Transcriber’s Note
Italic text displayed as: _italic_
FURNITURE
UPHOLSTERY
FOR SCHOOLS
BY
EMIL A. JOHNSON, B.S., A.M.
_Assistant Professor of Manual Arts.
Bradley Polytechnic Institute,
Peoria, Illinois_
[Illustration: Decoration]
THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS
PEORIA, ILLINOIS
1919
COPYRIGHT, 1919, BY
EMIL A. JOHNSON
PREFACE
The purpose of this book is to give information concerning the
methods by which upholstery work may be successfully carried on
in school shops. The added beauty and comfort given to furniture
by upholstery makes work of this character worth while. If period
furniture is to be reproduced or modified, the worker must understand
the art of upholstering.
The tendency to reproduce or copy good old pieces of furniture should
be encouraged, for only in this way may a student obtain a proper
background, from which may be developed a new style. New ideas,
derived from the best of the old, are likely to serve humanity in the
best way.
The study of the art of upholstery is an interesting one. It leads
into many avenues of interest and profit, such as the history and
methods of weaving; the processes of tanning and coloring; the
manufacture and history of textiles; and the like. Such correlation
is valuable, and each is distinctly educational.
I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Prof. Chas. A. Bennett
for valuable suggestions and inspiration; to David H. Tingwall for
valuable help, and photographs; to A. C. Newell for suggestions on
the outlines; to Wm. F. Tuttle for the photographs of antiquarian
furniture taken at the Art Institute of Chicago; to Bessie Bennett
for certain information about the furniture; to John R. Fasier for
the drawing in Fig. 28; and to my former and present Bradley students
for inspiration and help.
The practical contents have been verified and corroborated by Henry
Euler, a practical upholsterer for fifty-nine years, and by Herman
Schwartling who has followed the trade for thirty years.
EMIL A. JOHNSON.
Peoria, Illinois, February, 1919.
CONTENTS
PART I
PAGE
CHAPTER I. HISTORICAL 7
CHAPTER II. TOOLS AND MATERIALS 11
Tools 11
Materials 11
PART II
UPHOLSTERY WITHOUT SPRINGS
CHAPTER III. UPHOLSTERING BOARD STRUCTURES 16
A Low Footstool 16
A Cart 17
A Leg Rest 17
A Footstool 21
Materials Required 23
CHAPTER IV. UPHOLSTERING CHAIR SEATS 24
A Chair Seat 24
A Set-in Seat 27
CHAPTER V. UPHOLSTERING A FRAMED STRUCTURE 28
Footstool 28
Procedure 29
Materials 36
Order of Procedure 37
Different Methods 37
PART III
UPHOLSTERY WITH SPRINGS
CHAPTER VI. MAKING A HARD-EDGE SEAT 38
Method 38
Process 40
A Queen Anne Stool 47
CHAPTER VII. RE-UPHOLSTERING 50
Old Furniture 50
CHAPTER VIII. SPRING-EDGE UPHOLSTERY 53
OUTLINES 60
INDEX 64
[Illustration: A QUEEN ANNE STOOL WHICH ILLUSTRATES A HARD-EDGE SEAT,
SEE CHAPTER VI.]
PART I
CHAPTER I
HISTORICAL
Upholstering in its broadest sense means the furnishing of a house
with draperies, curtains and other hangings; bedding; coverings
for couches, chairs and stools; and coverings for carriages and
automobiles.
The word upholster, or upholsterer, designates the workman who
hangs the draperies and attaches textiles or leather to furniture.
In the early days of the craft, as well as today, draperies had
to be hung in a manner that assured retention of their shape, and
textiles required stuffing and springs underneath to give the fabric
permanent form. This holding up attribute led to the use of the
words “upholder,” “upholster,” “upholstering,” and “upholsterer.”
These applied also to furniture huxters who held up their wares for
inspection when sold at auction.
“The old time castle or baronial hall, with its strong stone walls
and stone floors, was, so far as comfort went, little better than
the clay hut of the feudal serf; but when the ladies of the baronial
family had excogitated, or acquired the art of needlecraft, and had
become proficient therein, the “up-holder” sprang into being, as a
necessary adjunct to an important family. The ladies’ needlework
(tapestry) was obviously adapted to drape the rude stone walls of the
feudal hall, and the artisan who could drape or hang it effectively
and without injury was a useful dependent, or tradesman, who, as
he caused the tapestry to “hold up,” naturally became known as an
“up-holder,” or “upholsterer.”
“The Egyptians from the earliest times used upholstered couches,
chairs, and footstools,” says Richard Bitmead. “It is known, too,
that their neighbors, the Assyrians, excelled in weaving and
practiced the art of decorating draperies by the introduction of gold
in the woof. The rich carpets of Persia and the muslins of India were
in use for ages before the Romans set foot in Britain, and there can
be little doubt but that the Oriental people raised the art to a
very high standard, and long before the trade was known in Europe.
But at the present time, much more so than formerly, the progress
of the arts, the refinements of taste, the caprice of fashion, and
the habits and requirements of luxurious ease, which have extended
to all classes of society, have given a greater impetus to the trade
and a far higher importance to the art of upholstery than it has ever
before attained.”
Research shows that in the early seventeenth century, at the
beginning of the Jacobean period, stools, chairs, settees and sofas
were upholstered. Both seats and backs were padded and covered with
leather or textiles. Sometimes, instead of tacking the goods onto the
furniture itself, loose cushions were made to fit the frame. These
cushions were called “squabs.” With the introduction of leather in
upholstering, comfort was not the primary thought, but in common with
all structures of the period, durability was a first consideration.
So the leather utilized was thick and stiff, thus offering
durability, but little comfort.
The Flanders chair shown in Fig. 1 is done in leather. It is one
of two side chairs from the seventeenth century. One has a plain
leather back; the other is tooled, illustrating a decorative coat of
arms. The leather in this chair is made thick and rigid by the use
of a stiff paper core, on both sides of which is glued a jute-like
fabric, and over this the leather. This makes a five ply composition
of almost everlasting wearing qualities, but very susceptible to
checking and cracking.
The arm chair shown in Fig. 2 is Italian, from the early seventeenth
century. It has carved finials. Webbing is used as a foundation for
the seat, over which a jute-like fabric is fastened. A canvas fabric
is placed over this. The stuffing is placed over this and covered
with leather, which is nailed to the structure with large, flat,
brass-headed nails. The edging is a fabric gimp with fringed edge.
The arm chair illustrated in Fig. 3 is Italian, from the sixteenth
century. It has carved finials but no turned work. The leather back
is tooled, and gilded with an elaborate design. The leather seat has
been blocked up from below to maintain the original appearance, and
the leather is not the same grade as used on the back. Round headed
nails, of two sizes, and the fringed gimp, complete the ornamentation.
[Illustration: FIG. 1]
[Illustration: FIG. 2]
The chair shown in Fig. 4 is an English ladder-back side chair from
the seventeenth century. Here we have both comfort and practicability
combined. The seat is built up with webbing, canvas and stuffing, and
covered with a needlework tapestry. It is finished with a fringed
gimp with brass headed nails.
Not only does upholstery add comfort to furniture, but it reflects
the conditions in the life of a people. Alice F. Schmall said
recently: “With the accession of James I to the throne of England
the style of dress changed to trunk hose and padded doublet, and
the carven forms of furniture gave place to upholstery. There is a
sense of dignity and refinement about a really fine chair; and the
modern upholstered chair, which Chippendale developed, shows that our
ancestors were fully alive to its advantages in the way of comfort.”
[Illustration: FIG. 3]
[Illustration: FIG. 4]
Good modern upholstery is to a great extent a copy of the older
forms. Newer goods are utilized but old methods of application are
retained. The cheaper forms of upholstery are, however, entirely
modern. While formerly there existed no cheap upholstery, today wire
and band iron are used in place of webbing, and tufting is done by
machine.
CHAPTER II
TOOLS AND MATERIALS
TOOLS.—The only tools needed in simple upholstery, besides those
in the average manual training shop, are a gimp hammer, a webbing
stretcher, a pair of scissors, a regulator and straight and curved
needles. In Fig. 5, from left to right are illustrated: webbing
stretcher, regulator, gimp hammer and a pair of scissors.
The webbing stretcher may be made by driving nails into a formed
piece of wood as shown, 3½ inches wide by 7 inches long. Then cut or
file off the heads and file each to a sharp point.
The regulator is a long wire sharpened at one end and used for
sticking thru the muslin cover to rearrange the stuffing, to insure
evenness. This tool may be made from a heavy wire bent in the form of
a ring at one end, and sharpened at the other. Scissors 8 inches or
more in length are more convenient than smaller ones.
Two needles are required, a straight double pointed one 12 inches
long, and a curved single pointed one 6 inches long. Several other
kinds will facilitate work, however. A straight, double pointed
6-inch needle is convenient for sewing springs to webbing and
triangular pointed needles are best adapted for sewing leather.
Skewers are upholstery pins, usually 3 or 3½ inches long. They are
pointed on one end and bent in a circle on the other. These are used
in doing welt-edged work, or wherever it is necessary to hold goods
temporarily while adjusting the work.
All these tools may be purchased from any firm dealing in upholstery
supplies.
MATERIALS.—Webbing is our first consideration in the matter of
materials. The two best kinds are L. M. C. and B. F. M. The former
has a closer weave and is of better quality than the latter. It will
withstand great strain before its elasticity gives out. It is good
policy to purchase the better grade inasmuch as it costs but 30 cents
more for a 72-yard piece. L. M. C. comes in two widths, 3½ inch and
4½ inch, with the former width in more general use. The 3½ inch
variety may be purchased for about $1.65 per 72-yard roll.
Burlap is the best material to use over webbing and over springs. It
will not rip and tear as readily as most textiles and it is therefore
a preferred material. Burlap comes in three weights: light (8 oz.),
medium (10 oz.), and heavy (12 oz.). The medium weight is best
adapted for our work. This may be purchased for 9 cents a yard. It
is 40 inches wide. Used burlap may ordinarily be purchased at local
dry-goods stores for about 5 cents per pound. Even considering waste,
this is much cheaper and quite as good as new burlap for the work
intended.
[Illustration: FIG. 5]
Several kinds of material may be employed for stuffing. The very
best material available is curled horse hair. It is also the most
expensive, costing from 30 to 65 cents per pound depending upon
quality. The stuffing recommended for such work as ours is tow.
This may be purchased by the 100-pound bale at a cost of 2 cents
per pound. There are three grades of tow: fine, medium and coarse.
The fine variety should be used, for the coarser kinds are hard to
manipulate and result in uneven surfaces after a period of use.
Even with the medium grade of tow it is necessary to use a layer
of wadding over it to prevent ridges showing thru the cover. Other
stuffing materials are moss, kapok, alva, and excelsior. Cork
shavings are generally used for boat cushions.
When cloth is desired between the stuffing and cover, unbleached
muslin should be used. In cheaper work this is eliminated. In our
work we will find it advantageous, for it gives to the seat the
proper shape, and permits better and smoother work on the final
covering. After the application of the muslin, if it is found that
the seat is not of the desired shape, more stuffing may be added or
the stuffing may be distributed by the regulator. Muslin 36 inches
wide may be obtained for 7 cents a yard from any local dry-goods
store.
Wadding is a kind of stuffing arranged in sheets. It is used over
other stuffing. Its function is to give a smooth, even appearance to
the seat or cushion. Wadding is invariably used over curled hair to
prevent the ends of the hair from penetrating the cover. It may be
purchased in sheets 30 × 36 inches; the one pound quality at 35 cents
per dozen sheets.
It is generally desirable to place cloth under the seat to prevent
dust from falling to the floor from the seat, and to exclude moths
from the stuffing. Cambric is desirable for this purpose. It has a
finish which makes it dust-proof, but it tears easily and cannot
supplant the muslin used over stuffing. Cambric comes in a 24-inch
width and costs about 5½ cents per yard.
There are innumerable varieties of fabrics adapted for outside
coverings, and good taste and judgment must be used in selecting
proper kinds for certain jobs. It is obvious that office and library
furniture require coverings of a different quality and kind from
that of the living room; and dining room furniture from that of the
bedroom. A footstool may properly be given a covering of different
character from a chair seat. In the selection of figured goods great
discretion is necessary. The figures on fabrics for a chair seat or
back should manifestly be smaller and more subdued than those for a
sofa or davenport. A sense of good design needs to be developed here,
for proper selection is essential, both as regards color, figure, and
adaptability to the particular structure, and its placement.
The first piece of tapestry woven in this country was completed in
1893. It was for a chair seat. The second was a counterpart of the
first and is now in the Field Museum of Chicago.
Tapestry may be defined as printing in colored threads. The most
perfect work in tapestry is produced on vertical looms, but one-third
more work may be accomplished on horizontal looms in the same length
of time. A Gobelin workman on a vertical loom produces on an average,
one square yard of tapestry in 300 working days. The art in this work
is the graduation of shades. In the best days of tapestry weaving,
between 1450 and 1550, but twenty to sixty shades were known, while
today we have knowledge of over 14,000.
“Brocade” is the term applied to any material having a raised
pattern. Formerly the name referred to materials with embroidered
patterns upon colored fabrics. “Chintz” is the term applied to
cotton cloth printed with a floral or bird design. “Denim” is a
strong, twilled cotton fabric. “Gunny” is jute-cloth. “Burlap” is a
substitute for gunny cloth.
There are three classes of coverings in upholstery: genuine leather,
textiles, and leather substitutes. Leather substitutes, or so-called
artificial leather, is well adapted for beginners in upholstery,
and is inexpensive. It is manufactured in 50 and 54-inch widths,
and costs from 60 cents to $1.75 per yard. Trade names of leather
substitute are Marokene, Chase Leather, Hercules, Victor Leather,
Pantasote, Mole Skin, Mule Skin, etc. The better varieties are very
durable and very closely resemble leather. Genuine leather costs from
16 to 36 cents per square foot in the whole hide or full skin, and up
to 75 cents per foot cut to size. Cloth or textiles cost from $1.00
to $3.00 per yard in the general run of grades. They may cost as high
as $10.00 per yard. Tapestry may run into prohibitive costs. Some of
the best textiles are tapestries, brocades, velvets, plushes, satins
and hair cloth; cheaper ones are velours, chintz, reps, and denims.
Gimp is a narrow edging used for covering raw edges of the cover and
heads of common tacks which secure the cover. It comes in rolls of 25
to 36 yards. Black imitation leather gimp costs 20 cents a roll of 25
yards, and brown or Spanish, 35 cents. Cloth gimp costs from 2 to 3
cents a yard.
Three kinds of nails may be used in the work outlined: solid leather,
Perfection and Metalene. Metalene is perhaps the most satisfactory.
These come in the following numbers with attendant sizes; No.
230—½-inch head; No. 240—⅜-inch head; No. 250—7/16-inch head; No.
260—9/16-inch head, and No. 270—¾-inch head. No. 250 is used in our
work. They cost 80 cents per thousand in the plain, and 90 cents in
Spanish effect.
Upholstery springs may be purchased from 3 to 16 inches in height.
They cost 6 cents a pound and weigh from 22 to 100 pounds per gross.
On this basis the cost of the large ones approximates 4 cents apiece.
The 9-inch springs are most frequently used, and their cost is a
trifle over 2 cents apiece. It is better to purchase springs longer
than necessary than to obtain them too short, for they may easily be
tied down. They should be twice as long as the width of the rails
into which they are placed.
Spring twine is needed for tying the springs. No. 60 four-ply Italian
hemp serves this purpose very well. This can be purchased for 27
cents a pound in one-pound balls.
Stitching twine is also needed for spring and stitched edge work. For
this purpose No. 252 elm flax stitching is used. This costs 30 cents
per half-pound ball.
The prices quoted are wholesale. Retail prices vary so much in
different communities, and even in different places in the same
community that they cannot be given with any fair degree of accuracy.
The wholesale prices quoted will, however, give some idea of the cost
of materials to the workman. At present, however, even wholesale
prices are very unstable. All prices above are pre-war prices.
PART II
UPHOLSTERY WITHOUT SPRINGS