes. But for this precaution the volatile oils would become condensed,
and fall back into the evaporating vessel.
The volatile oils are collected by being made to pass through a tube
cooled by a current of water, this tube running in a direction the reverse
of that pursued by the vapours, and terminating in a closed vessel, which
acts as the receptacle for the oils. A tube branching from the boiler
conducts the uncondensed products outside the building in which the
distillation is conducted.
When the tar has been boiled sufficiently long to give it the requisite
consistence, it is removed by means of a pipe into a third hemispherical
boiler of cast-iron. To prepare the bituminous mastic directly from this
fatty pitch, the latter is kept in a state of fusion, and chalk in
sufficient quantity is then added. If the chalk be previously heated,
ground to a coarse powder, and sifted, the mixture is effected more
rapidly and satisfactorily.
The asphalt becomes the more solid the greater the proportion of chalk
added; on the other hand, it becomes less elastic and more brittle. The
asphalt is moulded as follows:--A long table is covered with cast-iron
plates, surrounded with a framework, which is subdivided into eight or ten
equal compartments by means of rules of about six inches in height,
introduced vertically into grooves formed at equal intervals in the long
sides of the frame. The eight or ten moulds obtained by this means are
coated internally with a paste composed of sixty parts of water and forty
of chalk. This compound prevents the mastic adhering to the sides of the
mould, and ensures its being easily detached.
Two barrels, or 9 _cwts._ of tar, lose by distillation one fourth of their
weight, the loss consisting of 1 _cwt._ 3 _qrs._ 15 _lbs._ of volatile
oils, and 1 _qr._ 13 _lbs._ of water.
Sometimes ground or fine sand enters into the composition of asphalt in
proportions equal to the chalk; but in some cases only half as much sand
as chalk is used.
In the manufacture of asphalt it is very important that the contents of
the cauldron should be stirred during fusion, not only to prevent the tar
adhering to the bottom, and so getting burnt, but to ensure the
ingredients being brought into intimate combination, and a homogeneous and
smooth compound being produced.
As soon as the whole is thoroughly incorporated, the proper consistence
attained, and the vapours of the volatile oils and water come off in very
minute quantities, the asphalt is run off into the moulds before
described, and when sufficiently set may be removed, and is ready for use.
Dr G. H. Smith has patented a process for making artificial asphalt,
waterproof concrete, &c., which promises to become of great value in the
construction of sea walls, docks, and harbour works, &c. Dr Smith's
invention consists in filling up the interstices of any porous substance,
such as brick, burned or unburned clay, soft stones, plaster of Paris,
&c., with pitch or tar which has been boiled to such a consistence that
the pores or cells of the material used are completely filled with solid
matter when cold.
Other hydrocarbons, resins, or gums may be used instead of pitch or tar;
but it is essential that the saturating substances, though naturally fluid
or semifluid, can be so changed by boiling that they lose their fluidity
when cold; or they must be, though hard under all ordinary temperatures of
the atmosphere, capable of reduction by heat or otherwise to a fluid
condition, so that they will penetrate the porous materials.
The asphalto-bitumen mine of the Val de Travers, in the Canton of
Neufchâtel, is said to be the richest and most extensive in the world of
its particular class. The calcareous bitumen which it yields contains 20%
of nearly pure bitumen, and 80% of carbonate of lime; and it has a sp. gr.
(2·115) approaching that of ordinary bricks.
The 'Val de Travers Company,' and the 'Bastenne and Gaujac Company,' are,
it is said, those which have hitherto been the most successful in laying
down asphalto-pavements. See ASPHALTUM, PETROLEUM, &c.
=Bitumen, Elastic.= _Syn._ MIN'ERAL CAOU'TCHOUC (k[=o][=o]'-ch[)o][)o]k),
EL'ATERITE. A rather rare species of bitumen, differing chiefly from the
other solid varieties in being elastic.
=Bitumen, Liq'uid.= Petroleum.
=BITU'MINOUS.= _Syn._ BITUTM[)I]NO'SUS, L.; BITUMINEUX, Fr.; ERDPECHIG,
Ger. Of bitumen, or resembling or containing it.
=BIX'EINE= (-e-[)i]n). The red colouring-principle of annotta. It is
obtained by treating bixine with liquid ammonia, with subsequent free
contact of air.
_Prop., &c._ When pure, a rich deep-red powder, soluble in alcohol and in
alkalies, and turned blue by sulphuric acid. It appears to be oxidised
bixine.
=BIXIN.= The red resinous colouring matter of annatto. Bolley and Mylius
prepare it by digesting the dried alcoholic extract of annatto with ether;
repeatedly treating the least soluble portion (which contains the greater
part of the colouring matter) with hot ether; dissolving the remainder in
alcohol; precipitating the alcoholic solution with lead acetate;
decomposing the washed precipitate with sulphuretted hydrogen; extracting
the colouring matter therefrom by hot alcohol; and precipitating the
alcoholic solution with water.
=BIX'INE= (-[)i]n). The yellow colouring-principle of annotta.
_Prep._ A solution of annotta is precipitated with a solution of acetate
of lead; the precipitate, after having been washed in cold water, is
decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen; the decanted liquor or filtrate
yields crystals by cautious evaporation.
_Prop., &c._ Yellowish white, turning full yellow by exposure to air;
soluble in water, and freely so in alcohol and in alkaline solutions; by
oxidation it is converted into bixeine. For a correct knowledge of both of
these substances we are indebted to M. Preisser.
=BLACK.= _Syn._ A'TER,[189] NI'GER, L.; NOIR, Fr.; SCHWARZ, Ger.; BLAC,
BLÆC, Sax. In _dyeing_, &c., of the colour of lamp-soot, or of night;
subst., a black colour.
[Footnote 189: Black, deep black; as opposed to _albus_, white.]
=Black Ash.= The waste lye of the soapmakers is evaporated in large iron
boilers, the salt separated as it falls down, and then heated in a
reverberatory furnace, until it is partially decomposed and fused, when it
is run into iron pots to cool. It is used in the manufacture of alum and
common soap.
=Black Col'ours= (k[)u]l'-). See BLACK PIGMENTS.
=Black Draught.= See MIXTURE, SENNA (Compound).
=Black Drop.= See DROPS, PATENT MEDICINES, &c.
=BLACK DYE.= _Syn._ TEINTE NOIRE, Fr.; SCHWARZE FARBE, Ger. The following
are the processes and materials now commonly employed in dyeing black:--
_a._ For COTTON:--
1. The goods, previously dyed blue, are steeped for about 24 hours in a
decoction of gall-nuts or sumach, then drained, rinsed in water, and
passed through a bath of acetate of iron for a quarter of an hour; they
are next again rinsed in water, and exposed for some time to the air;
after which they are passed a second time through the bath, to which a
little more iron-liquor is previously added. The whole process is
repeated, if necessary, according to the intensity of the shade of black
desired.
2. The goods are steeped in a mordant of acetate of iron, worked well, and
then passed through a bath of madder and logwood for 2 hours. Less
permanent than No. 1.
_Obs._ About 2 _oz._ of coarsely powdered galls, or 4 _oz._ of sumach, are
required for every pound of cotton, in the process of galling. The first
should be boiled in the water, in the proportion of about 1/2 gal. of
water to every lb. of cotton. The sumach-bath is better made by mere
infusion of that dye-stuff in very hot water.
3. (For 10 lbs. of cloth.) The goods are put into a boiling bath made of 3
lbs. of sumach, and allowed to steep, with occasional 'working,' until the
liquor is perfectly cold; they are next passed through lime water, and,
after having drained for a few minutes, immediately transferred to and
worked for an hour in a warm solution of 2 lbs. of copperas; after free
exposure to the air for about an hour they are again passed through lime
water, and, after draining, 'worked' for an hour in a bath made with 3
lbs. of logwood, and 1 lb. of fustic; they are then 'lifted,' and 1/4 lb.
of copperas being added, they are returned to the bath, 'worked' well for
about 30 minutes, and finished. Good and deep.
_Obs._ Instead of copperas iron-liquor may be used, observing to take
1-1/2 pint of the latter (of the ordinary strength) for every lb. of the
former ordered above.
_b._ For FLAX and LINEN:--
This, for the most part, closely resembles that employed for cotton; but,
in some cases, a mordant of iron-liquor, or of copperas, followed by
passing the goods through lime-water, and exposure to the air, precedes
the dye-bath.
_c._ For SILK:--
Silk goods are dyed much in the same way as woollens, but the process is
conducted with less heat:--
1. A bath of nut-galls is given for 12 to 36 hours, occasionally working
the goods therein; they are next taken out, rinsed, and well aired, after
which they are passed for a few minutes through a bath containing sulphate
of iron, and are then again drained, rinsed, and aired. The steep in the
nut-gall bath may be repeated, if necessary, followed, as before, by the
iron-bath previously replenished with a little fresh copperas. The whole
quantity of galls to be taken for 1 lb. of silk varies with their quantity
from 1/2 to 3/4 lb., that of the copperas (for the first bath), from 3 to
4 _oz._
2. (For 1 cwt. of silk.) Boil 22 _lbs._ of bruised Aleppo galls, for 2
hours, in 90 to 100 galls. of water, observing to add boiling water from
time to time, to compensate for that lost by evaporation; to the clear
bath add 32 lbs. of copperas, 7 lbs. of iron-filings, and 21 lbs. of gum;
digest with agitation for 1 hour, and when the ingredients are dissolved,
pass the silk (previously prepared ['galled'] with 1/3rd of its weight of
gall-nuts) through the bath for about an hour; then rinse and air it well;
next leave it in the dye-bath for 6 to 12 hours; and this immersion or
steep may be repeated, if necessary, at will. This is said to be the
process commonly adopted for velvet at Genoa and Tours.
3. (For 5 lbs. of silk.) Turn the goods for an hour through a mordant
formed of 1 lb. of copperas and 2 oz. of nitrate of iron (dyer's), with
sufficient water; after rinsing in cold water and airing them, 'work' them
for an hour in a decoction made of 5 lbs. of logwood and 1 lb. of fustic;
then lift them from the bath, add 2 oz. of copperas, reimmerse, and 'work'
them well for 10 or 15 minutes longer; lastly, rinse, air, and finish. A
full deep black.
4. (For 5 lbs.) For the mordant use 1/2 lb. of copperas; rinse, and air;
for the 'dye-bath,' a decoction of 4 lbs. of logwood to which 1/2 pint of
stale urine has been added; after 'lifting' the goods add 2 _oz._ more of
copperas to the bath, and work for 15 minutes, as before. A good black. By
adding 2 _oz._ of dyer's nitrate of iron to the mordant the same
ingredients will give a deep black; and by substituting a little white
soap for the urine, and omitting the addition of copperas to the
logwood-bath, it will give a blue-black. The last may also be produced by
first dyeing the goods deep blue as with 'prussiate,' and omitting the
urine and soap, in which case one half only of the logwood will be
required.
_d._ For WOOL:--
To produce a good permanent black on wool or woollen goods, they must be
first dyed of a deep blue in the indigo-vat, or, more cheaply, by the
Prussian-blue process. When the goods are coarse or common, and price is
an object, they are generally 'rooted' instead of being 'blued.' This
consists in giving them a dun or brown colour with the husks of walnuts or
the roots of the walnut-tree, or with other like cheap astringent
substances.
1. (For 1 _cwt._ of wool.) Good logwood-chips, 20 _lbs._, and
Aleppo-galls, 18 _lbs._; are inclosed in a coarse bag, and boiled with
water, q. s., for 5 or 6 hours; 1/3rd of this decoction is then
transferred into another copper, with verdigris, 2 _lbs._, and a
sufficient quantity of water having been added, the goods (previously dyed
dark blue) are passed through the liquor for two hours, at a heat slightly
below the boiling-point. The goods are next lifted and drained, another
1/3rd of the decoction of logwood and galls, with copperas, 9 _lbs._,
added to the boiler, after which the fire is lowered, and as soon as the
copperas is dissolved, the cloth is returned to the bath, and again well
'worked' for at least an hour. It is then taken out, thoroughly aired, and
the remaining 1/3rd of the decoction added, with sumach, 20 _lbs._ The
whole is then brought to a boil, and sulphate of iron, 2 _lbs._, together
with a pailful of cold water, thrown in; after which the goods are put in
a third time, and 'worked' for one hour; they are then taken out, rinsed,
aired, and again passed through the bath for another hour. After being
thoroughly rinsed, the goods are at once either 'fulled,' dried, and
folded, or are further softened and beautified by passing them for 15
minutes through a hot weld-bath (not boiling), when they are rinsed, &c.
(but not 'fulled'), as before. A beautiful though expensive dye. With
management the above quantities of the ingredients will dye 1-1/4 or even
1-1/2 _cwt._ of wool.
2. (For 1 _cwt._) The cloth (previously dyed blue) is 'galled' with 5
_lbs._ of nut-galls, and then dyed in a bath made with 30 _lbs._ of
logwood, to which about 5 _lbs._ of copperas has been added; after which
it is rinsed, aired, and 'fulled,' as before. This is said, by Lewis, to
be the usual proportions and plan adopted by the English dyers.
3. (For 1 _cwt._) Make a bath, as before, with fustic, 2 _lbs._; logwood,
5 _lbs._; and sumach, 10 _lbs._; work the (blued) cloth for 3 hours at the
boiling heat, or near it; lift it out, add sulphate of iron, 10-1/2
_lbs._, and when dissolved, pass the cloth through it for 2 hours; rinse,
air well, and again pass the goods through the bath for an hour; lastly,
rinse until the water runs clear. Inferior to the last, but less
expensive.
4. (For 1 _cwt._, without previous blueing or 'rooting,')--_a._ Work the
goods at about 200° Fahr. for 1 hour, in a bath made with 6 to 7 _lbs._ of
cam-wood; lift, add 6-1/2 _lbs._ of copperas, and again work the goods for
an hour, after which withdraw the fire, and allow them to steep for 10 or
12 hours; next drain and rinse them, and work them in a second bath made
with 60 _lbs._ of logwood for 1-1/2 hour; lift, add 3 _lbs._ of copperas,
and again work for an hour; lastly, rinse, air, and finish:--_b._ The
goods are first worked, for about two hours, in a bath of 3 _lbs._ of
fustic, in which 5 _lbs._ of bichromate of potash and 4 _lbs._ of alum
have been dissolved; after exposure to the air for about an hour and
thorough rinsing they are worked for a second two hours in a bath made
with 45 _lbs._ of logwood, 3-1/2 _lbs._ of barwood or cam-wood, and 3
_lbs._ of fustic; they are then lifted, and 3 _lbs._ of copperas having
been added to the bath, are again immersed and worked for half an hour to
an hour.
5. (For 10 _lbs._ of wool or w. cloth.) Work the goods for 1/2 an hour in
a bath of 1/2 _lb._ of cam-wood; lift, add 7 or 8 _oz._ of copperas, and
after working them for 20 minutes, withdraw the fire, and leave them in
the liquor for 10 or 12 hours; next rinse them in cold water, drain, and
then work them for an hour in a bath made with 5 _lbs._ of logwood, to
which 1 pint of urine has been added; lift, add 4 _oz._ of copperas, work
them for half an hour longer, and, lastly, wash and dry them.
6. (For 7 _lbs._) Take of galls (bruised), 1/4 _lb._; logwood chips, 1-1/2
_lb._; for the bath; boil or work the goods for 2 hours, take them out,
add of copperas, 1/4 _lb._; and when it is dissolved, work the goods
through the liquor for at least 2 hours, keeping the bath nearly boiling;
again take them out, wash, and air; then add 1 _oz._ more of copperas to
the bath, and pass the cloth through it for another hour; lastly, air,
rinse, and finish.
7. (For 5 _lbs._) For the first bath--bichromate of potash, 8 _oz._;
alum, 6 _oz._; fustic, 4 _oz._; for the second bath--logwood, 4 _lbs._;
barwood and fustic, of each 4 _oz._; to which add, after the lift,
copperas, 4 _oz._; the process being conducted as in 4, _b_. This, as well
as the two formulæ immediately preceding it, is particularly suited to
articles of dress dyed in the small way, at home. When the articles are
only re-dipped, as it is called, a proportionately smaller quantity of the
ingredients may be taken.
_Concluding Remarks._ In dyeing black, particularly on wool, it is
absolutely necessary to take the goods out of the dye-bath several times,
and to expose them to the air. This is called "airing" them, and is done
to allow the oxygen of the atmosphere to act upon the ingredients of the
dye, and especially on the iron; as without this action of the air a good
colour cannot be produced. The usual proportions employed by the dyers of
England are 5 _lbs._ each of galls and copperas and 30 _lbs._ of logwood
for every _cwt._ of cloth; but these weights are frequently increased for
choice goods, just as they are always lessened for common ones. The other
astringent substances used as substitutes for galls in dyeing black are
taken in quantities proportionate to their respective strengths, that of
good Aleppo gall-nuts being referred to as a standard.
The German wool-dyers usually commence their process with a mordant of
Salzburg vitriol (3 parts) and argol (1 part); and after exposure of the
goods in a cool place for 24 hours, work them in a bath of logwood (5 to 6
p.) and fustic (2 p.); after which the bath is restored by the addition of
verdigris (1/4 p.) dissolved in vinegar and the goods again worked through
it for about 1/2 an hour. This is for 20 parts weight of wool or cloth.
Black marinos are usually mordanted (hot) with about 1/10th of their
weight of copperas, and then aired for 24 hours; after which they are dyed
in a boiling bath made with about 1/2 their weight of logwood with the
addition of about 2% of argol or tartar.
As black is the shade most commonly attempted by amateur dyers, it may be
here necessary to call their attention to what is said on mixed fabrics in
our article on DYEING; since an inattention to this point will inevitably
cause the failure of their efforts.
According to Muspratt, a mixed fabric of silk and woollen may be dyed
black by one process, as follows:--Work the goods an hour in a solution of
8 _oz._ each of tartar and copperas, and wash out; work for 15 minutes in
a decoction of 4 _lbs._ of logwood; lift, add 1 _oz._ of bichromate of
potash, work for 1/2 an hour, and dry. And a mixed fabric of cotton, silk,
and woollen:--Steep for six hours in a bath made of 2 _lbs._ of sumach;
then work for an hour in a solution of 6 _oz._ each of tartar, sulphate of
copper, and copperas; wash, and work 1/2 an hour in a decoction of 4
_lbs._ of logwood; lift, add to the bath 1 _oz._ of copperas; work ten
minutes, wash, and dry. If a very deep black be required, 1 _lb._ of bark
is to be added with the logwood. See DYEING, MORDANTS, &c.
=BLACK JACK.= This term is applied to burnt sugar, which is used to colour
beverages, and more particularly for the adulteration of coffee. It is
also known under the name of "coffee refined," and as such is vended in
tin canisters. It is moreover employed to give colour to vinegar, brandy,
and rum. Butter, with which water has been largely incorporated, is also
known as "Black Jack." See CARAMEL.
=BLACK LEAD= (l[)e]d). See PLUMBAGO.
=BLACK PIG'MENTS.= _Syn._ PIGMEN'TA NI'GRA, L. The principal black
pigments of commerce are obtained by carbonising organic substances
(particularly bones), by exposure to a dull red heat, in covered vessels
out of contact with the air; or by collecting the soot formed during the
combustion of unctuous, resinous, and bituminous matters. Artists and
amateurs also prepare, on the small scale, a variety of blacks, many of
which are not procurable at the colour-shops. This they effect either by
the carbonisation of substances not usually employed for the purpose, or
by simply reducing to powder certain mineral productions selected on
account of the peculiar shades of colour which they respectively possess.
Some of the last might, however, be more appropriately classed with
browns. The following list embraces most of these articles:--
=Black, An'imal.= Bone-black.
=Black, Aniline.= See TAR COLOURS.
=Black, Beech'.= Carbonised beech-wood.
=Black, Blue'.= Vine-twigs dried and then carefully carbonised, in covered
vessels, until of the proper shade. That of the ancients was made of
wine-lees. Pit-coal, carefully burnt at a white heat, then quenched in
water, dried and well-ground, forms a cheap, good, and durable blue-black,
fit for most ordinary purposes. See FRANKFORT-BLACK.
=Black, Bone'.= _Syn._ I'VORY-BLACK (of _commerce_); CAR'BO OS'SIS, OS
US'TUM NI'GRUM, E'BUR U. N. (vena'le), &c., L.; NOIR D'OS, &c., Fr.;
KNOCHENSCHWARTZ, &c., Ger. Carbonised bones reduced to powder. That of
commerce is usually the residuum of the distillation of bone-spirit.
Inferior to true ivory-black; having a slight, but peculiar reddish tinge,
from which the latter is quite free. Besides its use as a pigment, it is
extensively employed in making blacking, as a material for the moulds of
founders, as a clarifier and bleacher of liquids, &c. See IVORY-BLACK and
CHARCOAL, ANIMAL.
=Black, Cas'sel=, Cologne'-Black. Ivory-black.
=Black, Coal'.= See BLUE-BLACK and NEWCASTLE-BLACK.
=Black, Composi''tion= (z[)i]sh'-[)u]n-). The selected portion of the
residuum of the process of making prussiate of potash from blood and
hoofs. Used both as a pigment and to decolour organic solutions, which it
does better than bone-black.
=Black, Cork'.= Spanish-black.
=Black, Flo''rey=, FLORÉE D'INDE. The dried scum of the dyer's wood-bath.
A superior blue-black.
=Black, Frank'fort=, NOIR DE FRANCFORT. From vine-twigs dried, carbonised
to a full black, and then ground very fine. An excellent black pigment;
also used by the copper-plate printers to make their ink. See BLUE-BLACK.
=Black, Harts'horn.= Resembles ivory-black, which is now usually sold for
it. It was formerly prepared by carbonising the residuum of the
distillation of spirit of hartshorn.
=Black, I'vory.= _Syn._ CAR'BO EB'ORIS, E'BUR US'TUM NI'GRUM, L.; NOIR
D'IVOIRE, &c., Fr.; ELFENBEINSCHWARTZ, KOHLE VON ELFENBEIN, Ger. From
waste fragments and turnings of ivory, by careful exposure in covered
crucibles, avoiding excess of heat or over-burning. The whole having been
allowed to become quite cold, the crucibles are opened and their contents
reduced to fine powder. For the first quality only the richest coloured
portion of the charcoal is selected, and this, after being powdered, is
ground with water on porphyry, washed on a filter with warm water, and
then dried. A very rich and beautiful black. It is brighter than even
peach-stone black, and is quite free from the reddish tinge of bone-black.
With white-lead it forms a rich pearl-grey. See BONE-BLACK.
=Black, Jamai'ca= (-m[=a]'-). Sugar-black.
=Black, Lamp'.= _Syn._ FULI'GO LUCER'NÆ, F. PI'NEA, &c., L.; NOIR DE
FUMÉE, &c., Fr.; KIENRUSS, &c., Ger. _Prep._ 1. (On the small scale.) A
conical funnel of tin-plate furnished with a small pipe to convey the
fumes from the apartment, is suspended over a lamp fed with oil, tallow,
coal-tar, or crude naphtha, the wick being large and so arranged as to
burn with a full smoky flame. Large spongy, mushroom-like concretions of
an exceedingly light, very black, carbonaceous matter, gradually form at
the summit of the cone, and must be collected from time to time. The
funnel should be united to the smoke-pipe by means of wire, and no solder
should be used for the joints of either.
2. (_Commercial._) On the large scale, lamp-black is now generally made by
burning bone-oil (previously freed from its ammonia), or common coal-tar,
and receiving the smoke in a suitable chamber. In the patented process of
Messrs Martin and Grafton the coal-tar is violently agitated with
lime-water until the two are well mixed, after which it is allowed to
subside, and the lime-water having been drawn off, the tar is washed
several times with hot water. After subsidence and decantation it is put
into stills, and rectified. The crude naphtha in the receiver is then put
into a long cast-iron tube furnished with numerous large burners,
underneath which is a furnace to heat the pipe to nearly the boiling
point. Over each burner is a sort of funnel which goes into a cast-iron
pipe or main, which thus receives the smoke from all the burners. From
this main the smoke is conveyed by large pipes to a succession of boxes or
chambers, and thence into a series of large canvas bags arranged side by
side, and connected together at top and bottom alternately. Fifty to
eighty of these 'bags' are employed; the last one being left open to admit
of the escape of the smoke, which has thus been made to traverse a space
of about 400 yards. As soon as the bags contain any considerable quantity
of black they are removed and emptied. The black deposited in the last bag
is the finest and best, and it becomes progressively coarse as it
approaches the furnace.
_Obs._ The state of minute division in which the carbon exists in good
lamp-black is such as cannot be given to any other matter, not even by
grinding it on porphyry, or by 'elutriation' or 'washing over' with water.
On this account it goes a great way in every kind of painting. It may be
rendered drier and less oily by gentle calcination in close vessels, when
it is called burnt lamp-black, and may then be used as a water-colour; or
its greasiness may be removed by the alkali-treatment noticed under Indian
ink. It is the basis of Indian ink, printer's ink, and most black paints.
Russian lamp-black is the soot produced by burning the chips of resinous
deal. It is objectionable chiefly from being liable to take fire
spontaneously when left for some time moistened with oil.
=Black, Manganese'= (-n[=e]ze'-). Native binoxide of manganese. Durable
and dries well.
=Black, New'castle.= From the richer-looking varieties of pit-coal by
grinding, and elutriation. Brown black or, in thin layers, deep brown. It
is, perhaps, "the most useful brown the artist can place on his palette;
being remarkably clear, not so warm as Vandyke-brown, and serving as a
shadow for blues, reds, and yellows, when glazed over them. It seems
almost certain that Titian made large use of this material." See
BLUE-BLACK (_antè_).
=Black, Opor'to.= Carbonised wine-lees.
=Black, Pa'ris=, NOIR DE PARIS. From turner's bone-dust, treated as for
ivory-black. Works well both in oil and water. It is commonly sold for
real ivory-black, and for burnt lamp-black.
=Black, Peach-stone.= From the stones or kernels of peaches, cherries, and
other similar fruits, treated as for ivory-black. A bright, rich black;
works well with oil; with white-lead and oil it makes old grey.
=Black, Pit'coal.= Newcastle-black.
=Black, Prus''sian= (pr[)u]sh'-[)a]n). Composition-black.
=Black, Rice'.= Rice-charcoal. Inferior.
=Black, Rus''sian.= See LAMP-BLACK.
=Black, Soot'= (s[)o][)o]t'-). The soot of coal-fires, ground and sifted.
Used in common paint, and to colour whitewash; with Venetian-red and oil,
it makes chocolate-colour; also used to make grey mortar.
=Black, Span'ish.= From cork-cuttings carbonised, as bone-black. Resembles
Frankfort-black, but works softer.
=Black, Sug'ar= (sh[)o][)o]g'-). Carbonised moist sugar. Has little body,
but for washing drawings is equal in mellowness to Indian ink and bistre.
=Black, Sun'derland.= Newcastle-black.
=Black, Tur'ner's.= Paris-black.
=Black, Vine'-twig.= Frankfort-black.
=Black Wheat'= (hw[=e]te'-) Carbonised wheat. It has a good colour, a full
body, and dries hard and quickly with oil.
=BLACK'BERRY.= The popular name of _ru'bus frutico'sus_ (Linn.) or the
common 'bramble.' Fruit (BLACK'BERRIES; MÛRES DE RONCE, Fr.),
antiscorbutic and wholesome, but in excess apt to sicken; twigs used in
dyeing black; root astringent, formerly used in hooping-cough.
=Blackberry, Amer'ican.= The _ru'bus villo'sus_ (Ait.). Root astringent
and tonic; officinal in the Ph. U. S.
=BLACK PUDDING.= A pudding made of the blood of the pig, mixed with groats
and fat. It contains about 11 per cent. of nitrogenous matter.
=BLACK'ING.= _Syn._ CIRAGE (des bottes), NOIR (pour les souliers), Fr.;
SCHWÄRZE, SCHUHSCHWÄRZE, Ger. An article too well known to require
description.
_Hist., &c._ Blacking, and other polishes for leather, were undoubtedly in
common use among the ancients; but the compound to which we now more
particularly apply the name is of comparatively modern invention. The
latter appears to have been first introduced into England from Paris,
during the reign of Chas. II, but was not in common use among the masses
of our population much before the middle of the 18th century.
The general and still increasing use of blacking as a polish for boots and
shoes by all classes of the inhabitants of civilised countries, has given
an extent and importance to its manufacture which a stranger to the
subject would scarcely be led to suspect. The princely establishments of
some of the firms who compound this sable article cannot fail to have
arrested the attention of the passenger through the streets of this great
metropolis; whilst the enormous fortune acquired by one of their late
members, and, for the most part, bequeathed by him for purposes of charity
and philanthropy, has invested both the donor and his craft with an
interest and notoriety which they did not previously possess. At the
present time the consumption of blacking is greater than at any former
period; and of this, as of many other articles, England is the principal
manufactory for the world, alike distinguished for the extent of her trade
and the excellent quality of this product of her industry. In truth,
England excels all other nations in the manufacture of common
shoe-blacking; and perhaps in no other country is an equal attention paid
to the cleanliness and appearance of the external clothing of the feet.
_Prep._ I. LIQUID BLACKING:--
1. Take of bone-black, 16 parts; treacle, 12 parts; oil of vitriol, 3
parts; sperm oil,[190] 2 parts; gum-arabic, 1 part; strong vinegar, or
sour beer, 48 to 50 parts[191] (all by weight); place the bone-black in a
capacious wooden, stone-ware, or enamelled iron vessel,[192] add the oil,
and rub them well together; next gradually add the treacle, and actively
and patiently grind or rub the mass, after each addition, until the oil is
perfectly killed, and finally for some time afterwards, to ensure complete
admixture; then cautiously dilute the vitriol with about three times its
bulk of water, and add it, in separate portions, to the former mixture,
observing to stir the whole together, as rapidly as possible, on each
addition of the acid, and for some minutes after the whole is added, so as
to render the mass thoroughly smooth and homogeneous; let it stand,
covered over, for two or three days, or longer, stirring it, in the mean
time, for 15 or 20 minutes daily; lastly, having dissolved the gum in the
vinegar, add the solution gradually to the rest, and stir the whole
together briskly for some time, and again daily for 3 or 4 days. It may be
further diluted, at will, with a little more vinegar or beer, or with
water; but unnecessary or excessive dilution should be avoided, as the
richness and quality of the blacking become proportionately reduced. If
all the ingredients (except the vitriol) be made hot before admixture, the
shining quality of the product will be greatly improved, and the process
may be shortened.[193]
[Footnote 190: Sperm oil is commonly regarded as the best for blacking;
but pale seal oil is thought by some to be quite as good. The cod-liver
oil of the curriers, if clear, is less expensive, and probably better than
either of them. Common olive oil, and refined rape oil, are, however,
those most generally used by the blacking-makers.]
[Footnote 191: That is, 3 to 3-1/2 times the weight of the ivory-black.]
[Footnote 192: Metallic vessels must be avoided.]
[Footnote 193: By taking the 'parts' ordered in this and the other formulæ
as so many 1/4 _lbs._, _lbs._, 1/4 _cwts._, or _cwts._, the proportions of
each ingredient for any quantity of blacking, from a 1/4 of a _lb._, or a
1/4 _pint_, up to 2 _tons_, or nearly 450 _galls._, will be at once seen;
and so on of even larger quantities. See Concluding Remarks (_infrà_).]
2. Ivory-black, 16 parts; treacle, 8 parts; oil of vitriol, 4 parts;
(diluted with) water, 2 parts; oil, 2 parts; gum-arabic, 1 part; soft
water (for the final dilution, instead of vinegar), 64 parts; mixed, &c.,
as before. Excellent.
3. As the last; but taking only 6 parts of treacle, 1 part of oil, and
omitting the gum-arabic. Good. A commoner article of liquid blacking does
not sell.
4. (Bryant and James's INDIA-RUBBER LIQUID BLACKING. Patent dated 1836.)
Take of india rubber (in small pieces), 18 _oz._; hot rape oil, 9 _lbs._
(say 1 _gall._); dissolve; to the solution add of ivory-black (in very
fine powder), 60 _lbs._; treacle, 45 _lbs._; mix thoroughly; further add
of gum-arabic, 1 _lb._, dissolved in vinegar (No. 24), 20 galls.; reduce
the whole to a perfect state of smoothness and admixture by trituration in
a paint-mill; throw the compound into a wooden vessel, and add, very
gradually, of sulphuric acid, 12 _lbs._; continue the stirring for 1/2 an
hour, repeating it daily for 14 days; then add of gum-arabic (in fine
powder), 3 _lbs._;[194] again mix well, and repeat the stirring for 1/2 an
hour daily for 14 days longer, when the liquid blacking will be ready for
use or for bottling. The quality is very excellent; but this, probably,
does not depend on the presence of the india rubber, but on the general
correctness of the proportions, and the care and completeness with which
they are mixed.
[Footnote 194: This should be gently rubbed through a sieve, held over the
blacking by one person, whilst another stirs the mass assiduously with the
spatula.]
5. (_Without Vitriol._) Take of ivory-black (in very fine powder), 2
_lbs._; treacle, 1-1/2 lb.; sperm oil, 1/4 pint; mix, as before; then add
of gum-arabic, 1 _oz._; (dissolved in) strong vinegar, 1/2 pint; mix well;
the next day further add of good vinegar, or strong sour beer, 3 to 4
pints (or q. s.); stir briskly for a 1/4 of an hour, and again once a day
for a week. Excellent. A cheaper, but inferior article, may be made by the
reductions and omissions noticed above.
6. From paste-blacking (see _below_), by reducing it with sufficient
vinegar, sour beer, or water, to give it the liquid form.[195]
[Footnote 195: It is sometimes convenient to prepare liquid blacking in
this way from a stock of 'paste-blacking' already on hand.]