1. If when retailed for medical purposes under a name recognised in the
'British Pharmacop[oe]ia' it be not equal in strength and purity to the
standard laid down in that work.
2. If when sold under a name not recognised in the 'British
Pharmacop[oe]ia' it differs materially from the standard laid down in
approved works on materia medica, or the professed standard under which it
is sold.
_Limits._ The following shall be deemed limits for the respective articles
referred to:
_Milk_ shall contain not less than 9·0 per cent., by weight, of milk
solids, not fat, and not less than 2·5 per cent. of butter fat.
_Skim Milk_ shall contain not less than 9·0 per cent. by weight, of milk
solids not butter fat.
_Butter_ shall contain not less than 80 per cent. of butter fat.
_Tea_ shall not contain more than 8·0 per cent. of mineral matter,
calculated on the tea dried at 100° C., of which at least 3·0 per cent.
shall be soluble in water, and the tea as sold shall yield at least 30 per
cent. of extract.
_Cocoa_ shall contain at least 20 per cent. of cocoa fat.
_Vinegar_ shall contain not less than 3 per cent. of acetic acid.
The practice of fraudulent adulteration has been indulged in for
centuries. In every civilised state there have been enactments against it.
The Romans had their inspectors of meat and corn. In England an Act to
prohibit adulteration was passed as early as 1267, and penalties against
it were in force in 1581, 1604, 1836, 1851. In 1822, Accum published a
work having the sensational title of 'Death in the Pot,' and in 1855
appeared Dr Hassall's book, 'Food and its Adulterations.' The information
conveyed in these works, added to the revelations of the 'Lancet' Sanitary
Commission, and the contributions to scientific literature on the subject
of food by Letheby, Pavy, Parkes, Blyth, and others, together with the
published evidence given before the House of Commons Commission appointed
to carry out an inquiry into the subject, roused public attention to such
a degree as to lead to the passing by the legislature of the Adulteration
Acts.
The sophistications may be divided into several distinct classes:
1. To give weight or volume, such as water added to butter, plaster of
paris to flour, &c.; red earths to annatto, sand to tea-leaves, &c.; water
to milk, &c.; all these, therefore, are substitutions of worthless or very
cheap articles which take the place of the real.
2. To give a colour which either makes the article more pleasing to the
eye, or else disguises an inferior one, _e.g._, Prussian blue, black lead,
&c., to green teas; annatto to cheese, &c.; arsenite of copper to
sweetmeats, &c.
3. Substitutions of a cheaper form of the article, or the same substance
from which the strength has been extracted put in the place of the real,
_e.g._, tea mixed with spent leaves, &c.
4. A very small class where the adulteration is really added with no
fraudulent intent, but to enhance the quality of the goods sold--alum to
bread in small quantities.
The following, according to Blyth ('Dic. of Hygiène'), is a list of
articles most commonly adulterated, with the names of the substances used
in their sophistication:--
ACONITIA with other alkaloids, _e.g._, delphinia, aconella, &c.
ALE, common salt, _Cocculus indicus_, grains of paradise, quassia,
and other bitters, sulphate of iron, alum, &c.
ALLSPICE, mustard husks.
ANCHOVIES, other fish, and colouring matters, _e.g._, Armenian
bole, Venetian red, &c.
ANNATTO, all sorts of starch, soap, red ferruginous earths,
carbonate and sulphate of lime, salts, &c.
ARROWROOT, various other fecula, such as sago, tapioca, potato,
and others.
BALSAM OF COPAIBA, turpentine and fixed oils.
BEEF (POTTED), Armenian bole.
BISMUTH, carbonate of lead, sometimes arsenic (this latter is an
impurity not intentional).
BLOATERS (POTTED), Armenian bole.
BRANDY, water, burnt sugar, &c.
BREAD, potatoes (mashed), alum, inferior flour, &c., &c.
BUTTER, water, salt, colouring matter, lard, tallow, and other
fats.
CAJUPUT OIL, copper, camphor dissolved in oil of rosemary, and
coloured with copper as a substitute.
CALAMINE, coloured sulphate of baryta.
CALOMEL, sulphate of baryta, chalk, white precipitate, white lead,
pipe-clay, &c., &c.
CALUMBA, tinged bryony root, root of _Frasera Walteri_, and
others.
CAMBOGE, starch, &c.
CAMPHOR, a substitution of Borneo camphor has been made.
CANTHARIDES, golden beetle, artificially coloured glass, &c.
CARBONATE OF LEAD, sulphate of baryta, sulphate of lead, chalk,
&c., &c.
CARMINE (COCHINEAL), sulphate of baryta, bone black, &c.
CASSIA (SENNA), leaves of _Solenostemma argel_, and other foreign
leaves.
CASTOR OIL, other oils, often small quantities of croton oil.
CAYENNE, ground rice, vermilion, Venetian red, turmeric.
CHAMPAGNE, gooseberry and other wines as substitutes, different
colouring matters, &c.
CHEESE, annatto, bole (Armenian), and other colouring matters.
CHICORY, colouring matters, such as ferruginous earths, and burnt
sugar, Venetian red, &c., and different flours, such as wheat,
rye, beans, &c., and sometimes sawdust.
CIDER, lead (as an impurity, not intentional).
CIGARS, substitutions of hay and other rubbish, inferior tobacco,
leaves sometimes darkened by some brown vegetable dye.
CINNAMON, cassia, clove stalks, and different flowers.
CLARET, brandy, and substitution of inferior wines.
CLOVES, clove stalks.
COCOA AND CHOCOLATE, cheaper kinds of arrow-root, such as _Tous
les mois_ and East Indian, animal matter, corn, sago, tapioca,
&c.
COFFEE, chicory, roasted wheat, rye flowers, and colouring
matters, such as burnt sugar, &c.
COD-LIVER OIL, other oils mixed with it.
COLOCYNTH (COMPOUND EXTRACT OF), the extract is not unfrequently
made with the pulp and seeds.
CONFECTIONERY, injurious colouring matters, such as arsenite of
copper, chromate of lead, &c.
CONFECTION, AROMATIC (AROMATIC CHALK POWDER), expensive
ingredients omitted, turmeric substituted for saffron, &c.,
&c.
COPAL, gum dammar, resin, &c.
CURRY-POWDER, red lead, ground rice, salt.
CUSPARIA BARK, the bark of _Strychnos Nux Vomica_ is said to have
been substituted.
CUSTARD AND EGG POWDER, turmeric, chrome yellow, and different
flours.
ELATERIUM, starch, flour, chalk, &c.
EPSOM SALTS, chloride magnesium, chalk, &c.
ETHER, alcohol.
FLOUR, other and inferior flours, as the flour from rice, bean,
Indian corn, potato, &c., sulphate of lime, alum.
GELATINE, salt and sugar.
GIN, water, sugar, capsicum, flavouring matters of different
kinds, turpentine, alum, tartar.
GINGER, turmeric, and husks of mustard, flour from wheat, sago,
&c.
GUAIACUM RESIN, other resins.
HONEY, flour, cane sugar, &c.
HOPS, _Cocculus indicus_, grains of paradise, &c., &c.
IODIDE OF POTASSIUM, water, carbonate of potash, chlorides of soda
and potash, iodate of potash, iodine, &c.
IODINE, water, plumbago, charcoal, black oxide of manganese, &c.
IPECAQUANHA, other roots, extraneous woody fibre; when in powder,
chalk, flour, &c., have been added.
ISINGLASS, gelatine.
JALAP, raspings of guaiacum, false jalap root, &c.
LARD, carbonate of soda, salt, potato, flour, and lime.
LEMON JUICE, a mixture of sugar and water, acidulated with
sulphuric acid, has been substituted.
LIQUORICE, rice, chalk, gelatine, and different flours.
MAGNESIA, MAGNESIA SULPHATE, lime, carbonate of magnesia.
MAGNESIA, CARBONATE, lime, sulphate, &c., &c.
MARMALADE, apple, or turnip pulp.
MERCURY, lead, tin, zinc, bismuth, &c.
MERCURY GREEN IODIDE OF, red iodide of
MERCURY RED OXIDE OF, brick-dust, red lead, &c.
MERCURY AMMONIATED (WHITE PRECIPITATE), chalk, carbonate of lead,
plaster of Paris, &c., &c.
MILK, water.
MUSTARD, turmeric, wheat flour.
MYRRH, gum bdellium, and other gum resins.
OATMEAL, barley flour, rubble.
OPIUM, stones, sand, clay, vegetable extracts, sugar, treacle,
water, &c.
PAREIRA ROOT, different roots substituted.
PEPPER, linseed meal, different flours, mustard husks, &c.
PICKLES, salts of copper, acetate of copper.
PORTER AND STOUT, sugar, treacle, water and salt.
POTASH, carbonate, sulphate, and chloride of potash, lime, iron,
and alumina.
POTASH, ACETATE OF, sulphates, and chlorides of potash.
POTASH, CARBONATE OF, sulphates, and chlorides of potash.
POTASH, BICARBONATE OF, carbonate of potash.
POTASH, CITRATE OF, sulphates of potash.
POTASH, CHLORATE OF, chloride of potassium.
POTASH, TARTRATE OF, tartrate of lime.
POTASH, NITRATE OF, sulphate or chloride of potassium.
PRESERVES, salts of copper.
QUININE, sulphate of lime, chalk, magnesia, cane-sugar, sulphate
of cinchonine, &c.
RHUBARB, turmeric, and inferior varieties substituted for Turkey.
RUM, water, cayenne, burnt sugar.
SAGO, potato flour.
SAUCE, treacle, salt, cochineal, Armenian bole, and other
colouring matters.
SCAMMONY, chalk, starch, guaiacum, jalap, dextrin, &c.
SENEGA, guiseng, gillenia.
SENNA, leaves of _cynanchum argel._
SHERRY, sulphates of potash, soda, brandy, burnt sugar, &c.
SNUFF, carbonate of ammonia, glass, sand, colouring matter, &c.
SODA, BICARBONATE, carbonate and sulphate of soda.
SODA, CARBONATE, sulphate of soda.
SODA, PHOSPHATE OF, phosphate of lime.
SPICES, colouring materials, substitutions, and different flours.
SQUILLS (POWDERED), wheat flour.
SUGAR (MOIST), sand, flour, &c.
SULPHUR, sulphurous acid (as an impurity).
SULPHURIC ACID, lead, water, arsenic, hydrochloric acid, &c.
TAPIOCA, mixing inferior starches with the pure tapioca.
TEA, sand, iron filings, exhausted tea leaves, foreign leaves; and
in green teas, black lead, Prussian blue, China clay.
TOBACCO, inferior tobacco, water.
TURMERIC, yellow ochre, carbonate of soda, or potash.
UVA URSI (BEARBERRY LEAVES), leaves of red whortleberry, and
others.
VINEGAR, sulphuric acid, and metallic impurities.
WINES, water, jerupiga, bitartrate of potash, substitution of
inferior wines, brandy, spirits, and various other matters.
ZINC, OXIDE OF, chalk, carbonate of magnesia.
"The Sale of Food and Drugs Act" has now supplemented several Acts which
were passed during the present century for the prevention of adulteration.
An Act prohibiting the mixture of injurious ingredients with intoxicating
liquors remains unrepealed, as do also one or two statutes relating to
trade frauds as for example the Adulteration of Seeds Act, 1809. These
latter have not been incorporated in "the Sale of Food and Drugs" Act.
=Æ= ([=e]). [L.] For words sometimes written with this initial diphthong,
and not found below, look under =E=.
=ÆGI'RINON= (-j[=i]'-). [Gr.] See OINTMENT.
=ÆGYPTI'ACUM=[dagger] (-j[)i]p-t[=i]'-). [Lat.] _Syn._ UNGUEN'TUM
ÆGYPTIACUM, L. Oxymel or liniment of verdigris. The name originated with
Hippocrates, who is said to have learned its composition in Egypt.
=ÆOL'IPILE= (-p[)i]le). A hollow ball of metal, having a slender neck with
a very small orifice, contrived to exhibit the conversion of water into
steam by the action of heat, and to account for the natural production of
winds. It was known to the ancients, is mentioned by Vitruvius, and was
studied by Descartes and others. It has been used in _surgery_ to produce
eschars, in the same cases as moxas; the effect of the steam being limited
by means of a piece of perforated pasteboard. When filled with alcohol,
and the jet of vapour inflamed, it is sometimes employed as a blowpipe. M.
Soyer used an apparatus of this kind to supply the heat in his portable
furnace. The liquid, however, which he employed was camphine.
=A'ER=, ([=a]'-[)e]r). [L. prim. Gr.] Air.
=A'ERATED= ([=a]'-[)e]r-r[=a]te-[)e]d). In _chemistry_, &c., impregnated
with carbonic acid. See ALKALI, LEMONADE, WATERS, MINERAL.
=AE''RIAL= ([=a]-[=e]re'-e-[)a]l). Belonging to the air or atmosphere;
produced by, consisting of, depending on, or partaking of the nature of
the air.
AERIFICA'TION ([=a]-[)e]r-e-). _Syn._ AËRIFICA'TIO, L.; AÉRIFICATION,
GAZÉIFICATION, Fr. In _chemistry_, the conversion of a body into gas.
=A'ERIFORM= ([=a]'-[)e]r-). _Syn._ AËRIFORM'IS, L.; AÉRIFORME, GAZÉIFORME,
Fr. LUFTFORMIG, &c., Ger. In _chemistry_, air-like, gaseous.
=AEROL'OGY.= _Syn._ AËROLO'GIA, L.; AÉROLOGIE, Fr., Ger. In _physics_, a
discourse or treatise of the air. In _physiology_ and _hygiène_, the
doctrine of the air, more especially with regard to its salubrity and
action on organised beings.
=AEROM'ETER.= _Syn._ AËROME'TRUM, L.; AÉROMÈTRE, Fr. An instrument used in
aërometry.
=AEROM'ETRY=. _Syn._ AËROME'TRIA, L.; AÉROMÉTRIE, Fr.; LUFTMESSKUNST, &c.,
Ger. In _chemistry_ and _physics_, the art of measuring gases, and of
determining their densities.
=AERONAUT'ICS.= _Syn._ AÉRONAUTIQUE, Fr. The art of sailing in, or of
navigating the air. See BALLOONS.
=AEROPHO'BIA.= [L.] _Syn._ AÉROPHOBIE, Fr. In _pathology_, a dread of air
(wind); a common symptom in hydrophobia, and occasionally present in
hysteria and phrenitis.
=AEROSTAT'ICS.= _Syn._ AÉROSTAT'ICA, L.; AÉROSTATIQUE, Fr. That branch of
pneumatics which treats of air, and other elastic fluids, in a state of
rest.
=AEROSTA'TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AËROSTA'TIO, L. The art of weighing the
air; aërial suspension and navigation. See BALLOONS.
=ÆRU'GO= ([=e]-). [L.] The rust of brass, bronze, or copper; verdigris.
=ÆSCULIN.= C_{21}H_{24}O_{13}. A crystalline fluorescent substance
existing in the bark of the horse-chestnut (_æsculus hippocastanum_) and
of other trees of the genera _Æsculus_ and _Paria_. In the above-named
sources Æsculin is associated with another fluorescent body called Pariin.
=Æ''THER.= See ETHER.
=ÆITHE''REA= (-th[=e]ré-). [L. pl.] Ethers.
=ÆSTHET'ICS= ([=e]z-). _Syn._ ÆSTHET'ICA, L. Medicines or agents which
affect sensation. See ANÆSTHETICS and HYPERÆSTHETICS.
=ÆTHIOPS.= See ETHIOPS.
=AFFEC'TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AFFEC'TIO, L. In _pathology_, a term
nearly synonymous with disease.
=AFFINITY.= _Syn._ CHEMICAL AFFINITY; AFFINITAS, L.; AFFINITÉ, Fr.;
VERWANDTSCHAFT, Ger. If oil and water be shaken together they produce no
change upon one another, as is proved by their separating into two layers
with their properties unaltered, when the mixture is allowed to remain at
rest for a short time. Such bodies are said, in chemical language, to have
no affinity for one another. If iodine and metallic mercury be rubbed
together in a mortar they will unite in definite proportions by weight,
and form a combination possessing properties totally distinct from those
of its constituents. Thus, iodine is a greyish, metallic-looking solid,
convertible into a violet vapour by heat, perceptibly soluble in water,
and capable of producing a blue compound with starch. Mercury is a
metallic, silvery-looking liquid. The product of their union (biniodide of
mercury) is a scarlet powder, destitute of metallic lustre, convertible
into vapour by heat, without the production of violet fumes, insoluble in
water, and incapable of developing a blue colour with starch. Again, the
greenish-yellow and intensely poisonous gas, chlorine, unites in definite
proportions by weight with the soft, wax-like, and highly poisonous metal
sodium to produce the white crystalline solid chloride of sodium (common
salt), a compound which, except in very large quantities, is not only not
poisonous, but actually beneficial to health.
Such combinations are called chemical compounds, and the force which binds
their constituents together is distinguished from all other attractive
forces by the term affinity or chemical affinity. Bodies united by
affinity are also said to have united chemically.
Affinity is in most cases exerted between different substances, in which
respect it resembles adhesion; but bodies united by adhesion, _e.g._ ink
to paper, paint to wood, &c., unlike those united by affinity, suffer no
change of properties.
Affinity is exerted at immeasurable distances, therefore substances to be
submitted to its influence must be brought into (apparently) actual
contact. This condition is frequently fulfilled by the vaporisation,
fusion, or solution of one or more of the bodies to be submitted to its
action.
In many instances substances which have no affinity for one another at
ordinary temperatures manifest this power when heated.
Whenever chemical union takes place, heat is invariably evolved;
conversely, the decomposition of a chemical compound is always accompanied
by an apparent loss of heat or reduction of temperature.
Finally, the most striking phenomena characteristic of, and accompanying,
chemical affinity are, development of heat, change of properties, and
union in definite or constant proportions by weight.
=AFFUSION.= In _chemistry_, the washing of a precipitate, &c., for the
purpose of removing soluble matters. In _medicine_, affusion is of three
kinds:--
1. _Lotions_, which consist in washing a part of the body with a sponge or
rag soaked in a liquid.
2. _Aspersions_, which consist in throwing a liquid drop by drop, like
rain, upon the body.
3. _Shower baths_, which consist in allowing a number of small streams of
water to fall from a height upon the surface of the body. If the water
fall from a considerable height, affusion is then termed _douche_ by the
French.
=AFT'ER-DAMP.= _Syn._ CHOKE-DAMP. Carbonic acid gas resulting from
explosion of air and fire-damp (light carbonetted hydrogen) in coal mines.
=AFT'ER-PAINS.= Those following childbirth. The only remedy is patience;
they may, however, be frequently alleviated by small doses of morphia or
liquor opii sedativus. Heated cloths and warm fomentations are sometimes
useful, particularly if assisted by moderate but sufficient pressure on
the abdomen, by means of a broad bandage. They seldom follow with severity
the first birth.
_Treatment for Animals._ Remove clots from parts, raise the hind-quarters.
Give clysters of linseed tea, lukewarm, and laudanum or belladonna
extract. Syringe out parts with Condy's fluid considerably diluted. Give
internally belladonna, opium, or chloroform. Draw away milk.
=AFT'ER-WASH= (w[)o]sh). In the art of the distiller, the liquor in the
still after the spirit has been drawn over.
=AG'ARIC.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AGAR'ICUM, AGAR'ICUS, L.; BLÄTTERSCHWAMM,
PILZ, SCHWAMM, Ger. In _botany_, a genus of fungi, of numerous species,
embracing the mushrooms and champignons. Of these plants, some are edible;
others poisonous. The term is also commonly applied to the boletus found
on oaks (TOUCHWOOD), and on larches (MALE AGARIC). See MUSHROOMS.
=Fly-agaric.= _Syn._ FLY MUSH'ROOM; AGAR'ICUS MUSCA''RIA, Linn.; AMANI'TA
M. One of the most narcotic and poisonous of our fungi, producing, in
small doses, intoxication and a pleasing species of delirium; for which
purpose it is commonly employed in Kamschatka. (Hooker.) It possesses the
singular property of imparting an intoxicating quality to the urine, which
continues for a long time after taking it. This secretion is, therefore,
commonly saved by the natives during a scarcity of the fungus. "Thus, with
a few amanitæ, a party of drunkards may keep up their debauch for a week;"
and the intoxication so produced is capable of "being propagated through
five or six individuals." (Langsdorff.) Water in which it has been boiled
is poisonous; but the boiled fungus itself is inert. The liquid from it is
used as a fly-poison; whence the name mushroom is derived. It may be known
by its rich orange-red colour in autumn.
=AG'ATE= (-[=a]te, -[)e]t[double-dagger]). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ACHA'TES
(-k[=a]'-t[=e]z), L. A semi-pellucid uncrystallised species of quartz,
remarkable for its hardness, variety of colour, and susceptibility of
receiving a high polish. It is an aggregate of various siliceous minerals,
of which chalcedony appears generally to be the base. Carnelian, jasper,
amethyst, and other similar minerals, often enter into its composition.
The colours are often delicately arranged in stripes, bands, or clouds.
Those which take an angular form, as the Scotch pebble, are called
FORTIFICATION AGATES. It is the least valuable of the precious stones, and
is chiefly made into rings, seals, beads, burnishers, &c., on account of
its hardness. Its powder is used for cleansing and polishing iron, brass,
&c., and to sharpen edge-tools.
=AGEING LIQUOR.= Dissolve 3 lbs. of chlorate of potash in 4 galls. of
boiling water. Add 20 lbs. of powdered white arsenic to 20 lbs. of
solution of caustic soda at 60° Tw., and boil until the arsenic is
completely dissolved. Add the latter solution to the former, with
stirring, until the mixture stands at 28° Tw.
=AG'NAIL.= See WHITLOW.
=AGRYPNOT'ICS= (-gr[)i]p-). _Syn._ ANTHYPNOT'ICS (-h[)i]p-); AGRYPNOT'ICA,
ANTHYPNOT'ICA, L. In _medicine_ and _pharmacology_, agents or substances
which prevent sleep; as tea, coffee, digitalis, vinegar, &c.
=A'GUE= (-g[)u]). Ague may be defined as febrile phenomena occurring in
paroxysms, and observing a certain regular succession, characterised by
chill, abnormal heat, and unnatural cutaneous discharge, which prove to be
a temporary crisis and usher in a remission. These phenomena are developed
in an uninterrupted series or succession more or less regular, which pass
into each other by insensible stages. Ague is paludal fever, and has
always been observed to prevail in marshy moist districts, and in low,
swampy humid countries, in which seasons of considerable heat occur.
The neighbourhood of marshes, or of a district which has been at some
recent time under water; the banks of extensive lakes, and the shores of
rivers and seas where the water flows sluggishly, and in some places
stagnates; shallow rivers; extensive level tracts of forest land, where
moisture is always present; and the surface of the land constantly covered
with excavation from the ground,--these are the terrestrial physical
conditions, in which marsh and littoral fevers are almost universally to
be found, although it must be admitted that there are some marshy
districts in which the disease does not show itself.
In these latter localities the effects of the miasmatic poison, show
themselves in cholera or typhus. No precise knowledge of the nature and
source of this subtle poison which, in default of a better name we call
_malaria_, has yet been acquired; indeed it has yet to be proved that
_malaria_ has a distinct existence. Science has as yet been unable to
discover the presence of any poisonous principle in the air of ague on
other regions.
Ague may exist without any alteration of structure being set up; but in
the milder forms of this fever a greater number of organs and tissues are
morbidly altered than perhaps in any other form of disease. The parts so
affected are the liver, spleen, lungs, heart, brain, and the serous and
mucous membranes of the body generally. Within certain limits, the
specific action of the malarial poison may be said to be in the inverse
ratio of the intensity of the fever which attends its action. The
affections of the liver and spleen also vary greatly according to the
locality in which the patient is attacked; for instance, whilst in some
parts of India the spleen is the organ principally involved, in other
districts of the same continent it is the liver. In England, under proper
medical treatment, the patient usually recovers without any manifest
derangement either of structure or impairment of function of any organ or
tissue. The liver may, however, become affected if the patient suffering
from the disease has been neglected for any length of time.
Notwithstanding the opinions of Finke and Professor Colin, there appears
to be considerable ground for the supposition that ague may be caused by
drinking marsh and surface water. In an interesting paper on the 'Indian
Annals' for 1856, Mr Bettington, of the Madras Civil Service, says:--"It
is notorious that the water produces fever and affections of the spleen."
In confirmation of this assertion, he brings forward what seems to be some
remarkably strong evidence. He cites cases of villages placed under the
same conditions as to marsh-air in some of which fevers were prevalent,
whilst in others they were absent; and he found on inquiry that whilst the
latter villages were supplied with pure water, the inhabitants of the
former had to drink marsh or mullah water, full of vegetable _débris_. In
one village there were two sources of supply--a spring and a tank, the
first fed by surface, and the other by marsh water. Those only who partook
of the tank water were attacked by fever. Again, in Tulliwaree the fever
was so universal that scarcely any inhabitant escaped it. In this village
Mr Bettington caused a well to be dug, and the result was that the fever
disappeared. Similar cases have occurred in this country. Twenty years ago
Mr Blower, of Bedford, directed the attention of medical men to a case
that occurred in a village, in which ague had nearly disappeared when a
well was dug; and to another instance which occurred in the village of
Houghton. In this parish almost the only family which escaped ague was
that of a farmer; the members of this family partook of well water; whilst
those who did not escape the disease drank ditch water.
In the 'Indian Annals' for 1867 is a paper by Dr Moore, confirming the
opinion that ague may be produced by the causes already stated, and M.
Commaille ('Rec. de Mêm. de Med. Mil.,' Nov., 1868) states that in
Marseilles, paroxysmal fevers, formerly unknown, have made their
appearance, since the water supply to that city has been drawn from the
Marseilles Canal.
In his report for 1870 Dr Townsend, the Sanitary Commissioner for the
central provinces of India, states that the natives of India hold an
opinion that the use of river and tank water during rainy seasons (when
the water always contains an increased quantity of vegetable matter) will
almost always cause ague. Boudin ('Traité de Géographie et de Statistiques
Médicale,' 1857, t. i, p. 142), records an extraordinary case. Eight
hundred soldiers, in good health, embarked in three vessels to pass from
Bona, in Algiers, to Marseilles, in the year 1834. They all arrived at
Marseilles the same day. In two vessels there were 680 men, without a
single sick one amongst them. In the third vessel, the Argo, there had
been 120 soldiers; 13 died during the short passage, and of the 107
survivors no less than 98 were disembarked suffering from all forms of
paludal fevers. We may presume that the diagnosis was correct, since
Boudin himself examined the men. When the vessels started the crew of the
Argo had not a single sick man aboard. The crew and soldiers of all the
boats were exposed to the same atmospheric conditions. The influence of
air must, therefore, be excluded. There is no mention of food, but it has
never been suggested that food has ever been concerned in the production
of malarious fever. It was a very different matter, however, with the
water supply. In two of the vessels the water was good, whilst the Argo
had been supplied with marsh water, which was offensive to the smell, as
well as unpalatable. This latter was supplied to the soldiers, whilst the
crew drank uncontaminated water. Amongst those who deny that marsh water
is the cause of ague must be quoted Professor Colin. The professor, who is
regarded as an authority on intermittent fever, in his work De l'Ingestion
des Eaux Marécageuse comme cause de la Dysenterie et des Fièvres
intermittentes,' instances numerous cases in Algiers and Italy in which
impure marsh water gives rise to indigestion, diarrh[oe]a, and dysentery,
but in no case to intermittent fever; and he states that in all his
observations he has never met with an instance of ague having such an
origin. Without contesting the case of the Argo, he views it with
considerable suspicion, and doubts whether Boudin is correct in his
details. Finke also states that, in Hungary and Holland, marsh-water is
daily drank without causing any ill-effects. The inhalation of the fumes
of oxide of zinc appears to produce in workers of this metal a variety of
ague termed by Shackrah "brass ague," and by Dr Greenhow, "brass-founder's
ague." The symptoms of the malady are tightness and oppression of the
chest; with indefinite nervous sensations, followed by shivering, an
indistinct hot stage, and profuse perspiration. These attacks, however,
are not periodical.
It is open to doubt whether the malarious poison exists in the form of a
gas, for the observations of microscopists go to show the extreme
minuteness of the germs of disease, which are probably not more than
1/70000th of an inch in size, and it is regarded as probable that the real
cause of ague is the entry into the circulation of some low forms of
spores of fungi, or of some minute animalcules. Ague is always to be met
with in places where fungi grow, and is always associated with what
Pettenkofer calls "the ground air"--that is, the air contained in the
interstices of the soil, no inconsiderable volume of which is drawn into
every house which has a fire on the floor which rests on the earth. That
animalcules (?) may exist in the blood is evidenced by the discovery of Dr
Lewis, who found hair-like worms in the circulation; and whilst
considering this point, we must bear in mind that the remedial agents
employed to check ague, quinine, arsenic, &c., are drugs capable of
destroying animal life, and it is not impossible that they may exercise a
beneficial effect in destroying the spores or animalcules to which the
disease may be due.
The best means to be employed to combat malarial fevers in any district
are thorough and efficient drainage (and it must be remembered that
drainage purifies both the ground-air and the ground water) and a supply
of wholesome water free from decomposing vegetable matter.
That the adoption of the above means cannot fail to succeed is
incontestably proved by the fact, that during the last 200 years, ague in
England has diminished to a wonderful extent, in short, as good drainage
and a pure water supply have prevailed, there has been a proportionate
diminution of paludal poisoning.
During the protectorate of Cromwell great mortality prevailed in London,
from the ravages of ague; at that time London was as swampy as the fens of
Lincolnshire. See FEVER (Intermittent).
=Ague-cake.= The popular name of a tumour felt under the false ribs on the
left side, formed by enlargement and induration of the spleen, following
protracted ague; also, sometimes, of indurations of the liver following
ague.
=Ague-drop.= See DROPS.
=Ague-salt= (s[)o]lt). Disulphate of quinine.
=Ague-tree.= Sassafras.
=Ague-weed.= The herb thorough-wort ('Eupato''rium perfolia'tum,' Linn.).
=AIG'REMORE= ([)e]g'r-mor). [Fr.] Pulverised charcoal in the state it is
used to make gunpowder.
[Illustration: Attelettes from Soyer.]
=AIGUILLETTE= (ATTELETTE). [Fr.] In _cookery_, a term applied to several
small dishes, from the articles of which they consist being mounted on
silver needles, or skewers, with ornamental handles or tops. (See _engr._)
They form one of the varieties of the 'hors-d'[oe]uvres' of Soyer; and are
commonly served on a napkin. The skewers should be about four inches long,
and of the thickness of an ordinary packing needle. The person eating what
is served on them takes the head of the skewer between the thumb and
fingers of the left hand, and picks it off with his fork. Those noticed by
Soyer are--
=Aiguillettes à l'Éperlan= (_smelts_);
=Aiguillettes aux Huitres= (_oysters_);
=Aiguillettes de Filets de Sole= (_soles_);
=Aiguillettes de Homard= (_lobsters_);
=Aiguillettes de Langue de B[oe]uf= (_ox-tongue_);
=Aiguillettes de Ris de Veau= (_sweetbread of veal_);
=Aiguillettes de Volaille à la Jolie Fille= (_fowl_);--
all of which are prepared in a nearly similar manner, merely varying the
sauces, &c., to suit the article and palate. See ATTELETTES,
HORS-D'[OE]UVRES, &c.
=AHORNZUCKER= (genuine American maple sugar). For coughs, hoarseness, and
all affections of the throat and chest caused by cold. The raw maple sugar
as imported. (Hager.)
=AILANTHUS.= The inner bark of the _ailanthus glandulosa_, a common tree
growing in northern China, said by Dr Dudgeon to have proved very
successful in dysentery.
The _ailanthus glandulosa_ is also well known throughout the United
States. Professor Hétet, of Toulon, tried the effect of the powdered bark,
leaves, and various preparations of the bark or drugs, with the result of
their administration being attended with purgative effect--and the
discharge of worms.
The powdered bark has been given in small cases of tape-worm in the human
subject, with marked success. The dose of the powder found sufficient for
the expulsion of the tapeworm was from seven or eight to thirty grains.
=AIL'MENT.= Pain, indisposition; disease. Its use is generally restricted
to the non-acute, and milder forms of disease.
=AIR.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ Aer, L. (from [Greek: aêr] Gr.); LUFT, Ger.;
ATMOSPHERIC AIR; THE ATMOSPHERE. This name was formerly given to any
aëriform body; thus, by the old chemists ammoniacal gas was called
alkaline air; oxygen,--dephlogisticated, vital, or empyreal air; carbonic
anhydride (carbonic acid), fixed air; hydrogen, inflammable air; heavy
carbonetted hydrogen, olefiant gas, heavy inflammable air;
nitrogen,--mephitic, phlogisticated, or nitrous air. At the present time
the term air is usually restricted to the gaseous envelope surrounding the
solid and liquid parts of our globe.
=Air, Atmospheric= (or simply, The Air). The air chiefly consists of a
mechanical mixture of four volumes of nitrogen and one volume of oxygen,
or more accurately--
By volume. By weight.
Nitrogen 79·1 76·8
Oxygen 20·9 23·2
----- -----
100 100[12]
[Footnote 12: At a meeting of the Paris Academy of Sciences, held on the
31st of December, 1877, it was announced that M. Cailletet had succeeded
in liquefying atmospheric air.]
We may premise our description of the functions of the constituents of the
atmosphere by the following quotation from Mr Blyth's 'Dictionary of
Hygiène and Public Health':--"One of the most important properties of air
is its power of penetration and its universality. Air is, indeed, present
everywhere; there is scarcely a solid, however compact it may appear to
be, which does not contain pores, and these pores filled with air. The
soil contains no small quantity; indeed, if it were not so the numberless
insects, worms, &c., which burrow in its interstices would cease to exist.
The most compact mortar and walls are penetrated with it, and water of
natural origin contains a large quantity of air in solution. The
atmosphere is supposed to extend to a very great height, from 200 to 300
miles; it used to be considered only five (forty-five) miles high, but
observations on shooting stars, &c., show that this opinion is erroneous.
Owing to the force of gravity, the air is much denser near the earth, and
gets more attenuated layer by layer as you ascend. If, then, the
atmosphere were possessed of colour, it would be very dark just round the
globe, and the tint would gradually fade into space. The air is by no
means wholly gaseous; it contains, indeed, an immense amount of life, and
small particles derived from the whole creation. In the air may be found
animalcules, spores, seeds, pollen cells of all kind, vibriones, elements
of contagion, eggs of insects, &c., and a few fungi, besides formless
dust, sandy, and other particles of local origin; for example, no one can
ride in a railway carriage without being accompanied with dust, a great
portion of which is attracted by a magnet, and is, indeed, minute
particles of iron derived from the rails. The purest air has some dust in
it. There probably never fell a beam of light from the sun since the world
was made which did not show, were there eyes to see it, myriads of motes;
these, however, generally speaking, are quite innocuous to man--some,
indeed, may possibly be beneficial. Another most important property of air
is its mobility; on the calmest day and in the quietest room there are
constant currents of air which rapidly dilute any noxious odours of
gases."
The chief functions of the oxygen are to maintain respiration and support
combustion, while the office of the nitrogen is to dilute the oxygen and
control its energy.
Besides nitrogen and oxygen, aqueous vapour, carbonic anhydride, ammonia,
and nitric acid are met with in the atmosphere, the last especially during
and shortly after thunder storms.
Although, doubtless owing to local conditions, trifling variations may
occur in the proportion of oxygen present in the atmosphere, this
variation is so trifling that the difference of the amount in air from
places separated by very long distances will be found in the second
decimal place only; thus, whilst a portion of air taken during a balloon
ascent by Mr Green gave on analysis 20·88 per cent. by vol., Dr Frankland
found in air collected by himself on the summit of Mont Blanc 20·96 per
cent. by vol. A still nearer approximation in uniformity in the amount of
oxygen present in atmospheric air is exhibited in the following table,
which gives the results of 95 analyses by Regnault on air obtained from
nine different localities:--
100 from Paris gave in 100
parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·913 to 20·999
9 from Lyons and around
gave in 100 parts, by vol.
of oxygen 20·918 to 20·966
30 from Berlin gave in 100
parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·908 to 20·998
10 from Madrid gave in 100
parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·916 to 20·982
23 from Geneva and Switzerland
gave in 100 parts,
by vol. of oxygen 20·909 to 20·993
15 from Toulon and Mediterranean
gave in 100
parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·912 to 20·982
5 from Atlantic Ocean gave
in 100 parts, by vol. of
oxygen 20·918 to 20·965
1 from Ecuador gave in 100
parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·960
2 from Pichincha gave in
100 parts, by vol. of
oxygen 20·949 to 20·981
------ ------
Mean of all foregoing 20·949 20·988
" of the Paris specimens 20·96
Vapour of water is essential to the respiration of animals and plants, in
order that the organs concerned in this operation may be kept in a soft
and moist condition.
Carbonic anhydride is evolved during combustion, putrefaction, and
fermentation; it is also a product of the respiration of animals, and
highly poisonous to them, even when diluted with large proportions of air.
This gas is, however, greedily absorbed by plants, which decompose it;
they assimilate the carbon and return the oxygen to the atmosphere, ready
to be again consumed in supporting the life of the animal world.
Dr Angus Smith has defined a very pure air to be one that contains with
20·99 per cent. of oxygen 0·30 of carbonic acid (anhydride).
This latter varies in amount in the atmosphere of cities, as will be seen
upon inspection of the subjoined table, extracted from Dr Smith's work
'Air and Rain':--
Per cent.
Air of Madrid, outside the walls, mean of 12 analyses, by Luna ·045
Mean of 12 analyses, within the walls of Madrid, by Luna ·051
Mean of 14 analyses, by Angus Smith, in Manchester suburbs ·369
In Manchester streets ·403
Usual weather ·0403
During fogs ·0679
De Saussure's analyses show that there is more carbonic acid on the
mountains than in the plains, as might be inferred from the comparative
absence of vegetation in elevated positions. Dr Pietra Santa states that
the air of hills or mountains, at the height of 2300 feet, is lighter than
common air, contains a smaller proportion of oxygen, and is impregnated
with a largely increased amount of aqueous vapour. It also contains a
large quantity of ozone. He considers such a climate peculiarly soothing
to persons suffering from chest diseases.
Dr Angus Smith's analysis of the air from the mountainous districts of
Scotland confirms the above statement of Dr Pietra Santa's. The heaths and
mountains of that country are remarkably healthy localities, and the air
from them gave on analysis 20·94 per cent. by vol. of oxygen, and only
·033 of carbonic acid.
Ammonia is derived from the putrefaction of animal and vegetable
substances. It is from atmospheric ammoniacal compounds that plants obtain
much of the nitrogen which is essential to the formation of many parts of
their structure.
Nitric acid, like ammonia, is absorbed, and its nitrogen assimilated, by
plants.
In addition to the gases and vapours already enumerated, as well as others
which exist in minute quantity, or which are of only occasional
occurrence, Pasteur and other investigators have discovered in the air
living germs which are capable of exciting putrefaction and fermentation,
and which are competent, in some instances, to engender disease when they
are injected into the blood of animals. In fact, the spread of infectious
diseases, _e.g._, smallpox, typhus fever, cattle plague, &c., is
attributed to the presence in the atmosphere of the germs of such
maladies. These germs are believed to be living beings, which develope and
multiply at the expense of the tissues of the larger animals into whose
systems they have found entrance.
=Air, Vitiated.= As has been stated in the previous article, the air
consists chiefly of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen. In all open places it
has a similar composition, as might be concluded from the constant
mingling which takes place by the agency of currents continually in
movement, although sometimes to an inconsiderable extent only. Dr Angus
Smith regards air as very pure when it contains not less than 20·99 per
cent. by volume of oxygen, and 0·030 of carbonic anhydride (acid).
According as the proportion of the former gas diminishes and that of the
latter increases beyond certain limits in the air by which we are
surrounded, it becomes more or less deteriorated and unfit to be breathed,
particularly as the increased amount of carbonic acid is, in crowded
dwellings, assembly rooms, theatres, and confined inhabited spaces,
associated with deleterious and putrescent exhalations from the person.
_The following tables exhibit the amount of carbonic
acid in close places in London._
Per-centage
=I.= by volume.
Chancery Court, closed doors, 7 feet from the ground,
March 3 ·193
Same, 3 feet from ground ·203
Chancery Court, doors wide open, 4 feet from ground,
11·40, March 5 ·0507
Same, 12·40 p.m., 5 feet from ground ·045
Strand Theatre, gallery, 10 p.m. ·101
Surrey Theatre, boxes, March 7, 10·30 p.m. ·218
Olympic, 11·30 p.m. ·0817
Same, 11·55 p.m. ·1014
Victoria Theatre, boxes, March 24, 10 p.m. ·126
Haymarket Theatre, dress circle, March 18, 11·30 p.m. ·0757
Queen's Ward, St. Thomas's Hospital, 3·25 p.m. ·052
Edward's Ward, St. Thomas's Hospital, 3·30 p.m. ·052
Victoria Theatre, boxes, April 4. ·076
Effingham, 10·30 p.m., April 9, Whitechapel ·126
Pavilion, 10·11 p.m., April 9, Whitechapel ·152
City of London Theatre, pit, 11·15 p.m., April 16 ·252
Standard Theatre, pit, 11 p.m., April 16 ·320
Dr Angus Smith states that out of 339 specimens of air obtained from
various mines he found 35 normal or nearly so, 81 decidedly impure, and
212 exceedingly bad; he also adds that owing to the frequent firing of
charges of gunpowder within the mines, and from other causes, the
atmosphere is further contaminated with sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphate,
carbonate, sulphide, sulphocyanide of potassium, and nitrate of potassium,
carbon, sulphur, carbonate of ammonia, organic matter, sand, and
sulphurous and arsenious acids.
The air of large cities, which are the seats of manufacturing industry, is
always more or less charged with the exhalations given off by chemical and
other works. The sulphuric-acid works contribute sulphuric, sulphurous,
nitrous, and arsenious acids; copper works, in which pyrites is employed,
give off large quantities of sulphurous acid, mixed with arsenic and a
little copper; manure works, in many cases, send out compounds of
fluorine, besides sulphuric acid; glass works, sulphuric and hydrochloric
acids; and alkali works, hydrochloric acid (although in small quantities),
which very frequently contains arsenic. Of ammonia, Angus Smith remarks:
"It is one measure of the 'sewage' of the air; it is the result of
decomposition. It is not, in these small quantities, hurtful, so far as we
know. The ammonia is in no case free, but combined probably with
hydrosulphuric, hydrochloric, and sulphuric acid in towns. In country
places it is, at all events partly, united to carbonic acid.
II. _London Air.--Carbonic Acid, Metropolitan Railway,
November, 1869._
+--------+----------------------------+------------+---------+---------+
| | | |Carbonic | Oxygen, |
| Date. | Place. |Time of Day.| Acid, |per cent.|
| | | |per cent.| |
+--------+----------------------------+------------+---------+---------+
| 1869. |Tunnel between Gower Street | | | |
|Nov. 12.|and King's Cross Stations; | 10 a.m. | ·150 | 20·60 |
| |specimen taken at the open | | | |
| |window, first-class | | | |
| |carriage. | | | |
| | | | | |
| " 12.|Tunnel between Gower Street | | | |
| |and King's Cross Stations; | 7·30 p.m. | ·078 | 20·79 |
| |specimen taken at the open | | | |
| |window, first-class | | | |
| |carriage. | | | |
| | | | | |
| " 12.|Tunnel Praed Street; | | | |
| |specimen taken at the open | 10·30 a.m. | ... | 20·71 |
| |window, first-class | | | |
| |carriage. | | | |
| | | | | |
| " 15.|Specimen taken during | | | |
| |journey between Gower Street| 10·15 a.m. | ·338 | 20·66 |
| |and King's Cross, | | | |
| |first-class carriage, window| | | |
| |open. | | | |
| | | | | |
| " 15.|Same | 3 p.m. | ·155 | 20·70 |
| | | | | |
| " 15.|Same | 11 p.m. | ·150 | 20·74 |
| | | | | |
+--------+----------------------------+------------+---------+---------+
| |Average | | ·1452 | 20·70 |
+--------+----------------------------+------------+---------+---------+
ANGUS SMITH.
_The Air of Mines_ (_Metalliferous_).
+-------------+---------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
|Name of Mine,|Description of place,|Thermo-|Number |Oxygen,|Carbonic|
|and depth |where taken and time |meter, |of Men | per | Acid, |
|from surface,|when taken. |Fahr. |working| cent. | per |
|in fathoms. | | |in it. | | cent. |
+-------------+---------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
| | | | | | |
| Hurst |End, 300 ft. beyond | ... | 2 | ... | 1·99 |
| |a rise, 9 ft. high, | | | | |
| |7 ft. wide. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| Old Gang |End of level | ... | 2 | 20·58 | ·48 |
| | | | | | |
| " |End of level | ... | 2 | ... | ·28 |
| | | | | | |
| " |(_a_) Rise 7 ft. | ... | 2 | 20·25 | ·39 |
| |high, 132 ft. from | | | | |
| |current. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| Grassington |(_b_) End of cross | ... | 2 | 20·94 | ·06 |
| |cut, 480 ft. from | | | | |
| |rise. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| " |End, 480 ft. from | ... | 2 | 19·53 | 1·59 |
| |rise. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| " |Rise 60 ft. high in | ... | 2 | 19·52 | 1·72 |
| |shale. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| " |End, 60 ft. from | ... | 2 | 20·47 | 1·06 |
| |rise. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| " |(_c_)End, 840 ft. | ... | 2 | 20·08 | ·94 |
| |from rise. | | | | |
+-------------+---------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
(_a_) Air machine.
(_b_) Unusual amount of dust.
(_c_) Crystals were chiefly hexagons.
ANGUS SMITH.
The following table, showing the amount of ammonia present in rain
collected at the different places named, is from Dr Smith's work, 'Air and
Rain.'