is supposed to have had with Gama on board ship, and says that the
captain-major was much pleased with his offers of service.
[148] The visitors thus became at once acquainted with the various
castes constituting the population of Calecut, including the _Nairs_,
or fighting caste of Malabar, who eat meat (which shows a servile
origin), but wear the thread of the Dwija (twice-born), rank next to
the Brahmans, and practise polyandry; and the turbulent _Moplah_, who
are descendants of Arab fathers and native women. These latter are the
“native” Moors.
[149] Goes (I, c. 39) and Castanheda (I, c. 15) say that he was at
Panane, a coast town, 28 miles to the south of Calecut.
[150] One of these messengers was Fernão Martins. They were accompanied
by Monçaide (Castanheda, I, c. 15).
[151] Off Calecut there are banks and reefs which may endanger the
safety of a ship, but the anchorage in the roadstead within them is
perfectly safe.
[152] _Bale_ in the Arabic Wali, governor. _Alcaide_, in Portuguese,
has this same meaning. Barros and Castanheda give this official the
title of “Catual” (Kot-wal, governor of a fort, in Hindustani). He was
the civil intendant of the Rajah and head of the police. Correa calls
him _gosil_, or _guozil_ (pron. Wozil), a corruption, probably, of the
Arabic _wazir_, minister.
[153] Among the thirteen men were Diogo Dias, João de Sá, Gonçalo
Pirez, Alvaro Velho, Alvaro de Braga, João de Setubal, João de Palha,
and six others, whose names are not recorded. Paulo da Gama and
Coelho were left in charge of the vessels, with orders to sail at
once for Portugal should any disaster happen to their chief. Coelho
was, moreover, ordered to await his chief’s return in the boats. See
Appendix E.
[154] This river is the Elatur. See Map IV.
[155] Burton (_Goa_, p. 191) says that even now the usual ferry-boat
consists of a platform of planks lashed to two canoes and usually
railed round.
[156] This “church” was, of course, a pagoda or temple. The high pillar
in front of it is used for suspending the flag which indicates the
commencement of the Temple festival. It is of wood, but usually covered
with copper or silver. The cock, which surmounts it, is the symbol of
the War-god Subraumainar. The smaller pillar supports the coco-oil
lamps during the festival.—Rev. J. J. Jaus.
[157] Corucheo, which literally means spire or minaret; but further on
the author calls this sanctuary a chapel, capella. Goes (c. 40) calls
it a “round” chapel.
[158] Goes (c. 40) says that the four priests alone entered this
sanctuary, and, pointing to the image, said “Maria, Maria”, upon which
the natives prostrated themselves, whilst the Portuguese knelt, in
adoration of the Virgin. Burton suggests that this was an image of
Gauri, the “White Goddess”, whilst Charton (III, p. 246) suggests Maha
Maja and her son Shakya. Our illustration is taken from E. Moor, _The
Hindu Pantheon_, new edition by Rev. W. O. Simpson (Madras, 1864) Plate
xxxv. It represents Krishna and his mother Devaki. When Kansa (Devaki’s
brother) heard of his birth, he ordered all newly-born infants to be
slain. The trays with animals and fruit are supposed to symbolise
Krishna’s power over the animal and vegetable kingdoms. On the low
table are placed food, poison, and amrita, symbolising life, death, and
immortality, as also a small triangular die denoting trinity in unity.
The Rev. J. Jacob Jaus, of the Basel Mission at Calicut, informs me
that there is a local deity called Māri, or Māriamma, much dreaded as
the goddess of small-pox, and highly venerated. Amma, in Malayalam,
means mother.
[159] These bells are struck by the Brahmans when they enter the
temple, but must not be touched by people of inferior castes.
[160] It is just possible that some of the Portuguese doubted whether
these Hindu Gods and images represented the saints of their own
churches. Castanheda (i, p. 57) says that when João de Sá knelt down by
the side of Vasco da Gama, he said: “If these be devils, I worship the
true God”; at which his chief smiled. But however this may be, it is
equally true that the reports furnished by the heads of the expedition
described these Hindus as Christians, and that the king believed them
to be so (see Appendix A).
[161] The “quafees” are, of course, Brahman priests. The Rev. J. J.
Jaus suggests _kāz_ (Arabic), meaning “judge”.
[162] The “white earth” is a mixture of dust, cow-dung, sacrificial
ashes, sandal wood, etc., cemented in rice-water (see Belnos, _The
Sundya or Daily Prayer of the Brahmans_, Lond., 1851).
[163] For a description of this palace, see _Travels of Pietro della
Valle_ (Hakluyt Society, 1892), pp. 367-377.
[164] Goes says that knives were used.
[165] For Correa’s elaborate but quite untrustworthy narrative of this
audience, see Stanley’s _Vasco da Gama_, pp. 193-6.
[166] Atambor, a corruption of the Arabic _tambur_, the betel-nut. It
is the fruit of Areca Catechu, and is universally chewed throughout
India, the Indian Archipelago and Southern China. Its juice discolours
the teeth, but is said to make the breath sweet, and to be conducive
to health. “Erva” (herb) is quite inapplicable to this fruit. Usually
it is cut up into four slices, which are wrapped up in a leaf of
Betel-pepper (Piper Betle), and chewed with an admixture of lime and
catechu.
[167] These fruits were the Jack (_Artocarpus integrifolia_) and
bananas.
[168] According to Goes (c. 41), Gama was attended by his interpreter,
Fernão Martins, whilst the king was attended by the head Brahman, his
betel carrier, and his factor (veador da fazenda), who, he said, were
persons in his confidence.
[169] These are, of course, the letters referred to by Barros and other
historians, which were given to Gama when he left Portugal. Correa’s
story, that Vasco and his brother Paulo concocted the letters whilst
off Calecut, and forged the king’s signature, is therefore quite
incredible. Nor is Gama made to say in the “Roteiro” that he had been
sent with a fleet of fifty ships, and that the voyage took two years
(Stanley’s _Vasco da Gama_, pp. 168, 173). The “grand” Vasco has many
sins to answer for, and we ought not, without good proof, to fasten
upon him the charge of forgery. As to truthfulness, that seems not to
have been a strong point with the diplomatists of that age.
[170] That is, it was about 10 P.M.
[171] This was done to afford shelter until the rain should have ceased.
[172] It is still the practice in Calecut to ride horses without a
saddle, and no slight seems therefore to have been intended.
[173] According to G. Correa’s not very credible narrative, the captain
slept at the factory, which had been established previously to the
audience of which an account has just been given.
[174] _Lambel_, striped cloth, see p. 41, note 3.
[175] As a matter of fact, Vasco da Gama was very poorly provided with
suitable merchandise, as may be seen from the king’s letter printed in
the Appendix.
[176] Barros writes Çamorij; Correa, Samori and Çamorin, and others
Zamorin. It is a title; according to some a corrupt reading of Tamuri
Rajah, Tamuri being the name of the most exalted family of the Nair
caste, whilst others derive it from “Samudriya Rajah”, that is, “King
of the Coast” (see G. P. Badger’s _Varthema_, pp. lxii and I, 37).
[177] Whom others call his “veador”, that is butler or comptroller of
the household.
[178] That is, a man of Guzerat.
[179] “Bisarma” in the original. Herculano accepts the definition of
Spelmann (_[v]_. Ducange, _sub_ bisarma).
[180] These men were Diogo Dias, as factor, and Alvaro de Braga as his
assistant (Castanheda, I, 74.)
[181] The fanão of Calecut (according to Nunes, _O Livro dos Pesos_,
1554) is worth 25-5/7 reis, or 7.45_d._ Three hundred reis of the
coinage of 1485 were of the value of 7_s._ 7_d._, taking the gold
cruzado at 9_s._ 8_d._
[182] The bahar at Calecut is equivalent to 208.16 kilogrammes (Nunes,
_O Livro dos Pesos_.)
[183] The xerafin at Calecut is worth about 7_s._ 5_d._; the sum demanded
therefore amounted to £223.
[184] Can this be Ormuz?
[185] This Moor was Monçaide, elsewhere more accurately referred to as
“a Moor of Tunis”. See Appendix E.
[186] The author says nineteen; but it appears from what precedes that
there were only eighteen in all. See Appendix E.
[187] The author says Wednesday, but that day was the 22nd.
[188] A reference to the 600 xerafins.
[189] The “tenor”, not the literal phraseology; and hence the absence
of the complimentary verbiage so usual with Orientals must not be
interpreted as an intentional insult to the King of Portugal.
[190] This pillar was dedicated to S. Gabriel. There exists apparently
no record of its having actually been set up by the king, as promised.
[191] This “Moor of Tunis”, according to Castanheda (I, c. 24, p. 8),
was Bontaibe (Monçaide), concerning whom see Appendix E.
[192] As a matter of fact, it was only a portion of what had been
landed, and Cabral was instructed to demand payment from the Samorin
for what had not been returned (_Alguns documentos_, p. 98).
[193] Five of these men of Calecut were actually taken to Lisbon. They
were restored to their country by Cabral (see _Alguns documentos_, p.
97).
[194] Castanheda calls these “barcas”, _tones_. The “tone” is a rowing
boat, the planks of which are “sewn” together.
[195] A note by the copyist says:—“The author has omitted to tell us
how these weapons were made.”
[196] The country of Prester John (Abyssinia) was known as “Lower
India.”
[197] Ceylon cinnamon still enjoys this pre-eminence, its cultivation
in other parts of the world not having hitherto been attended with
success. The “cinnamon”, or cassia, found in Malabar is of very
inferior quality.
[198] The Moluccas, and more especially Amboīna, are the true home
of the clove, the cultivation of which is now carried on widely in
different parts of the world.
[199] Should be Arabia.
[200] The “Grand Sultan” is, of course, the Circassian Mamluk Sultan of
Egypt.
[201] Prof. Kopke rashly identifies this place with Suez, but M. F.
Denis points out that it must be Tor.
[202] The cruzado was a Portuguese gold coin worth about 9s. 8d.;
600,000 cruzados amounted thus to £290,000.
[203] This Cidadym (called Cadadin in the _Commentaries of Afonso
Dalbuquerque_, Hakluyt Society, 1875, i, p. 202) can be identified with
Sultan Muhammed ben Azhar ed-din ben Ali ben Abu Bekr ben Sa’d ed din,
of Harar, who ruled 1487-1520 (see Paulitschke, _Harar_, p. 506).
[204] Castanheda (I, c. 25, p. 84) says that Monçaide wrote this
letter, in which Vasco da Gama apologised for having carried off the
Malabaris; explained that he had done so in order that they might bear
witness to the discoveries he had made; and said that he would have
left a factor behind him if he had not been afraid that the Moors would
kill him. He expressed a hope that ultimately friendly relations would
be established to their mutual advantage. Goes (c. 43), who also gives
a version of this letter, says the king was much pleased with it, and
read it to his wives and the relatives of the kidnapped men.
[205] Burton (_Camoens_) identifies Compia with Cananor, which, on
the partition of the dominions of Cherman Perumal was included in
the kingdom of the Chirrakal Rajahs. From João de Sousa (_Documentos
Arabicos_, p. 80) we learn that the king with whom Vasco da Gama made a
treaty in 1502 was called Cotelery. Correa (Stanley’s _Vasco da Gama_,
p. 224) gives a circumstantial account of Vasco da Gama’s transactions
with the king of Cananor during this first voyage. Neither Goes nor
Barros knows anything about these events.
[206] These are the Netrani or Pigeon Islands (Ilhas dos Pombos), in
lat. 14° 1´ N., the largest being about half a mile in length, and
rising to a height of 300 feet.
[207] The Anjediva or “Five Islands” lie close to the coast in 14° 45´
N., and about 40 miles to the south of Goa. The largest of these is
not quite a mile in length. It rises boldly from the sea, but a beach
on its northern side affords facilities for landing. D. Francisco de
Almeida built a fort there in 1505, but it was demolished seven months
afterwards. The existing fortifications were erected by order of
Francisco de Tavora, Conde d’Alvar, in 1682. (See A. Lopez Mendes, _A
India Portugueza_, ii, 1886, p. 209, with map.)
[208] The author says 19th, but Thursday was the 20th.
[209] These branches and leaves were carried to Portugal, as we learn
from the king’s letter (see Appendix A), but they had most certainly
not been taken from true cinnamon trees, for only an inferior cassia is
found in that part of India.
[210] Barros and Goes say that the leader of these vessels was a
pirate named Timoja, whose head-quarters were at Onor. He subsequently
rendered valuable services to the Portuguese. (See Stanley’s _Vasco da
Gama_, p. 244.)
[211] This island was the largest of the Anjediva.
[212] Three lingams, emblems of the generative power?
[213] The _fusta_ is a galley or undecked rowing boat, with one mast.
For an illustration see Linschoten’s _Itinerarium ofte Schip-vaert_,
etc.
[214] Tambaram, in Malayalam, has merely the meaning of lord or master.
[215] This man subsequently became known as Gaspar da Gama. See
Appendix E.
[216] The Sabayo or Governor of Goa.
[217] The original MS. uses the verb “perguntar”, that is, to question;
but Barros says that he was tortured, and this would account for his
attempting to make himself understood by “gestures”, when previously he
had spoken very fluently, and had been understood.
[218] September 24 to October 5 is twelve days, both days inclusive.
[219] From October 5 to January 2.
[220] At Mombaça.
[221] The MS. says “February” but this is an obvious mistake.
[222] From Moçambique to Madagascar is only 60 leagues; 300 leagues
would carry a ship as far as the Seychelles.
[223] Mukhdisho of the Arabs, Madisha of the Somal, in lat. 5° N. The
town was founded by Arabs, perhaps on the site of a more ancient city,
in 907, and attained the height of its prosperity under the dynasty of
the El Mdofer, which was expelled by the Abgal Somal, probably in the
sixteenth century.
[224] Whether merely as a sign of rejoicing or in wanton enmity is not
clear.
[225] Pate is an island in 26° 5´ S., with a town of the same name.
[226] The author says the 9th, but Monday was the 7th. The stay of five
days extended from the 7th to the 11th.
[227] “Vasco da Gama’s Pillar”, now to be seen at Malindi, close to the
town (to the left of it as seen from the sea) and at the extremity of
a narrow rocky promontory of only a few feet in height, is certainly
not the padrão erected by the great navigator, though it probably
occupies its site. When Cabral arrived at Malindi in 1501 the pillar
had been removed, it having proved a “stone of offence” to the people
of Mombaça. The king, however, had stowed it away carefully, and had
even caused the royal arms to be repainted. João de Sá, who had been
with Gama, identified it.
The existing pillar, of which we give an illustration, is built up
of concrete made of coral rock and lime. It rises to a height of 16
feet, and is surmounted by a cross, bearing on the sea side the arms
of Portugal, but no inscription. It is not the pillar put up at the
request of Vasco da Gama, but Sir John Kirk feels sure that the cross
is very ancient. The latter is of sandstone, and evidently of local
make, whilst the other crosses discovered hitherto are of limestone or
marble. See Introduction.
[228] This ambassador returned with Cabral in 1501.
[229] The figure-head of the _S. Raphael_ was taken away by Vasco da
Gama and treated as an heirloom by the family, several members of
which carried it with them on their travels. It ultimately found a
resting-place in the church of Vidigueira, founded by D. Francisco da
Gama. When the church was desecrated in 1840, the figure was removed to
another church, where Texeira de Aragão discovered it in 1853. It is
now in the church at Belem. The figure is carved in oak, and about 24
inches in height (see _Texeira de Aragão_, in the Boletim of the Lisbon
Geographical Society, VI, 1886, p. 621.)
[230] The author says five, but from January 13 to January 27, both
included, is fifteen days.
[231] Barros says _Tangata_. It is Mtangata (see note, p. 33).
[232] Zanzibar is only twenty miles (six leagues) from the mainland.
[233] Twenty-seven days carry us from March 20 to April 16.
[234] The author here evidently refers to tornadoes or violent gusts
of wind peculiar to the west coast of Africa, and more frequent at the
beginning and termination of the rainy season. They generally blow off
shore, their approach being indicated by an arch of clouds, from which
lightning and thunder constantly proceed. At Sierra Leone the rainy
season begins at the end of April (see _Africa Pilot_, 1893, Part II,
p. 10).
[235] The Rio Grande of the Portuguese is an arm of the sea from five
to thirteen miles in breadth, called Orango Channel on the Admiralty
Chart. It lies between the mainland and the Bissagos islands.
[236] This church was demolished in 1646; the place of burial can no
longer be identified.
[237] See _Jose da Silva Mendes Leal_ (Transactions of Lisbon Academy,
1871), and _Texeira de Aragão_ (Boletim Lisbon Geogr. Soc., VI, 1886,
p. 583).
[238] This trustworthy man can have been no other than the “Moor” who
was carried off from Anjediva (see Appendix E), and who, having been
baptised, became known as Gaspar da Gama.
[239] The frazila of Calecut is equal to 10.4 kilogr.; the fanão is
worth 25-5/7 reis of 1555 (about 7.45_d._) and the cruzado is worth
9_s._ 8_d._ But if 3 cruzados are accepted as the equivalent of 50
fanãos, the value of a fanão would be 6.96_d._
[240] I have little doubt that instead of Baqua we ought to read
Bezoar. In D. Manuel’s letter to the King of Castile, the royal writer
states that among the presents which the King of Cochin gave to Vasco
da Gama (in 1502) there was a stone as large as a filbert, which was
taken out of the head of a very rare animal, called Burgoldof, and
which proved a specific against all poisons.
The Rev. J. J. Jaus, of the Basel Mission, informs me that the
bezoar, in Malayalam, is called _Gōrōchanam_, which means “out of
the cow’s brain”, _go_ signifying cow. It still sells for its weight
in silver, and is highly prized as a medicine and antidote. My
esteemed correspondent is unable to enlighten me as to the meaning of
_burgoldof_.
Bishop J. M. Speechly, in a letter addressed to me, suggests that
“Baqua” (Bakwa) may be a corruption of “Bagawat”, a common name for
Shiva, and the “Stone of Baqua” a dedication to him.
The Arabic name of the bezoar (badesar) has the meaning of antidote.
This “stone” is a calcareous concretion found in the intestines of some
animals, more especially goats and antelopes, but also in those of
monkeys. It varies in size from a pea to a fist. All through the Middle
Ages, this oriental bezoar was looked upon as a most potent medicine
against poisons, and it is still highly valued in the East. The Bezoar
of Goa (Gowa) is an artificial product made up of musk, ambergris, and
gum of tragacanth.
[241] The pequy (pik) is about 27 inches.
[242] This, according to Prof. Kopke, is meant for Crangalor, the
modern Kodungalar in Cochin. The frazila there is equal to 8.314 kilo.,
and the fanão, when buying pepper, is valued at 22-8/19 reis (6.5_d._).
[243] It is the Coilum of Marco Polo, the Columbum of Friar Jordanus
(1330), the modern Quilon. It is one of the principal seats of the
Syrian Christians. The Portuguese built a fort there in 1503.
[244] Marco Polo’s Cael has been satisfactorily identified by Dr.
Caldwell with the decayed village of Kayal (Palaya Kayal), near the
mouth of the Tamrapanni river; whilst our author’s Caell is the
Callegrande of Barros, now represented by Kayal Patnam, some distance
to the south of that river. (Comp. Yule’s _Marco Polo_, ii, p. 307.)
The pearl fisheries are near it, on the coast of Ceylon.
[245] According to Prof. Kopke, it extended from Point Calymere to the
Godavari.
[246] Barbosa (p. 214) says that “the best sapphires are found in
Ceylon,” as also “many rubies,” but inferior to those of Pegu.
[247] The silk referred to by the author, as also by Barbosa and
Barros, is the produce of the silk cotton tree (_Bombax malabaricum_)
and is much inferior in quality to true silk.—KOPKE.
[248] This, according to Prof. Kopke and Yule (_Marco Polo_, ii, p.
222), is Siam, the old capital of which (Ayuthia) is called Sornau or
Xarnau by Varthema, Giovanni d’Empoli, and Mendez Pinto.
[249] Benzoin (Gum-Benjamin) is the produce of Styrax Benzoin, found in
Siam, Cochin-China, Java and Sumatra, that of Siam being accounted the
best.
[250] The odoriferous aloe-wood of the author is the wood of _Aquilaria
Agallocha (Roxb.)_, found in Further India, and more especially in
Chamba. Its Sanscrit name, Aguru, was corrupted into Agila and Aquila;
and hence its Latin and Portuguese name of “Eaglewood.” (Yule’s _Marco
Polo_, ii, p. 215.)
[251] Prof. Kopke identifies Tenacar with Tenasserim, a great emporium
at one time, through which the products of Siam reached the outer world.
[252] Brazil-wood first became known in Europe at the beginning of
the fourteenth century under the designation of _Lignum presillum_.
The most esteemed kind of this dye-wood is known as Sapan wood
(_Caesalpinia sappan_), found more especially in Siam.
[253] This is no doubt Bengal, the capital of which was Chatigam
(Chittagong).
[254] Cloves were originally found only in the Moluccas; the true
nutmeg (_Myristica moschata_) comes from the same islands and those
further to the east. Tin was—and still is—a native product. The silk
and porcelain came from China.
[255] The frazila was equal to 10.51 kilo., the bahar was 210.22 kilo.
The cruzado was a silver coin and was valued at 360 reis (8_s._ 8_d._).
[256] Barbosa (p. 186) gives a better account of musk, which really
only reaches Pegu from the interior. It is the secretion of _Moschus
moschiferus_, an animal resembling a deer, which lives in the mountains
lying between the Amur river, China and India. The male has a pouch
between the navel and the genitals which holds about 50 grammes of this
secretion.
[257] Burma, above Pegu, is still famous for its rubies.
[258] This is evidently a duplicate account of what has been said above
about Bemgala.
[259] Prof. Kopke would identify this with Timor, where there is a fort
called Camanaça. This, however, is quite inadmissible, for there are no
elephants in Timor. I am more inclined to think that “Conimata” stands
for Sumatra, a small state in North Sumatra, adjoining Pedir. The
voyage to Pater and Conimata is stated to occupy the same time, viz.,
fifty days. If this be so, there is a duplication of Sumatra as well as
of Bengal.
[260] This seems to be Pedir, a small kingdom in Northern Sumatra,
which had a pagan king when Varthema was there, although many of the
inhabitants were Mohammedans. Rhubarb (_Rheum officinale_) is, however,
only to be found in W. and N.W. China and in Tibet. The lacca tree is a
native of Sumatra.
[261] Say £966.
[262] In calculating these values we have assumed the quintal to be
equivalent to 100 pounds, the bahar = 460 pounds, the ratel = 1 pound.
The cruzado is taken at 9_s._ 8_d._
It is interesting to compare these prices with those given by Duarte
Barbosa for Calecut. Assuming the fanão to be worth 6.5_d._ they were
as follows per pound:—Cinnamon, 4.3_d._; cloves, 7.2_d._ to 8.3_d._;
pepper, 2.9_d._ to 3.3_d._; ginger, 0.5_d._ to 0.9_d._; nutmeg, 3.0_d._
to 3.36_d._; lac, 3.6_d._ to 5.2_d._; rhubarb, 9_s._ 9_d._ to 11_s._;
musk, £15 11_s._; aloe-wood, 24_s._ 7_d._; frankincense, 0.9_d._ to
1.5_d._ A purchaser of one pound of each of these commodities would
have paid at Calecut £17 13_s._ 6_d._, and would have received at
Alexandria £57 12_s._ 8_d._, an increase of 210 per cent. (See Lord
Stanley of Alderley’s version of _Duarte Barbosa_, Hakluyt Society,
1866, p. 219.)
Present Retail Prices in London are as follows (per pound): cinnamon,
1_s._ 8_d._; cloves, 1_s._ 6_d._; pepper, 7½_d._ to 10½_d._;
ginger, 10_d._ to 1_s._ 4_d._; nutmeg, 2_s._ 6_d._ to 3_s._; lac,
8_d._; rhubarb, 8_s._ to 12_s._; musk, £117.