COPYING
[Sidenote: Paper squeezes.]
A very needful branch of recording is the taking impressions of
inscriptions and flat reliefs. The usual method is by wet squeezing of
paper, which may be made up of any thickness, from a true mould to a
slight surface impression. If a mould is wanted for future casting, a
tough rag paper without much size should be used; but good newspaper
will do. The tougher the paper is when wet, the better. The stone must
be thoroughly cleaned and soaked. The paper is cut to the size, and,
if less than the stone, in two or more sheets. A sheet is then put in
a basin of water, rolled about to soak, and then gathered into a ball
and rolled between the hands to break the grain, just short of pulping
the surface; next shaken out like a wet handkerchief, and then laid
on the stone with enough slack to go into all the hollows. It is then
gently beaten with a spoke-brush until it is pushed into the hollows
(Fig. 33). If they are deep it is needful to use strips of paper soaked
and pulped, and laid by finger in the hollows, so as to nearly fill
them. Finally, a severe beating is given to the whole, as violent as
can be done without tearing the paper. The paper should be pulped on
the stone, and driven into every crack and porosity; using a second,
and even a third, sheet to bind it together. The pulp in the hollows
should be kneaded in with the sharp edge of the brush-back, using the
whole weight of the body to force it home. About 50 square feet of such
work is as much as can be done in a day. The precautions are: avoid
bubbles of water or air below the paper, beat quite straight without
dragging, and see that there is no creeping of the paper or shifting
on the stone. When quite dry and hard the cast may be carefully peeled
off. After heating and waxing, plaster casts may be taken from it, with
a slight oiling between each using.
A slighter working is enough on shallow inscriptions; but such squeezes
generally need to be taken off while wet, and allowed to dry alone,
or else the paper drags flat out of the hollows when contracting in
drying. This is specially the case on polished granite, where there is
no grip on the surface.
Surface impressions of incised carving may be taken with a single sheet
of paper beaten just enough to catch the edges of the cutting; and such
make excellent bases for inking over to produce a facsimile drawing
(Fig. 31). The impression is so much better on the inner side, that the
inking is done on that, and the figures are thus reversed in the plate.
[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Copy made by inking a paper squeeze, 1:8. A
part of the Israel stele, with the name Israel in the last line but
one.]
[Illustration: FIG. 32.--System of numbering sheets of connected
drawings.]
[Sidenote: Dry squeezes.]
But on all coloured work, and many kinds of tender stones, wet
squeezing is a crime, as it destroys the original. Fatuous tourists
and brazen students have wrecked innumerable monuments by wet
squeezing, and it is now necessarily prohibited in Egypt unless
special permission is obtained to do some object which cannot be
injured by it. Another system, that of dry squeezing, I therefore
introduced when doing the Medum tombs. A sheet of thin paper is held
over the stone, and it is pressed over each edge of the cutting so as
to leave a bend in the surface. Then, laid on a drawing-board, with an
oblique lighting, the bends are all drawn on with pencil, checking by
comparison with the stone. Sometimes it is best to draw by lamplight,
and check with the stone afterwards. The drawing should always begin
at the bottom right hand, so as not to press out the impression by the
hand; and the sheets must not be rolled before being pencilled. For
small lines, a piece of indiarubber should be used to press the paper
into the hollows. For the outlines of reliefs the thumb nail must be
used. This system is quicker and more accurate than any reduced-scale
hand drawing. Over large wall surfaces the sheets should be placed in
regular rows, lettered A, B, C (Fig. 32), and each sheet numbered in
the row, so that A 3, B 3, C 3, come one below the other. The register
of positions is kept by marking a minute cross with pencil on the wall,
so that the corners of four sheets will fall between the four arms of
the cross. Thus each fresh sheet is placed exactly to fit the sheets
which have preceded it, in the row and in the column. Any large blanks
or injuries should have their corresponding sheets duly lettered (even
if nothing is on them), and put with the drawings, so that there shall
be no hitch in placing them all in one great sheet afterwards. It may
be convenient to join up the sheets, and then redivide the drawings
at suitable spaces between the subjects for convenience of packing.
To join the sheets they must be laid together in position, a slight
cut then made with a knife to mark two sheets across the joint; then
turned back-up, adjusted by the cut, and a strip of adhesive paper put
on the joint, dabbed down and not rubbed along. Thus large sculptured
walls can be copied sheet by sheet, joined up, inked in, and then
photolithographed for plates. It is needful to remember that the Postal
Union will take rolls up to 60 centimetres length and 21 cm. diameter,
as ordinary parcels up to 5 kilograms; or 75 cm. length if not over 10
cm. diameter and 2 kilograms of weight, by book post, open at ends.
[Illustration: CASTING.
Fig. 33. Paper squeeze. XII Dyn. Goddess Nekheb.]
[Illustration: CASTING.
Fig. 34. Plaster cast from paper. Philistine. XX Dyn.]
[Sidenote: Casting.]
Beside the direct material for publishing in plates, it is often
desirable to take casts and impressions, both for future reference
and also as a step toward a photograph (Fig. 34). The making of paper
impressions or squeezes has already been noted. Casting with plaster
of Paris is the principal mode of reproduction, and is such a detailed
business in itself that only a few notes can be given here, such as
might possibly be wanted in field work. The fine work for museum
purposes is outside of our aim here. The main point in handling wet
plaster is rapidity; and for that everything must be ready, and the
exact plan of work and amount of plaster settled beforehand. A basin
should be used with water equal to about two-thirds of the volume of
plaster required. Into this shake or sift dry plaster rapidly, until
the water is just filled up with it, and no free water left on the
top; it is then well proportioned, and should be violently stirred with
a large flat spoon or slip of wood and poured out in an even stream,
beginning with the middle if a flat mould, and flattening it out to
the edges. It is best to have rather too little than too much; as a
fresh lot can be mixed, with the hardened pieces of the first lot, to
serve for a backing; the first lot being, of course, spread over the
whole face to begin with. Strings, or strips of butter-muslin, should
be put through the mass, if it is large, so as to prevent it falling to
pieces if broken later on. Excellent casts are made with a thin skin of
plaster on a backing of muslin put on a frame; but this requires more
skill than plain work. About 10 minutes after casting the back should
be scraped down level, or planed with a wide-mouthed hand plane, which
is a very useful tool in finishing casts. No cast of any large size
should be left without even support for some hours after casting, as it
will settle out of shape if strained. Small quantities of plaster are
best mixed with a pocket knife in the palm of the hand.
Moulds for casting are usually of clay for a large scale, but that
is not likely to be used in the field-work. The division of the clay
is best done by bedding threads along the face of the object at the
lines required, and then pulling them up to cut the clay. The face of
the object requires French chalk (steatite powder) on it to prevent
cohesion; oiling or greasing spoils the face of the original. For
field-work paper moulds are best, and the preparation of these as
wet squeezes has been already described. To fit the squeeze for use
as a mould, it should be heated and brushed with melted beeswax on
the face, without necessarily soaking it through. Any places that
are shiny when cold should be warmed and rubbed with cotton wool, so
that the face is the true paper cast. Then slightly oil between each
plaster casting, or else the warmth of the setting plaster will make
the wax stick to it. Several casts can be taken from one paper, if it
is carefully handled in peeling it from the plaster each time. Paper
impressions of cylinders are best made with blotting-paper, unrolled
wet, and left to dry. To remove the cockling of drying, spread a thin
coat of stiff paste on card, and press the paper squeeze lightly on it.
Guttapercha moulds are best if many copies are required. To get a
sharp impression in this tough material a preliminary mould should
be made, of the right shape, but not sharp on the face. This should
be thoroughly cooled in water for an hour or more, and then a small
quantity of guttapercha from boiling water should be laid in the hard
mould and the object pressed in very rapidly and with maximum pressure.
Thus the hot material is forced firmly against every part and takes
a brilliant impression. Such moulds are used for electrotyping as
well as for plaster work. To produce a smooth face to a lump of hot
guttapercha, it should be pulled outwards from the middle to all sides
by thumbs and fingers, so as to produce a fresh torn face over the
whole upper surface.
Sealing-wax is one of the handiest materials, and is used
professionally for all the coin reproductions that are published.
Only the best wax is of any use for impressions. It should never
be allowed to burn or blaze, nor even to boil, but should be gently
heated until a large mass will fall quite readily. The object should be
wetted moderately just before impressing. So soon as the wax is tough
the object should be lifted slightly to make certain that it has not
stuck, and then pressed down again till cold. If it has stuck it must
be pulled away at once, and the wax picked off while tough. Sealing-wax
casts must be oiled before plaster is put to them; and oil does not
soften or deteriorate sealing-wax if left on for years. Beeswax, or,
better, the mixture called “dentist’s wax,” makes good impressions, and
may be used for moulds.
Tin-foil is most useful for rapid impressions, especially from a
fragile or delicate object. The thinnest should be used, such as is
wrapped round chocolate. To preserve the form of tin-foil it may be
squeezed into place with a back of beeswax, and so form a facing to a
wax mould for casting a plaster positive. Or it may be pressed alone
(forcing it on with soft indiarubber or cotton wool), and then floated,
back up, on water, while blazing sealing-wax is dropped into it to
form a backing. This mode is very handy for coin impressions, which
will travel safely in this form and look well. For round objects,
such as cylinders, a tin-foil impression should be made, beating the
foil in with a soft tooth-brush; then the foil is to be uncoiled by
rolling it upon wax so that the curve is removed without flattening the
impression; it is then ready for a plaster casting, giving a flat cast
of the round cylinder. In all cases thin gold-foil would be far better
than tin-foil; and such an impression might even be preferred to the
original object by some Oriental officials.
[Sidenote: Drawing.]
Drawing is still the main resource for illustration, although
photographic processes occupy so important a place. Hand-work is
essential for plans, it is the more useful method for inscriptions,
and it is the more convenient method for most small objects. There is
generally some interpretation needed, to show details which could not
possibly all be visible in one uniform lighting, as in a photograph;
and this can only be done by drawing all that can be seen in varying
lights and aspects. Another superiority of outline drawings is that
they are far more easily looked over and referred to than a much less
distinct photograph. And lastly, they cost a third or a quarter of the
amount for publication. The proper scope of photographs is stated in
the next section.
As drawing is almost always to be reproduced by photolithography, or by
zinc block, it is essential to have it entirely in full black and white
without any grey or half tones. Hence the contrast should be kept as
strong as possible; and only China ink of full blackness should be used
for fine lines. In wide, coarse work, as full-sized inscriptions from
walls, a common writing-ink evaporated to denser quality may be used.
Ebony stain, which some use, has the disadvantage of spreading badly if
it chances to be wetted. A smooth, glazy-faced paper is good for fine
lines, and does not rag up under the pen. Cardboard is pleasant to use,
but is awkward to send by post; whereas paper drawings roll up safely
in a tube.
A cardinal rule in drawing is that the finest line should come out
to 1/300 inch when the subject is reduced to the plate size. Thus a
drawing to be reduced to ⅓ by photolithography should have its finest
lines 1/100 inch thick. This line of 1/300 inch is the finest which is
safe not to break up in reproducing; and of course it spreads a little
in the printing. For very slight shade lines rather thinner lines may
be used, as it is no disadvantage if they should break.
It is very desirable to have similar objects all reduced to the same
scale. For pottery ⅙ is a convenient reduction; for stone vases ⅓; for
metal tools and small objects ½. The drawings of pottery and stone
vases are easiest to do on scales ¼ and ½, as the measured diameters
have to be laid off as radii from the axis, needing halving throughout.
The further reduction is done when photographing for the lithographs;
and it is always best to have such a reduction to ⅔, if not to ½, of
the size of the drawing, in order to make it come out more delicate
than the hand-work. A very useful system for recording groups of small
objects, especially such as are found together, is to lay them out on
a sheet (say double the plate size), as arranged for the plate, and
then run a pencil round the outlines, and add as much detail as may
be needful to explain the objects; thus a pictorial inventory is made
quickly, and is far more useful and easier for reference than any
written inventory (Fig. 35). The pencil should have the wood split off
one side of the lead, and be sharpened by cutting to a chisel-edge
on the opposite side. Thus the point is vertically under the guiding
side; and when held carefully upright, outlines can well be run from
surfaces half an inch or even an inch above the paper. The size of the
sheet will, of course, depend on the amount of reduction intended. For
numbering the figures printed numbers can be gummed on to the drawing.
[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Part of an inventory sheet, recording pieces
of ivory carving, 1:3.]
For vases, block tints are more satisfactory than outlines. So the
drawing can be filled up with a wash of ink. Or if section lines are
wanted it is best to draw the section line, and block out the ground
outside of the vase, leaving the vase white on a black ground; then
have this reversed, black for white, in the photolithographing. The
vases may be printed in any colour which is suitable.
[Illustration: Fig. 36. Frame for drawing fragments of vases.]
[Illustration: Fig. 37. Weathered grave-stone; unsanded, and sanded.]
[Sidenote: Restored forms.]
The method for drawing a completed form of a vase from fragments is
to place the brim and the base (the curves of which can be accurately
measured against a series of concentric circles) into their true
positions, to a vertical axis; and then, if there is no complete
connection, to adjust their height on their axis so that their
curvatures (including other pieces which join them) fall into one line.
It is easier to do this with the mouth downwards. A frame is made (Fig.
36), with a vertical rod sliding up and down over the middle; a card
with concentric circles on it is placed on the floor of the frame, and
centred under the rod. Taking a piece of a brim, it is rocked to and
fro until it touches the card all along the edge, and a leg of wax is
stuck on so as to keep it at that angle. It is then slid about till
the curve fits between the concentric circles. A piece of base has
its curvature measured, by fitting a sheet of celluloid ruled with
concentric circles to the curve of it. It is then fixed on the lower
end of the vertical rod with some wax, so that the rod is in its axis.
Then the rod is slid down in its grooves until the curves of the piece
of base and of the piece of brim fall into one line. For drawing the
form the radius of the brim and of the base are already measured; the
height is taken as it stands in the frame, also the greatest radius at
the shoulder, the angle of the side with the base, and sometimes the
height from the brim to the curve at several different radii, read off
by sliding a graduated square on the concentric circles to touch the
curve. After plotting all these dimensions the curve is drawn in by
freehand, looking carefully at the fragments in position.
[Sidenote: Copying inscriptions.]
For hand copying inscriptions of a small size, a good method is to fold
over the paper at each line that is done, and draw the signs one by
one on to the fresh edge of paper held side by side on the stone; thus
there is no strain or loss of time by looking to and fro and finding
the place, no chance of omissions, and the facsimile is as accurate as
possible. This is especially for copying ink writing and graffiti. When
making a reduced copy by hand it is best to have a sheet of card under
the paper ruled in squares (of ¼ or up to 2 inches), with thick lines.
These show through the paper, and a frame of strings or threads is put
over the stone, of a larger size, agreeing to the scale of reduction
intended; _e.g._ for reducing a wall to ⅕, have card ruled in 1 inch
squares, and a frame of strings 5 inches apart over the wall. For lines
or columns of inscription it does to rule the column lines and only
have a long scale on a strip of wood put alongside of the column which
is being copied, so as to tally with the lines seen through the paper.