assistance of the Sovereign, Buddhism established a charity hospital
in Nara, "where the poor received medical treatment and drugs gratis,
and an asylum was founded for the support of the destitute. Measures
were also taken to rescue foundlings, and, in general, to relieve
poverty and distress" (p. 92). The good beginning made at that time
does not seem to have been followed up. As nearly as I can make out,
relying on the investigations of Rev. J.H. Pettee and Mr. Ishii, there
are to-day in Japan fifty orphan asylums, of which eleven are of
non-Christian, and thirty-nine of Christian origin, support, and
control. Of the non-Christian, five are in Osaka, two in Tokyo, four
in Kyoto, and one each in Nagoya, Kumamoto, and Matsuye. Presumably
the majority of these are in the hands of Buddhists. Of the Christian
asylums twenty are Roman Catholic and nineteen are Protestant. It is a
noteworthy fact that in this form of philanthropy and religious
activity, as in so many others, Christians are the pioneers and
Buddhists are the imitators. In a land where Buddhism has been so
effective as to modify the diet of the nation, leading them in
obedience to the doctrines of Buddha, as has been stated, to give up
eating animal food, it is exceedingly strange that the people
apparently have no regard for the pain of living animals. Says the
editor of the _Mail_ in the article already quoted: "They will not
interfere to save a horse from the brutality of its driver, and they
will sit calmly in a jinrikisha while its drawer, with throbbing heart
and straining muscles, toils up a steep hill." How often have I seen
this sight! How the rider can endure it, I cannot understand, except
it be that revolt at cruelty and sympathy with suffering do not stir
within his heart. Of course, heartless individuals are not rare in the
West also. I am speaking here, however, not of single individuals, but
of general characteristics.
But a still more conspicuous evidence of Japanese deficiency of
sympathy is the use, until recently, of public torture. It was the
theory of Japanese jurisprudence that no man should be punished, even
though proved guilty by sufficient evidence, until he himself
confessed his guilt; consequently, on the flimsiest evidence, and even
on bare suspicion, he was tortured until the desired confession was
extracted. The cruelty of the methods employed, we of the nineteenth
century cannot appreciate. Some foreigner tells how the sight of
torture which he witnessed caused him to weep, while the Japanese
spectators stood by unmoved. The methods of execution were also
refined devices of torture. Townsend Harris says that crucifixion was
performed as follows: "The criminal is tied to a cross with his arms
and legs stretched apart as wide as possible; then a spear is thrust
through the body, entering just under the bottom of the shoulder blade
on the left side, and coming out on the right side, just by the
armpit. Another is then thrust through in a similar manner from the
right to the left side. The executioner endeavors to avoid the heart
in this operation. The spears are thrust through in this manner until
the criminal expires, but his sufferings are prolonged as much as
possible. Shinano told me that a few years ago a very strong man lived
until the eleventh spear had been thrust through him."
From these considerations, which might be supported by a multitude of
illustrations, we conclude that in the past there has certainly been a
great amount of cruelty exhibited in Japan, and that even to this day
there is in this country far less sympathy for suffering, whether
animal or human, than is felt in the West.
But we must not be too quick to jump to the conclusion that in this
regard we have discovered an essential characteristic of the Japanese
nature. With reference to the reported savagery displayed by Japanese
troops at Port Arthur, it has been said and repeated that you have
only to scratch the Japanese skin to find the Tartar, as if the recent
development of human feelings were superficial, and his real character
were exhibited in his most cruel moments. To get a true view of the
case let us look for a few moments at some other parts of the world,
and ask ourselves a few questions.
How long is it since the Inquisition was enforced in Europe? Who can
read of the tortures there inflicted without shuddering with horror?
It is not necessary to go back to the times of the Romans with their
amphitheaters and gladiators, and with their throwing of Christians to
wild animals, or to Nero using Christians as torches in his garden.
How long is it since witches were burned, not only in Europe by the
thousand, but in enlightened and Christian New England? although it is
true that the numbers there burned were relatively few and the reign
of terror brief. How long is it since slaves were feeling the lash
throughout the Southern States of our "land of freedom"? How long is
it since fiendish mobs have burned or lynched the objects of their
rage? How long is it since societies for preventing cruelty to animals
and to children were established in England and America? Is it not a
suggestive fact that it was needful to establish them and that it is
still needful to maintain them? The fact is that the highly developed
humane sense which is now felt so strongly by the great majority of
people in the West is a late development, and is not yet universal. It
is not for us to boast, or even to feel superior to the Japanese,
whose opportunities for developing this sentiment have been limited.
Furthermore, in regard to Japan, we must not overlook certain facts
which show that Japan has made gradual progress in the development of
the humane feelings and in the legal suppression of cruelty. The Nihon
Shoki records that, on the death of Yamato Hiko no Mikoto, his
immediate retainers were buried alive in a standing position around
the grave, presumably with the heads alone projecting above the
surface of the ground. The Emperor Suijin Tenno, on hearing the
continuous wailing day after day of the slowly dying retainers, was
touched with pity and said that it was a dreadful custom to bury with
the master those who had been most faithful to him when alive. And he
added that an evil custom, even though ancient, should not be
followed, and ordered it to be abandoned. A later record informs us
that from this time arose the custom of burying images in the place of
servants. According to the ordinary Japanese chronology, this took
place in the year corresponding to 1 B.C. The laws of Ieyasu (1610
A.D.) likewise condemn this custom as unreasonable, together with the
custom in accordance with which the retainers committed suicide upon
the master's death. These same laws also refer to the proverb on
revenge, given in the third paragraph of this chapter, and add that
whoever undertakes thus to avenge himself or his father or mother or
lord or elder brother must first give notice to the proper office of
the fact and of the time within which he will carry out his intention;
without such a notice, the avenger will be considered a common
murderer. This provision was clearly a limitation of the law of
revenge. These laws of Ieyasu also describe the old methods of
punishing criminals, and then add: "Criminals are to be punished by
branding, or beating, or tying up, and, in capital cases, by spearing
or decapitation; but the old punishments of tearing to pieces and
boiling to death are not to be used." Torture was finally legally
abolished in Japan only as late as 1877.
It has already become quite clear that the prevalence of cruelty or of
humanity depends largely upon the social order that prevails. It is
not at all strange that cruelty, or, at least, lack of sympathy for
suffering in man or beast, should be characteristic of an order based
on constant hand-to-hand conflict. Still more may we expect to find a
great indifference to human suffering wherever the value of man as man
is slighted. Not until the idea of the brotherhood of man has taken
full possession of one's heart and thought does true sympathy spring
up; then, for the first time, comes the power of putting one's self in
a brother's place. The apparently cruel customs of primitive times, in
their treatment of the sick, and particularly of those suffering from
contagious diseases, is the natural, not to say necessary, result of
superstitious ignorance. Furthermore, it was often the only ready
means to prevent the spread of contagious or epidemic diseases.
In the treatment of the sick, the first prerequisite for the
development of tenderness is the introduction of correct ideas as to
the nature of disease and its proper treatment. As soon as this has
been effectually done, a great proportion of the apparent indifference
to human suffering passes away. The cruelty which is to-day so
universal in Africa needs but a changed social and industrial order to
disappear. The needed change has come to Japan. Physicians trained in
modern methods of medical practice are found all over the land. In
1894 there were 597 hospitals, 42,551 physicians, 33,921 nurses and
midwives, 2869 pharmacists, and 16,106 druggists, besides excellent
schools of pharmacy and medicine.[O]
It is safe to say that nearly all forms of active cruelty have
disappeared from Japan; some amount of active sympathy has been
developed, though, as compared to that of other civilized lands, it is
still small. But there can be no doubt that the rapid change which has
come over the people during the past thirty years is not a change in
essential innate character, but only in the social order. As soon as
the idea takes root that every man has a mission of mercy, and that
the more cruel are not at liberty to vent their barbarous feelings on
helpless creatures, whether man or beast, a strong uprising of humane
activity will take place which will demand the formation of societies
for the prevention of cruelty and for carrying active relief to the
distressed and wretched. Lepers will no longer need to eke out a
precarious living by exhibiting their revolting misery in public;
lunatics will no longer be kept in filthy cages and left with
insufficient care or clothing. The stream of philanthropy will rise
high, to be at once a blessing and a glory to a race that already has
shown itself in many ways capable of the highest ideals of the West.
XII
AMBITION--CONCEIT
Ambition is a conspicuous characteristic of New Japan. I have already
spoken of the common desire of her young men to become statesmen. The
stories of Neesima and other young Japanese who, in spite of
opposition and without money, worked their way to eminence and
usefulness, have fired the imagination of thousands of youths. They
think that all they need is to get to America, when their difficulties
will be at an end. They fancy that they have but to look around to
find some man who will support them while they study.
Not only individuals, but the people as a whole, have great ambitions.
Three hundred years ago the Taiko, Hideyoshi, the Napoleon of Japan,
and the virtual ruler of the Empire, planned, after subjugating Korea,
to conquer China and make himself the Emperor of the East. He thought
he could accomplish this in two years. During the recent war, it was
the desire of many to march on to Pekin. Frequent expression was given
to the idea that it is the duty of Japan to rouse China from her long
sleep, as America roused Japan in 1854. It is frequently argued, in
editorial articles and public speeches, that the Japanese are
peculiarly fitted to lead China along the path of progress, not only
indirectly by example, as they have been doing, but directly by
teaching, as foreigners have led Japan. "The Mission of Japan to the
Orient" is a frequent theme of public discourse. But national
ambitions do not rest here. It is not seldom asserted that in Japan a
mingling of the Occidental and Oriental civilizations is taking place
under such favorable conditions that, for the first time in history,
the better elements of both are being selected; and that before long
the world will sit to learn at her feet. The lofty ambition of a group
of radical Christians is to discover or create a new religion which
shall unite the best features of Oriental and Occidental religious
thought and experience. The religion of the future will be, not
Christianity, nor Buddhism, but something better than either, more
consistent, more profound, more universal; and this religion, first
developed in Japan, will spread to other lands and become the final
religion of the world.
A single curious illustration of the high-flying thoughts of the
people may well find mention here. When the Kumamoto Boys' School
divided over the arbitrary, tyrannical methods of their newly secured,
brilliant principal, already referred to in a previous chapter, the
majority of the trustees withdrew and at once established a new school
for boys. For some time they struggled for a name which should set
forth the principles for which the school stood, and finally they
fixed on that of "To-A Gakko." Translated into unpretentious English,
this means "Eastern Asia School"; the idea was that the school stood
for no narrow methods of education, and that its influence was to
extend beyond the confines of Japan. This interpretation is not an
inference, but was publicly stated oil various occasions. The school
began with twenty-five boys, if my memory is correct, and never
reached as many as fifty. In less than three years it died an untimely
death through lack of patronage.
The young men of the island of Kyushu, especially of Kumamoto and
Kagoshima provinces, are noted for their ambitious projects. The once
famous "Kumamoto Band" consisted entirely of Kyushu boys. Under the
masterful influence of Captain Jaynes those high-spirited sons of
samurai, who had come to learn foreign languages and science, in a
school founded to combat Christianity and to upbuild Buddhism, became
impressed with the immense superiority of foreign lands, which
superiority they were led to attribute to Christianity. They
accordingly espoused the Christian cause with great ardor, and, in
their compact with one another, agreed to work for the reform of
Japan. I have listened to many addresses by the Kumamoto schoolboys,
and I have been uniformly impressed with the political and national
tendencies of their thought.
Accompanying ambition is a group of less admirable qualities, such as
self-sufficiency and self-conceit. They are seldom manifested with
that coarseness which in the West we associate with them, for the
Japanese is usually too polished to be offensively obtrusive. He
seldom indulges in bluster or direct assertion, but is contented
rather with the silent assumption of superiority.
I heard recently of a slight, though capital, illustration of my
point. Two foreign gentlemen were walking through the town of Tadotsu
some years since and observed a sign in English which read
"Stemboots." Wondering what the sign could mean they inquired the
business of the place, and learning that it was a steamboat office,
they gave the clerk the reason for their inquiry, and at his request
made the necessary correction. A few days later, however, on their
return, they noticed that the sign had been re-corrected to
"Stem-boats," an assumption of superior knowledge on the part of some
tyro in English. The multitude of signboards in astonishing English,
in places frequented by English-speaking people, is one of the amusing
features of Japan. It would seem as if the shopkeepers would at least
take the pains to have the signs correctly worded and spelled, by
asking the help of some foreigner or competent Japanese. Yet they
assume that they know all that is needful.
Indications of perfect self-confidence crop out in multitudes of ways
far too numerous to mention. The aspiring ambition spoken of in the
immediately preceding pages is one indication of this characteristic.
Another is the readiness of fledglings to undertake responsibilities
far beyond them. Young men having a smattering of English, yet wholly
unable to converse, set up as teachers. Youths in school not
infrequently undertake to instruct their teachers as to what courses
of study and what treatment they should receive. Still more
conspicuous is the cool assumption of superiority evinced by so many
Japanese in discussing intellectual and philosophical problems. The
manner assumed is that of one who is complete master of the subject.
The silent contempt often poured on foreigners who attempt to discuss
these problems is at once amusing and illustrative of the
characteristic of which I am speaking.[P]
We turn next to inquire for the explanation of these characteristics.
Are they inherent traits of the race? Or are they the product of the
times? Doubtless the latter is the true explanation. It will be found
that those individuals in whom these characteristics appear are
descendants of the samurai. A small class of men freed from heavy
physical toil, given to literature and culture, ever depending on the
assumption of superiority for the maintenance of their place in
society and defending their assumption by the sword--such a class, in
such a social order, would develop the characteristics in question to
a high degree. Should we expect an immediate change of character when
the social order has been suddenly changed?
In marked contrast to the lofty assumptions of superiority which
characterized the samurai of Old Japan, was the equally marked
assumption of inferiority which characterized the rest of the people,
or nineteen-twentieths of the nation. I have already sufficiently
dwelt on this aspect of national character. I here recur to it merely
to enforce the truth that self-arrogation and self-abnegation,
haughtiness and humility, proud, high-handed, magisterial manners, and
cringing, obsequious obedience, are all elements of character that
depend on the nature of the social order. They are passed on from
generation to generation more by social than by biological heredity.
Both of these sets of contrasted characteristics are induced by a
full-fledged feudal system, and must remain for a time as a social
inheritance after that system has been overthrown, particularly if its
overthrow is sudden. In proportion as the principles of personal
rights and individual worth on the basis of manhood become realized
by the people and incorporated into the government and customs of the
land, will abnegating obsequiousness, as well as haughty lordliness,
be replaced by a straightforward manliness, in which men of whatever
grade of society will frankly face each other, eye to eye.
But what shall we say in regard to the assumption made by young Japan
in its attitude to foreigners? Are the assumptions wholly groundless?
Is the self-confidence unjustified? Far from it. When we study later
the intellectual elements of Japanese character, we shall see some
reasons for their feeling of self-reliance. The progress which the
nation has made in many lines within thirty years shows that it has
certain kinds of power and, consequently, some ground for
self-reliance. Furthermore, self-reliance, if fairly supported by
ability and zeal, is essential in the attainment of any end whatever.
Faint heart never won fair lady. Confidence in self is one form of
faith. No less of peoples than individuals is it true, that without
faith in themselves they cannot attain their goal. The impression of
undue self-confidence made by the Japanese may be owing partly to
their shortness of stature. It is a new experience for the West to see
a race of little people with large brains and large plans. Especially
does it seem strange and conceited for a people whose own civilization
is so belated to assume a rôle of such importance in the affairs of
the world. Yet we must learn to dissociate physical size from mental
or spiritual capacity. The future alone will disclose what Japanese
self-reliance and energy can produce.
The present prominence of this characteristic in Japan is still
further to be accounted for by her actual recent history. The
overthrow of the Shogunate was primarily the work of young men; the
introduction of almost all the sweeping reforms which have transformed
Japan has been the work of young men who, though but partly equipped
for their work, approached it with energy and perfect confidence, not
knowing enough perhaps to realize the difficulties they were
undertaking. They had to set aside the customs of centuries; to do
this required startling assumptions of superiority to their ancestors
and their immediate parents. The young men undertook to dispute and
doubt everything that stood in the way of national re-organization. In
what nation has there ever been such a setting aside of parental
teaching and ancestral authority? These heroic measures secured
results in which the nation glories. Is it strange, then, that the
same spirit should show itself in every branch of life, even in the
attitude of the people to the Westerners who have brought them the new
ways and ideas?
The Japanese, however, is not the only conceited nation. Indeed, it
would be near the truth to say that there is no people without this
quality. Certainly the American and English, French and German nations
cannot presume to criticise others. The reason why we think Japan
unique in this respect is that in the case of these Western nations we
know more of the grounds for national self-satisfaction than in the
case of Japan. Yet Western lands are, in many respects, truly
provincial to this very day, in spite of their advantages and
progress; the difficulty with most of them is that they do not
perceive it. The lack of culture that prevails among our working
classes is in some respects great. The narrow horizon still bounding
the vision of the average American or Briton is very conspicuous to
one who has had opportunities to live and travel in many lands. Each
country, and even each section of a country, is much inclined to think
that it has more nearly reached perfection than any other.
This phase of national and local feeling is interesting, especially
after one has lived in Japan a number of years and has had
opportunities to mingle freely with her people. For they, although
self-reliant and self-conceited, are at the same time surprisingly
ready to acknowledge that they are far behind the times. Their
open-mindedness is truly amazing. In describing the methods of land
tenure, of house-building, of farming, of local government, of
education, of moral instruction, of family life, indeed, of almost
anything in the West that has some advantageous feature, the remark
will be dropped incidentally that these facts show how uncivilized
Japan still is. In their own public addresses, if any custom is
attacked, the severest indictment that can be brought against it is
that it is uncivilized. In spite, therefore, of her self-conceit,
Japan is in a fairer way of making progress than many a Western
nation, because she is also so conscious of defects. A large section
of the nation has a passion for progress. It wishes to learn of the
good that foreign lands have attained, and to apply the knowledge in
such wise as shall fit most advantageously into the national life.
Although Japan is conceited, her conceit is not without reason, nor is
it to be attributed to her inherent race nature. It is manifestly due
to her history and social order past and present.
XIII
PATRIOTISM--APOTHEOSIS--COURAGE
No word is so dear to the patriotic Japanese as the one that leaps to
his lips when his country is assailed or maligned, "Yamato-Damashii."
In prosaic English this means "Japan Soul." But the native word has a
flavor and a host of associations that render it the most pleasing his
tongue can utter. "Yamato" is the classic name for that part of Japan
where the divinely honored Emperor, Jimmu Tenno, the founder of the
dynasty and the Empire, first established his court and throne.
"Damashii" refers to the soul, and especially to the noble qualities
of the soul, which, in Japan of yore, were synonymous with bravery,
the characteristic of the samurai. If, therefore, you wish to stir in
the native breast the deepest feelings of patriotism and courage, you
need but to call upon his "Yamato-Damashii."
There has been a revival in the use of this word during the last
decade. The old Japan-Spirit has been appealed to, and the watchword
of the anti-foreign reaction has been "Japan for the Japanese." Among
English-speaking and English-reading Japanese there has been a
tendency to give this term a meaning deeper and broader than the
historic usage, or even than the current usage, will bear. One
Japanese writer, for instance, defines the term as meaning, "a spirit
of loyalty to country, conscience, and ideal." An American writer
comes more nearly to the current usage in the definition of it as "the
aggressive and invincible spirit of Japan." That there is such a
spirit no one can doubt who has the slightest acquaintance with her
past or present history.
Concerning the recent rise of patriotism I have spoken elsewhere,
perhaps at sufficient length. Nor is it needful to present extensive
evidence for the statement that the Japanese have this feeling of
patriotism in a marked degree. One or two rather interesting items
may, however, find their place here.