A small capon, fowl, or chicken requires........... 0 26
A large fowl ....... 0 45
A capon, full size ........ 0 35
A goose ........... 1 0
Wild ducks, and grouse ..... 0 15
Pheasants, and turkey poults ... 0 20
A moderate sized turkey, stuffed . . 1 15
Partridges .......... 0 25
Quail .............. 0 10
A hare, or rabbit .....about 1 0
Leg of pork, 1/4 hour for each
pound, and above that allowance .................. 0 20
Chine of pork, as for leg, and ... 0 20
A neck of mutton ....... 1 30
A haunch of venison . . . about 3 30
1065. Effectiveness of Roasting.
Roasting, by causing the contraction of the cellular substance which
contains the fat, expels more fat than boiling. The free escape of
watery particles in the form of vapour, so necessary to produce
flavour, must be regulated by frequent basting with the fat which has
exuded from the meat, combined with a little salt and water--otherwise
the meat would burn, and become hard and tasteless. A brisk fire at
first will, by charring the outside, prevent the heat from
penetrating, and therefore should only be employed when the meat is
half roasted.
1066. The Loss by Roasting (General).
The loss by roasting is said to vary from 14-3/8ths to nearly double
that rate per cent. The average loss on roasting butcher's meat is 22
percent.: and on domestic poultry, 20-1/2.
1067. The Loss by Roasting (Specific).
The loss per cent, on roasting beef, viz., on sirloins and ribs
together is 19-1/6 th; on mutton, viz., legs and shoulders together,
24-4/5 ths, on fore-quarters of lamb, 22-1/3 rd; on ducks, 27-1/5 th;
on turkeys, 20-1/2; on geese, 19-1/2; on chickens, 14-3/5 ths. So that
it will be seen by comparison with the percentage given of the loss by
boiling, that roasting is not so economical; especially when we take
into account that the loss of weight by boiling is not actual loss of
economic materials, for we then possess the principal ingredients for
soups; whereas, after roasting, the fat only remains. The average loss
in boiling and and roasting together is 18 per cent. according to
Donovan, and 28 per cent. according to Wallace--a difference that may
be accounted for by supposing a difference in the fatness of the meat,
duration and degree of heat, &c., employed.
1068. Boiling.
This most simple of culinary processes is not often performed in
perfection; it does not require quite so much nicety and attendance as
roasting; to skim your pot well, and keep it really boiling, or
rather, simmering, all the while--to know how long is required for
doing the joint, &c., and to take it up at the critical moment when it
is done enough--comprehends almost the whole art and mystery. This,
however, demands a patient and perpetual vigilance, of which,
unhappily, few persons are capable.
The cook must take especial care that the water really boils all the
while she is cooking, or she will be deceived in the time; and make up
a sufficient fire (a frugal cook will manage with much less fire for
boiling than she uses for roasting) at first, to last all the time,
without much mending or stirring, and thereby save much trouble. When
the pot is coming to a boil, there will always, from the cleanest meat
and clearest water, rise a scum to the top of it; proceeding partly
from the foulness of the meat, and partly from the water: this must be
carefully taken off, as soon as it rises. On this depends the good
appearance of all boiled things--an essential matter.
When you have skimmed well, put in some cold water, which will throw
up the rest of the scum. The oftener it is skimmed, and the clearer
the surface of the water is kept, the cleaner will be the meat. If let
alone, it soon boils down and sticks to the meat, which, instead of
looking delicately white and nice, will have that coarse appearance we
have too often to complain of, and the butcher and poulterer will be
blamed for the carelessness of the cook, in not skimming her pot with
due diligence.
Many put in milk, to make what they boil look white, but this does
more harm than good; others wrap it up in a cloth; but these are
needless precautions; if the scum be attentively removed, meat will
have a much more delicate colour and finer flavour than it has when
muffled up. This may give rather more trouble--but those we wish to
excel in their art must only consider how the processes of it can be
most perfectly performed: a cook who has a proper pride and pleasure
in her business will make this her maxim and rule on all occasions.
Put your meat into cold water, in the proportion of about a quart of
water to a pound of meat; it should be covered with water during the
whole of the process of boiling, but not drowned in it; the less
water, provided the meat be covered with it, the more savoury will be
the meat, and the better will be the broth in every respect. The water
should be heated gradually, according to the thickness, &c., of the
article boiled; for instance, a leg of mutton of ten pounds weight
should be placed over a moderate fire, which will gradually make the
water hot without causing it to boil, for about forty minutes; if the
water boils much sooner, the meat will be hardened, and shrink up as
if it was scorched--by keeping the water a certain time heating
without boiling, its fibres are dilated, and it yields a quantity of
scum, which must be taken off as soon as it rises, for the reasons
already mentioned.
"If a vessel containing water be placed over a steady fire, the
water will grow continually hotter, till it reaches the limit of
boiling; after which, the regular accessions of heat are wholly
spent in converting it into steam: the water remains at the same
pitch of temperature, however fiercely it boils. The only difference
is, that with a strong fire it sooner comes to boil, and more
quickly boils away, and is converted into steam."
Such are the opinions stated by Buchanan in his "Economy of Fuel."
There was placed a thermometer in water in that state which cooks call
gentle simmering--the heat was 212°, _i.e._, the same degree as the
strongest boiling. Two mutton chops were covered with cold water, and
one boiled fiercely, and the other simmered gently, for three-quarters
of an hour; the flavour of the chop which was simmered was decidedly
superior to that which was boiled; the liquor which boiled fast was in
like proportion more savoury, and, when cold, had much more fat on its
surface; this explains why quick boiling renders meat hard,
&c.--because its juices are extracted in a greater degree.
[A SCRAPER AT THE DOOR KEEPS DIRT FROM THE FLOOR.]
1069. Time of Boiling.
Reckon the time from the water first coming to a boil. The old rule,
of fifteen minutes to a pound of meat, is, perhaps, rather too little;
the slower the meat boils, the tenderer, the plumper, and whiter it
will be. For those who choose their food thoroughly cooked (which all
will who have any regard for their stomachs), twenty minutes to a
pound will not be found too much for gentle simmering by the side of
the fire; allowing more or less time, according to the thickness of
the joint and the coldness of the weather; always remembering, the
slower it boils the better. Without some practice it is difficult to
teach any art; and cooks seem to suppose they must be right, if they
put meat into a pot, and set it over the fire for a certain
time--making no allowance, whether it simmers without a bubble, or
boils at a gallop.
[A LETTER-BOX SAVES MANY KNOCKS.]
1070. Before Boiling.
Fresh killed meat will take much longer time boiling than that which
has been kept till it is what the butchers call ripe, and longer in
cold than in warm weather. If it be frozen it must be thawed before
boiling as before roasting; if it be fresh killed, it will be tough
and hard, if you stew it ever so long, and ever so gently. In cold
weather, the night before you dress it, bring it into a place of which
the temperature is not less than forty-five degrees of Fahrenheit's
thermometer.
The size of the boiling-pots should be adapted to what they are to
contain; the larger the saucepan the more room it takes upon the fire;
and a larger quantity of water requires a proportionate increase of
fire to boil it. In small families block tin saucepans are best, as
being lightest and safest: moreover, if proper care is taken of them,
and they are well dried after they are cleansed, they are by far the
cheapest; the purchase of a new tin saucepan being little more than
the expense of tinning a copper one. Take care that the covers of your
boiling-pots fit close, not only to prevent unnecessary evaporation of
the water, but that the smoke may not insinuate itself under the edge
of the lid, and give the meat a bad taste.
1071. Average Boiling Times.
The following Table will be useful as an average of the time required
to boil the various articles:
H.M.
A ham, 20 lbs. weight, requires 6 30
A tongue (if dry), after soaking 4 O
A tongue out of pickle 2-1/2 to 3 O
A neck of mutton 1 30
A chicken O 20
A large fowl O 45
A capon O 35
A pigeon O 15
1072. Remove Immediately.
If you let meat or poultry remain in the water after it is done
enough, it will become sodden and lose its flavour.
1073. Degree of Cooking.
Beef and mutton is preferred by some people a little underdone. Very
large joints if slightly underdone, will make the better hash or
broil. Lamb, pork, and veal are uneatable if not thoroughly
boiled--but these meats should not be overdone. A trivet, a
fish-drainer, or an American contrivance called a "spider"--which is
nothing more than a wire dish raised on three or four short legs--put
on the bottom of the boiling-pot, raising the contents about an inch
and a half from the bottom, will prevent that side of the meat which
comes next the bottom being done too much; and the lower part will be
as delicately done as the upper; and this will enable you to take out
the meat without inserting a fork, &c., into it. If yeu have not a
trivet, a drainer, or a "spider," use a soup-plate laid the wrong side
upwards.
1074. Stock.
Take care of the liquor you have boiled poultry or meat in, as it is
useful for making soup.
1075. Using the Stock.
The good housewife never boils a joint without converting the broth
into some sort of soup.
1076. Reducing Salt.
If the liquor be too salt, use only half the quantity, and add some
water; wash salted meat well with cold water before you put it into
the boiler.
1077. The Process of Boiling.
Boiling extracts a portion of the juice of meat, which mixes with the
water, and also dissolves some of its solids; the more fusible parts
of the fat melt out, combine with the water, and form soup or broth.
The meat loses its red colour, becomes more savoury in taste and
smell, and more firm and digestible. If the process is continued _too
long_, the meat becomes indigestible, less succulent, and tough.
1078. Loss by Boiling (General).
The loss by boiling varies from 6-1/4 to 16 per cent. The average loss
on boiling butcher's meat, pork, hams, and bacon, is 12; and on
domestic poultry, is 14-3/4.
1079. Loss by Boiling (Specific).
The loss per cent, on boiling salt beef is 15; on legs of mutton, 10;
hams, 12-1/2; salt pork, 13-1/3; knuckles of veal, 8-1/3; bacon,
6-1/4; turkeys, 16; chickens, 13-1/2.
1080. Economy of Fat.
In most families many members are not fond of fat--servants seldom
like it: consequently there is frequently much wasted; to avoid which,
take off bits of suet fat from beefsteaks, &c., previous to cooking;
they can be used for puddings. With good management there need be no
waste in any shape or form.
[A BELL HUNG WELL ITS TALE WILL TELL.]
1081. Broiling.
Broiling requires a brisk, rapid heat, which by producing a greater
degree of change in the affinities of the raw meat than roasting,
generates a higher flavour, so that broiled meat is more savoury than
roast. The surface becoming charred, a dark-coloured crust is formed,
which retards the evaporation of the juices; and, therefore, if
properly done, broiled meat may he as tender and juicy as roasted meat.
1082. Baking.
Baking does not admit of the evaporation of the vapours so rapidly as
by the processes of broiling and roasting; the fat is also retained
more, and becomes converted, by the agency of the heat, into an
empyreumatic oil, which renders the meat less fitted for delicate
stomachs, and more difficult to digest. The meat is, in fact, partly
boiled in its own confined water, and partly roasted by the dry, hot
air of the oven. The loss by baking has not been estimated and reduced
to a tabular form.
1083. Frying.
Frying is of all methods the most objectionable, from the foods being
less digestible when thus prepared, as the fat employed undergoes
chemical changes. Olive oil in this respect is preferable to lard or
butter. The crackling noise which accompanies the process of frying
meat in a pan is occasioned by the explosions of steam formed in fat,
the temperature of which is much above 212 degrees. If the meat is
very juicy it will not fry well, because it becomes sodden before the
water is evaporated; and it will not brown, because the temperature is
too low to scorch it. To fry fish well the fat should be _boiling hot
(600 degrees),_ and the fish _well dried_ in a cloth; otherwise, owing
to the generation of steam the temperature will fall so low that it
will be boiled in its own steam, and not be browned. Meat, or indeed
any article, should be frequently turned and agitated during frying to
promote the evaporation of the watery particles. To make fried things
look well, they should be done over _twice_ with egg and stale
bread-crumbs.
1084. Bastings.
i. Fresh butter.
ii. Clarified suet.
iii. Minced sweet herbs, butter, and claret, especially for mutton
and lamb.
iv. Water and salt.
v. Cream and melted butter, especially for a flayed pig.
vi. Yolks of eggs, grated biscuit and juice of oranges.
1085. Dredgings.
i. Flour mixed with grated bread.
ii. Sweet herbs dried and powdered, and mixed with grated bread.
iii. Lemon-peel dried and pounded, or orange-peel, mixed with flour.
iv. Sugar finely powdered, and mixed with pounded cinnamon, and
flour or grated bread.
v. Fennel seeds, corianders, cinnamon, and sugar, finely beaten
and mixed with grated bread or flour.
vi. For young pigs, grated bread or flour, mixed with beaten
nutmeg, ginger, pepper, sugar, and yolks of eggs.
vii. Sugar, bread, and salt mixed.
1086. Estimating Meat for Cooking.
The housewife who is anxious to dress no more meat than will suffice
for the meal, should remember that beef loses about one pound in four
in boiling, but in roasting, loses in the proportion of one pound five
ounces, and in baking about two ounces less, or one pound three
ounces; mutton loses in boiling about fourteen ounces in four pounds;
in roasting, one pound six ounces.
1087. Caution on Charcoal.
Cooks should be cautioned against the use of charcoal in any quantity,
except whore there is a free _current of air;_ for charcoal is highly
prejudicial in a state of ignition, although it may be rendered even
actively beneficial when boiled, as a small quantity of it, if boiled
with _meat on the turn,_ will effectually cure the unpleasant taint.
[AN ILL-FIXED BLIND NO ONE CAN WIND.]
1O88. Preparation of Vegetables.
There is nothing in which the difference between an elegant and an
ordinary table is more seen, than in the dressing of vegetables, more
especially of greens; they may be equally as fine at first, at one
place as at another, but their look and taste are afterwards very
different, entirely from the careless way in which they have been
cooked. They are in greatest perfection when in greatest plenty, i.e.,
when in full season. By season, we do not mean those early days, when
luxury in the buyers, and avarice in the sellers about London, force
the various vegetables, but the time of the year in which, by nature
and common culture, and the mere operation of the sun and climate,
they are most plenteous and in perfection.
1089. New Potatoes and Green Peas.
New Potatoes and green peas, unless sent to us from warmer latitudes
than our own, are seldom worth eating before Midsummer.
1090. Unripe Vegetables.
Unripe vegetables are as insipid and unwholesome as unripe fruits.
1091. The Quality of Vegetables.
As to the quality of vegetables, the middle size are preferable to the
largest or the smallest; they are more tender, juicy, and full of
flavour, just before they are quite full-grown: freshness is their
chief value and excellence. The eye easily discovers if they have been
kept too long; they soon lose their beauty in all respects.
1092. Freshness of Vegetables.
Roots, greens, salads, &c., and the various productions of the garden,
when first gathered, are plump and firm, and have a fragrant freshness
no art can give them again; though it will refresh them a little to put
them into cold spring water for some time before they are dressed.
1093. To Boil Vegetables.
Soft water will best preserve the colour of such as are green; if you
have only hard water, put to it a teaspoonful of carbonate of potash.
1094. Preparing Vegetables.
Take care to wash and cleanse Vegetables thoroughly from dust, dirt,
and insects--this requires great attention. Pick off all the outside
leaves, trim them nicely, and if they are not quite fresh-gathered and
have become flaccid, it is absolutely necessary to restore their
crispness before cooking them, or they will be tough and unpleasant.
To do this, lay them in a pan of clean water, with a handful of salt
in it, for an hour before you dress them. Most vegetables being more
or less succulent, it is necessary that they possess their full
proportion of fluids in order to retain that state of crispness and
plumpness which they have when growing.
1095. Staleness.
On being cut or gathered, the exhalation from their surface continues,
while from the open vessels of the cut surface there is often great
exudation or evaporation, and thus their natural moisture is
diminished; tho tender leaves become flaccid, and the thicker masses
or roots lose their plumpness. This is not only less pleasant to the
eye, but is a serious injury to the nutritious powers of the
vegetable; for in this flaccid and shrivelled state its fibres are
less easily divided in chewing, and the water which exists in the form
of their respective natural juices is less directly nutritious.
1096. Preservation.
The first Care in the preservation of succulent vegetables, therefore,
is to prevent them from losing their natural moisture. They should
alway be boiled in a saucepan by themselves, and have plenty of water:
if meat is boiled with them in the same pot, the one will spoil the
look and taste of the other.
1097. Cleaning.
To have vegetables delicately clean, put on your pot, make it boil,
put a little salt in, and skim it perfectly clean before you put in
the greens, &c., which should not be put in till the water boils
briskly: the quicker they boil the greener they will be.
1098. When Done.
When the vegetables sink, they are generally done enough, if the water
has been kept constantly boiling. Take them up immediately, or they
will lose their colour and goodness, Drain the water from them
thoroughly before you send them to table. This branch of cookery
requires the most vigilant attention.
[KEEP YOUR KEYS AND BE AT EASE.]
1099. Over-Cooked.
If vegetables are a minute or two too long over the fire, they lose
all their beauty and flavour.
1100. Undercooked.
If not thoroughly boiled tender, they are very indigestible, and much
more troublesome during their residence in the stomach than underdone
meats.
1101. Take Care your Vegetables are Fresh.
To preserve or give colour in cookery many good dishes are spoiled;
but the rational epicure, who makes nourishment the main end of
eating, will be content to sacrifice the shadow to enjoy the
substance. As the fishmonger often suffers for the sins of the cook,
so the cook often gets undeservedly blamed instead of the greengrocer.
1102. To Cleanse Vegetables of Insects.
Make a strong brine of one pound and a half of salt to one gallon of
water; into this, place the vegetables with the stalk ends uppermost,
for two or three hours: this will destroy all the insects which
cluster in the leaves, and they will fall out and sink to the bottom
of the water.
1103. Potatoes.
Most people esteem potatoes beyond any other vegetable, yet few
persons know how to cook them. The following will be found to be
excellent methods of cooking this delicious esculent.
1104. To Boil Potatoes.
Put them into a saucepan with scarcely sufficient water to cover them.
Directly the skins begin to break, lift them from the fire, and as
rapidly as possible pour off _every drop_ of the water. Then place a
coarse (we need not say clean) towel over them, and return them to the
fire again until they are thoroughly done, and quite dry. A little
salt, to flavour, should be added to the water before boiling.
1105. To Peel Potatoes.
The above recipe is for boiling potatoes in their jackets, as the
phrase goes. When potatoes are to be peeled prior to cooking, the
tubers should first be well washed and put in a bowl of clean water.
As each potato is taken out of this receptacle and peeled, it should
be thrown into another bowl of cold water, close at hand to receive
them. This prevents undue discolouration of the potatoes.
1106. To Steam Potatoes.
Some kinds of potatoes are better steamed than boiled. Whether
dressed with the skins on or off a careful eye must be kept on them,
and when they are nearly done the steamer should be removed, the water
in the saucepan thrown off, and the steamer then replaced, in order to
allow the process of cooking to be completed. Some people shake the
steamer when potatoes are somewhat close and heavy, under the idea
that it renders them floury, and in many cases the shaking has this
effect.
1107. Potatoes Fried with Fish.
Take cold fish and cold potatoes. Pick all the bones from the former,
and mash the fish and the potatoes together; form into rolls, and fry
with lard until the outsides are brown and crisp. For this purpose,
the drier kinds of fish, such as cod, hake, &c., are preferable;
turbot, soles, eels, &c., are not so good. This is an economical and
excellent relish.
1108. Potatoes Mashed with Onions.
Prepare some boiled onions, by putting them through a sieve, and mix
them with potatoes. Regulate the portions according to taste.
1109. Potato Cheesecakes.
One pound of mashed potatoes, quarter of a pound of currants, quarter
of a pound of sugar and butter, and four eggs, to be well mixed
together; bake them in patty-pans, having first lined them with puff
paste.
1110. Potato Colcanon.
Boil potatoes and greens (or spinach) separately; mash the potatoes;
squeeze the greens dry; chop them quite fine, and mix them with the
potatoes with a little butter, pepper, and salt. Put into a mould,
buttering it well first: let it stand in a hot oven for ten minutes.
[A CHAIR UNSOUND SOON FINDS THE GROUND.]
1111. Potatoes Roasted under Meat.
Half boil large potatoes; drain the water; put them into an earthen
dish, or small tin pan, under meat roasting before the fire; baste
them with the dripping. Turn them to brown on all sides; send up in a
separate dish.
1112. Potato Balls Ragoût.
Add to a pound of potatoes a quarter of a pound of grated ham, or some
sweet herbs, or chopped parsley, an onion or shalot, salt, pepper, and
a little grated nutmeg, and other spice, with the yolk of a couple of
eggs; then dress as _Potatoes Escalloped_. (1116).
1113. Potato Snow.
Pick out the whitest potatoes, put them on in cold water; when they
begin to crack, strain, and put them in a clean stewpan before the
fire till they are quite dry, and fall to pieces; rub them through a
wire sieve upon the dish they are to be sent up on, and do not disturb
them afterwards.
1114. Potatoes Fried Whole.
When nearly boiled enough, put them into a stewpan with a bit of
butter, or some clean beef dripping; shake them about often, to
prevent burning, till they are brown and crisp; drain them from the
fat. It will be an improvement if they are floured and dipped into the
yoke of an egg, and then rolled in finely sifted bread-crumbs.
1115. Potatoes Fried in Slices.