THE RITUAL AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE WINNEBAGO
MEDICINE DANCE
BY PAUL RADIN
DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY,
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY.
Reprinted from THE JOURNAL OF AMERICAN FOLK-LORE, Vol. XXIV, No. XCII,
April–June, 1911
TO THE MEMORY OF
EVELYN R. BRESLER
[Reprinted from THE JOURNAL OF AMERICAN FOLK-LORE, Vol. XXIV., No.
XCII., April–June, 1911.]
THE RITUAL AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE WINNEBAGO MEDICINE DANCE
BY PAUL RADIN
CONTENTS
PAGE
A. DESCRIPTION OF THE RITUAL OF THE WINNEBAGO MEDICINE DANCE 149
I. Organization of the Bands 150
II. Prescribed Duties of the Bands 151
III. Division of the Ceremony 153
IV. Types of Component Elements of the Ceremony 154
1. Types of Speeches 154
2. Types of Songs 156
3. Types of Action 156
4. Types of Ritual 156
V. Ceremony as a Whole 161
B. DESCRIPTION OF THE OJIBWA MIDE′WIWIN 165
C. DESCRIPTION OF THE MENOMINEE MIDE′WIWIN 167
D. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RITUAL 168
I. The Common Elements 168
II. The Interpretation of the Common Elements—Schurtz’s Theory 169
III. The Shooting Ritual 175
IV. The Initiation Ritual 179
V. The General Ceremony 186
VI. The Complete Ceremonial Complexes 188
VII. Résumé and Conclusion 198
A. DESCRIPTION OF THE RITUAL OF THE WINNEBAGO MEDICINE
DANCE[1]
The Medicine Dance is a society, admission into which is gained by
purchase. The Winnebago suppose it to be a repetition of a ceremony
originally instituted by the Rabbit, when he initiated the first man
into its secrets. The society consists of five bands, which, during the
ceremony, are known respectively as the Ancestor-Host’s, the East,
North, West, and South Bands. These five bands are also known by the
names of their leaders. Any band may act as host, and the position of
the others in the lodge is dependent on the order in which they are
invited by the band acting as host. It thus follows that each band must
know the entire ceremony of the society.
I. ORGANIZATION OF THE BANDS.—For purposes of description it will
be best to divide each band into three parts,—the leader, his two
assistants, and the rest of the band. Leadership depends upon
a thorough knowledge of the ceremony and its complete esoteric
significance, which is in the possession of only one individual in each
band. This knowledge can be obtained solely by purchase and religious
qualifications. These religious qualifications, to which might be added
moral as well, play little part at the present day, but there can be no
doubt that they were essential in the past. The leader likewise often
possessed other characteristics, such as those of warrior and shaman,
but they were not essential for his position.
The two assistants were generally men who had purchased sufficient
information and privileges to entitle them to help the leader in
certain details of the ceremony. The drummers, rattle-holders, dancers,
etc., were always recruited from their ranks. Eventually they became
the leaders. Those who were neither leaders nor assistants possessed
a knowledge varying from that of elementary information, required for
admission, to such as would entitle them to the position of assistant.
There is a priority of position in the lodge depending on priority of
invitation. The band invited first, occupies the east position; that
invited second, the north; that invited third, the west; and that
invited fourth, the south. The east is the position of highest honor;
the south, that of the lowest. Between the bands, there exists an order
of invitation based on tradition, the exact nature of which is unknown.
According to one informant, if one band invited another, the latter in
turn would be obliged to give it the position of honor; but as there
are five bands, this can apply only to special cases. Whatever may be
the order, it is certain that each band has ample occasion to occupy
all five positions.
There are two ways in which a man can join the Medicine Dance. He
may simply apply for admission to any of the five leaders, or he may
take the place of a deceased relative. In the former case, if his
payment is satisfactory, and he has the other qualifications, he is
accepted. In the other case, he or his relatives decide to have him
take the place of a deceased relative. This latter form of candidacy
is by far the commoner. At the present day, initiation requires the
payment of about three hundred or four hundred dollars, in the form of
goods and tobacco. Of this, a portion is given to the leader of the
Ancestor-Host’s Band during the Four Nights’ Preparation, and the rest
to the leaders of the other four bands during the ceremony proper.
Exactly how much information an individual obtains on entering, cannot
be determined. This would depend on the amount of the payment. The
minimum of knowledge would be an acquaintance with the bare externals
of the ceremony, its general significance, and such knowledge of the
legendary origin of the Lodge as a single recital could give. The new
member is not initiated into the symbolism of the ritualistic myths,
and consequently a large portion of the same must be unintelligible
to him. What he obtains is practically only the right to hold the
otter-skin bag and to use it in a certain way. He cannot take part in
any of the forms of dancing or singing, nor can he even shoot at will.
He very rarely remains in this condition long, but takes the first
opportunity to purchase additional knowledge and privileges.
There are three kinds of members,—mature men, women, and children. The
privileges of women differ from those of the men, in that the women do
not have to partake of the sweat-bath, may never become assistants, and
are privileged to dance in a certain way. In other respects they have
equal privileges with men. In practice, there are certain privileges
that women never have, but this is due to the fact that either they do
not care or they are not in a position to buy them. Children belong to
a quite different category. Although they possess an otter-skin, they
have not even the power of making it effective, and, in order to do so,
must have it guided by some older member. There does not seem to be any
evidence indicating that women were ever excluded from membership.
II. PRESCRIBED DUTIES OF THE BANDS.—The duties of the
host, who is known as x’okera,[2] and whose band is called
Minañk‘ara-k‘oñañgire′ra,[3] are as follows:
1. To rehearse the songs and rituals with his band four nights
previous to the ceremony proper. At this rehearsal the candidate
(haⁿbirok‘aragu′-inera, literally “the one for whom they seek life”) is
always present, and instructed in the ceremony.
2. To send out invitation-sticks and tobacco to the leaders of the
other four bands. The messengers are always his sisters’ sons.
3. To begin the Four Nights’ Ceremony preceding the ceremony proper.
4. To receive the leaders and assistants of the other four bands before
the sweat-lodge ritual, and to begin the same.
5. To begin the ceremony proper.
6. To take part in the following portion of the ceremony proper.
(_a_) To welcome the four bands.
(_b_) To lead the candidate to the secret brush and instruct him in
certain precepts.
(_c_) To act as preceptor of the candidate before he is shot with the
sacred shell.
(_d_) To turn the candidate over to the charge of the leaders of the
East and North Bands.
(_e_) To relate certain of the myths.
(_f_) To deliver certain speeches and to perform certain actions that
constitute the basic ritual of the ceremony proper. This will be
discussed later.
The East Band is known as Tconi mina′ñgera (Those-who-sit-first),
Hanⁿp‘ogu homina′ñgere (Where-the-day-comes-from), Wiayephuregi
(Where-the-sun-rises). All these terms are used frequently. The duties
of the leader are—
1. To assist the ancestor-host in passing upon the eligibility of a
candidate.
2. To take part in the following portions of the ceremony proper.
(_a_) Accompanied by his two assistants, to take part in the brush
ritual.
(_b_) To take charge of the candidate after he has been handed over to
him by the ancestor-host.
(_c_) To shoot the sacred shell into the candidate’s body.
(_d_) To relate certain of the myths.
(_e_) To perform the basic ritual.
The North Band is known as Siniwagu mina′ñgera
(Where-the-cold-comes-from). The leader has the same duties as those of
the East leader. The myths recited are of course different.
The West Band is known as Wioi′rê mina′ñgera (Where-the-sun-goes-down).
The leader has the duty of reciting certain myths and performing the
basic ritual.
The South Band is known as Nañgŭojedjaⁿ minañgera
(He-who-sits-at-the-end-of-the-road) or Horotcû′ñdjeregi
(Where-the-sun-straightens). The duties of the leader are the same as
those of the leader of the West Band, except that the myths he recites
are different.
The distribution of the gifts to the different bands is the following:
The leader of the East Band receives one-half of the number of
blankets, the upper half of the new suit worn by the candidate, and
one-quarter of the food.
The leader of the North Band receives one-half of the blankets, the
lower half of the suit, the moccasins, and one-quarter of the food.
The leaders of the West and South Bands receive each three yards and a
half of calico and a fourth of the food.
The ancestor-host receives various gifts of food and tobacco from the
leaders of the other bands. He receives his payment from the candidate
before the ceremony proper.
The candidate is present at the Four Nights’ Ceremony of the
ancestor-host’s band preliminary to the ceremony proper. At the latter
ceremony he sits to the right of the ancestor-host’s band. He is not
dressed in his new suit until after the secret ceremonies in the brush.
There are facial decorations distinctive of the different bands. The
host’s band and the candidate paint a blue circle on each cheek, but
its significance is unknown to me.
The regalia used are simple and few. They consist of eagle, hawk,
squirrel, weasel, beaver, and otter skin bags, a drum, gourd rattles,
and invitation-sticks. The otter-skin bags are always beaded and
contain the sacred shell and various medicines. A few red feathers are
always inserted in the mouth of the otter-skin bag. The gourds contain
buck-shot at the present day. They are painted with blue finger-marks.
III. DIVISION OF THE CEREMONY.—The Medicine Dance is divided into five
well-marked parts. The first part (I) consists of the Two Nights’
Preparation preceding the sending-out of the invitation-sticks. This
takes place at the home of the ancestor-host (x’okera), in the presence
of the members of his band and the candidate. The second part (II)
consists of the Four Nights’ Preparation preceding the sweat-lodge
ritual. Each band has its own Four Nights’ Preparation, although that
of the ancestor-host begins before the others. The third part (III)
consists of the rites held in a sweat-lodge specially constructed
for this purpose near the medicine-lodge, on the morning after the
Four Nights’ Preparation. The participants are the ancestor-host; the
leader of the East, North, West, and South Bands, each with his two
assistants; and the candidate. The fourth part (IV) consists of the
ceremony proper, which in turn must be divided into the night ceremony
(_a_) and the day ceremony (_b_). The fifth part (V) consists of the
rites held in the brush, at which the secrets of the society are
imparted to the candidate. Special guards are placed on all sides of
the brush to prevent the intrusion of outsiders. The participants are,
beside the candidate, the ancestor-host, the leaders of the East and
North Bands, each with his two assistants, and all other individuals
who have bought the privilege of attending. These ceremonies take place
at the dawn preceding the day ceremony.
Two feasts and one intermission interrupt the main ceremony. The
feasts always take place at the end of the ritual of the East Band;
i. e., generally at noon and at midnight. The intermission generally
lasts from the dawn preceding the day ceremony until 7 or 8 A. M. The
intermission begins as soon as the drum and gourds have been returned
to the ancestor-host, and ends as soon as the people return from the
brush ritual.
The first and second parts are concerned entirely with a recital
of certain ritualistic myths, and a rehearsal of the songs and the
specific ritual of each band, used during the remaining parts.
IV. TYPES OF COMPONENT ELEMENTS OF THE CEREMONY.—For purposes of
greater clarity, the speeches, songs, and types of action, will
be carefully differentiated, and referred to by some designation
characterizing their essential traits. These speeches, songs, and types
of action, together form complexes which can be regarded as units, and
I will therefore also refer to these by some designation characteristic
of their function.
1. _TYPES OF SPEECHES._ (1) _Salutations._—No formal salutation is
used during Parts I and II, the individuals being addressed by their
relationship terms. In Parts III, IV, and V the salutations are
invariably the same. The ancestor-host and his band are addressed as
follows: “The-one-occupying-the-seat-of-a-relative (deceased) (some
relationship terms) -and-you-who-sit-with-him, I salute you!” The East
is addressed, “You-who-represent-the-place-where-the-sun-rises;” the
North, “You-who-represent-the-place-where-the-cold-comes-from;” the
West, “You-who-represent-the-place-where-the-sun-sets;” and the South,
“You-who-represent-the-place-where-the-sun-straightens” or (preferably)
“You-who-represent-the-end-of-the-road.”
The appellations of the bands, as before stated, refer to the creation
myth and the four guardian spirits whom the Rabbit visited for the
purpose of inquiring into the necessity and meaning of death. He was
compelled to travel around the earth, which is conceived of as an
island, and received no answer until he came to the spirit at the end
of the road. In the dramatic performance of the medicine dance the
lodge typifies the earth, and the four bands and their leaders typify
the four spirits. The ancestor-host’s band typifies the ancestor of
the Winnebago, their leader being known as x’okera (literally “root,”
metaphorically “ancestor”).
(2) _Speeches._—Under this head will be treated (_a_) speeches of
welcome; (_b_) speeches of acceptation; (_c_) speeches of presentation;
(_d_) speeches explanatory of the significance of the ritual; and (_e_)
speeches of admonition, addressed exclusively to the candidate. This
does not exhaust all the speeches. There are many others, generally
short, that can hardly be classified. It must be understood that
in their content, as well as in the order of their succession, the
speeches must follow a traditionally determined sequence. In practice
this is certainly not always true, but to the mind of the Winnebago
these speeches appear as old as the ceremony. It is their firm belief
that any departure from the accepted norm will interfere with the
efficacy of the ceremony.
(_a_) Speeches of Welcome.—When the leader of the East Band enters
after the ancestor-host has begun the main ceremony (IV, _b_), he
addresses him as follows: “It was good of you that you condescended to
invite me to this dance. I am a poor pitiable man, and you believed me
to be a medicine-man. But I know that you will show me the true manner
of living, which I thought I possessed, but which I did not.” In this
strain he continues, weaving into his speech references to the ritual
connected with his band, and giving words of thanks for the beautiful
weather (should it be a clear day). In concluding, he thanks all again,
and informs them that he will sing a song. With slight alterations, the
leaders of the other bands address the ancestor-host similarly. The
ancestor-host’s answer of welcome is as follows: “Whatever I desired,
you have done for me. All night have you stayed with me, and by your
presence helped me in the proper performance of this ceremony. I am
ready with a dancing-song; and when I have finished it, and sit down, I
shall pass unto you tobacco and the other means of blessing (the gourds
and the drum). You all, who are present, do I greet.”
(_b_) Speeches of Acceptation.—After the ancestor-host has been
presented with food, he thanks the donors as follows: “You have had
pity on me. You have been good to me, and have given me to the full
whatever I might have desired. You have made my heart full of the
blessing of thankfulness. In return I give you a blessing. Here is
some food for you. It is not anything special, nor is it as much as it
ought to be, and I know you will remain hungry. It was prepared for the
spirits of the four quarters (whom you represent), but it is lacking in
all those qualities which would have made it acceptable to them. Such
as it is, however, may its presentation be a means of blessing to you!”
(_c_) Speech of Presentation.—East presents the food to the
ancestor-host with the following words: “I have not very much to tell
you, because I am too poor, but our ancestors told us to give food to
you. This little that I give you is all that I can do, being a person
of so little importance.”
(_d_) Explanatory Speeches.—These are of so specific a nature that no
single one can be considered typical.
(_e_) Speeches of Admonition.—“Nephew, now I shall tell you the path
you must walk, the life you must lead. This is the life the Rabbit
obtained for us. This is the only kind of life, this that our ancestors
followed. Listen to me. If you will always help yourself, then you will
attain to the right life. Never do anything wrong. Never steal, never
tell an untruth, and never fight. If you meet a woman on the left side
of the road, turn to the right. Never accost her, nor speak familiarly
with a person whom you are not permitted thus to address. If you do all
these things, then you will be acting correctly. This is what I desire
of you.”
2. _TYPES OF SONGS._—The songs may be divided into two groups: (1)
those that are sung in connection with myths and after the speeches
of a more general nature, and (2) those that are sung to accompany
definite and specific actions. These latter can therefore be most
conveniently divided into (_a_) minor dance songs, (_b_) major dance
songs, (_c_) initial songs, (_d_) terminal songs, (_e_) loading
songs, and (_f_) shooting songs. The medicine-men distinguish only
between four kinds of songs,—major and minor dance songs, terminal and
shooting songs. Each has a different rhythm and music. For purposes of
description, however, the above division is more convenient.
3. _TYPES OF ACTION._ (1) _Blessing._—Either hand is held outstretched,
palm downward, and moved horizontally through the air. It is always
used when entering and leaving the lodge, and on any occasion where an
individual has to pass from one part of the lodge to another. It is
always rendered as “blessing” by the Indians; and they particularly
insisted upon the fact that the “blessing” was not conveyed by any
words used in connection with the action, but by the action itself.
Each person who is thus passed answered with a long-drawn-out “ho-o-o,”
and with an obeisance of the head.
A modification of the above is the naⁿsura niñkuruhintce (or “blessing
of the head”), which consists of a simple laying of the hand upon the
head; both the giver and recipient keeping their eyes fixed on the
ground, and the recipient slightly bending his head. A few mumbled
words accompany this action.
(2) _Direction of Walking in the Lodge._—One must always pass contrary
to the hands of the clock. A person in the East Band must make the
entire circuit of the lodge in order to pass out. In only exceptional
cases can this rule of passing be broken; and that is when an old and
specially privileged member crosses from his seat to that directly
opposite him, during the shooting ceremony. I was given to understand
that this was an extremely expensive privilege.
4. _TYPES OF RITUAL._—Parts III, IV, and V can be so analyzed that they
fall into a fairly well-defined number of complexes, consisting of
speeches, songs, and movements. These are nine in number. Artificial
distinctions have been avoided in this division, as far as possible.
The complexes are (1) entrance ritual; (2) exit ritual; (3) fire
ritual; (4) presentation-of-food ritual; (5) shooting ritual; (6)
initiation ritual; (7) sweat-lodge ritual; (8) smoking ritual; (9)
basic ritual.
Of these, (3), (5), (7), (8), and (9) are found in Part III; all,
except (7) and (6), in Part IV (_a_); and all except (7) in Part IV
(_b_); (5) does not actually occur in Part III, but is described in
detail in the myth related there. The order in which we will discuss
these ceremonial complexes is not the order in which they follow one
another in the ritual. Some of them are likewise interwoven with
one another. Both these factors will, however, be considered in the
description of the entire ritual, following the description of each
ceremonial complex.
(1) _Entrance Ritual._—The band enters the tent, makes one complete
circuit, and stops. The leader now delivers a short speech, followed
by a song. They then continue to the west end, where another speech is
delivered and another song sung. After this, they continue again, and
stop at the east end, where the leader talks and sings. Now all sit
down. After a short pause, the leader again rises, and, walking over to
the ancestor-host, talks to him, and gives him some tobacco. He then
returns to his seat. Each band entering repeats the same ritual. This
applies, however, only to Part IV (_a_) and (_b_).
(2) _Exit Ritual_ (Part IV, _a_ and _b_).—The East leader rises and
speaks, followed by North, West, and South. They then speak again, and,
singing, walk towards the entrance in such a way that the South, North,
and West Bands make complete circuits of the lodge, thus enabling the
East Band to precede them. Near the entrance all stop singing, and
say “wahi-hi-hi” four times, and pass out. This exit ceremony differs
slightly in the two divisions of IV.
(3) _Fire Ritual_ (Part III).—The ancestor-host rises and goes to the
leaders of the four other bands individually; and after he has blessed
them, they respond; and all rise, make four circuits of the lodge, and
then sit down again. Now the leader of the East Band rises, holding in
his hands the invitation-sticks and some tobacco, delivers a speech,
and, going to the fireplace, kindles a new fire.
(8) _Smoking Ritual._—The leader of the East Band pours tobacco into
the fire, first at the east, and then at the north, west, and south
corners. Then he lights his pipe, puffs first towards the east, then
towards the north, west, and south. That over, he passes his pipe to
the leader of the North Band, who takes a few whiffs, and in turn
passes it around to the next member of the lodge. When the pipe has
made the complete circuit, it is placed in front of the fireplace. In
the mean time the ancestor-host has returned to his seat, and after
a short pause, rises, speaks, and sings again. This smoking ceremony
occurs after each entrance ceremony of IV (_a_) and (_b_), and before
both feasts of IV (_a_) and (_b_).
(4) _Presentation-of-Food Ritual_ (Part IV, _a_ and _b_).—The leader of
the East Band rises, and brings meat, berries, wild potatoes, etc., to
the ancestor-host, delivering a minor speech at the same time. Each of
the other leaders repeats the same ceremony. When all have finished,
the ancestor-host rises and thanks them.
(5) _General Shooting Ritual_ (Part IV, _a_ and _b_).—The leaders of
the East, North, West, and South Bands, holding their otter-skins in
their hands, rise, and, taking three men with them, make a complete
circuit of the lodge. They first speak in undertones to these three
men, giving them directions. At each end the leader of the East
Band speaks, and then, singing, walks toward the west end, saying
“yoho-o-oya-a” three times, and ending with a long-drawn-out “yo-ho.”
At the west end both he and the leader of the South Band speak. Then
chanting “yo-ho” again, they all walk towards the east end. Here the
leader of the East Band speaks twice. Now all place their otter-skins
on the ground in front of them. East then speaks again. At the
conclusion of his speech, all kneel in front of the otter-skins and
cough, at which the sacred shell drops from their mouths upon the
otter-skins. They thereupon pick it up, and holding the shell in one
hand, and the otter-skin in the other, make a circuit of the lodge
four times, increasing their speed with each circuit, and singing.
All this time the shell is held in full view of the spectators, on
the outstretched palm of their right hand. As they near the east end
of the lodge, toward the end of the fourth circuit, standing in front
of the Ancestor-Host’s Band, they supposedly swallow the shell, and
fall down instantaneously, head foremost, as if dead. Finally they
come to, and, coughing the shell up, they put it into their otter-skin
bag, and, making the circuit of the tent, shoot four members of the
Ancestor-Host’s Band, four of the East, four of the North, two of the
West, and two of the South Band. Each person, as he is shot, falls
prostrate on the ground, but, recovering after a few moments, joins
those making the circuit of the tent. Each leader now takes his drum
and gourds to the fireplace. Then the general shooting commences. Every
person possessing the right, shoots one individual, until all the
members have been shot. As each person is shot, he falls to the ground,
feigns unconsciousness, and then slowly recovers. The slowness or speed
of his recovery depends exclusively upon the privileges he possesses,
and the number of years he has belonged to the society. As soon as the
person shot recovers, he falls in line immediately after the last one
shot. While all are thus walking around, the half-dozen people at the
fireplace sing shooting-songs to the accompaniment of drum and gourds.
The amount of noise at this point is quite considerable.
(6) _Initiation Ritual_ (Part IV, _b_).—All the members of the
Ancestor-Host’s Band, and the candidate, make one circuit of the lodge,
taking their otter-skins along with them. As they pass around, they
gently touch the heads of the members with the mouth of the otter-skin,
saying, “yoho′-o-o,” to which the members respond with “ho-o-o.” After
the circuit, all return to their seats with the exception of the
candidate, who remains at the east end, in front of the fireplace.
After a pause, the ancestor-host joins him again, and delivers a speech
of the admonition type. The candidate first faces the south, and then
the north. During his speech, the ancestor-host touches him on his head
and on his chest, and makes him face first south, and then north. When
the speech is over, the ancestor-host sings, and takes the candidate to
the west end of the tent.
The tent is now prepared for the initiation proper. Two long strips of
calico are stretched from the west to the east end of the lodge. They
are about a foot and a half wide, and are separated from each other
by the fireplace. At the west end a much shorter strip of the same
material is stretched along the width of the lodge, across the two long
strips. Upon this the candidate is placed. When these preparations are
completed, the ancestor-host rises, and, going to each of the four
leaders, speaks to them in an undertone. He then returns to his seat.
The leaders of the East and North Bands now rise and make the complete
circuit of the lodge. The former now speaks, then the latter. He, in
turn, is followed by the former, who speaks twice. Then the leader of
the North Band delivers another speech, and, together with his partner,
walks to the west end of the lodge, where the candidate is kneeling.
The two leaders here speak again. Both now take their sacred shells,
swallow them, and walk to the east end. Here they speak again. Now
they hold their otter-skins in readiness for the shooting, but first
jerk them forward twice towards the four cardinal points, saying
“dje-ha-hi, dje-ha-hi,” and concluding with “e-hohoho.” Standing upon
the two long calico strips in a slightly bent position, and holding
their otter-skins tightly in their hands, both run rapidly toward the
reclining form of the candidate, making loud, threatening sounds in
a quavering voice, and strike his body twice with the mouth of the
otter-skin, ejaculating, as they do this, two short sounds, as of an
animal who has succeeded in capturing his prey. The candidate falls
prostrate to the ground instantaneously. He is immediately covered with
a blanket, upon which are placed the otter-skins of the two leaders.
A number of people specially privileged now gather around the covered
figure, dance, sing, and shout to the accompaniment of the shouts of
the other members of the society, all of whom seem to be in a frenzy of
excitement. When the noise has somewhat abated, the blanket is removed,
and the figure of the candidate is shown, still apparently unconscious.
He comes to slowly, but finally succeeds in raising himself and sitting
up. He then coughs violently, and the shell, which has apparently been
shot into his body, falls out of his mouth. After this, his recovery
is rapid. He is then undressed; and all the finery, as well as the new
buckskin suit, moccasins, etc., are distributed to those to whom it is
customary to give them. He now returns to his seat to the right of the
Ancestor-Host’s Band, where some female relative, generally his mother,
dresses him in an ordinary suit.
(7) _Sweat-Lodge Ritual_ (Part III).—The East leader rises, and with
his two assistants makes the circuit of the sweat-lodge, during which
time the North, West, and South leaders, each with his two assistants,
join him. At the east end the leader makes four steps with his right
foot, each time saying “wahi-hi-hi.” He then makes the circuit of the
lodge four times. After the third circuit, he goes directly to the
heating-stone, “in defiance of the rule,” as he himself says, but with
the hope that through this defiance he will gain additional strength.
After he has made the fourth circuit, he seizes the two entrance-lodge
poles, and, shaking them gently, shouts “e-ho-ho-ho.” All now sit down.
Now the ancestor-host takes four sticks and smears them with a special
kind of greenish clay, and hands them to the leader of the East Band.
The latter seizes them and holds them tightly with both hands. By this
action he is supposed to obtain strength. The sticks are then passed
in rotation to the leaders of the North, West, and South Bands, all of
whom repeat the same ceremony.
(9) _Basic Ritual_ (Part IV, _a_ and _b_).—This ritual is that upon
which the ritual of the ceremony proper (Part IV, _a_ and _b_) is
built. In a certain sense it may be justifiable to consider all the
above ritualistic complexes, with the exception of the entrance and
exit rituals, as parts of this basic ritual. The important religious
function of the Medicine Dance is the “passing of the blessing,”
consisting of speeches, songs, and the blessings which each individual
passes from one band to the other for the greater benefit of both the
host and his guests. These blessings are symbolized by the drum, the
gourds, the songs, the speeches, and the specific actions in which each
band participates. The ceremony begins when the ancestor-host delivers
his first speech, and ends when drum and gourds are returned to him.
All that takes place between the ancestor-host’s first speech, up to
the time that the drum and gourds are placed before the members of the
East Band, constitutes the unit that I have called the “basic ritual.”
Into it are thrust, as intrusive elements, other rituals; so that it is
at times extremely difficult to discern the basic ritual itself. But
it is there, and remains intact; for as soon as an intrusive ritual is
finished, the thread of the basic ritual is taken up, and continued to
the end. Such a ritual as the general shooting or initiation, or such
myths as the origin myth, require hours; and yet as soon as they are
over, the basic ceremony is continued from the point where it had been
interrupted.
The East leader rises and speaks, then sits down, and together with
the other members of his band, sings a song (initial song). When this
song is finished, he rises and speaks again, and then sits down and
commences a song known as the “minor dancing-song.” While he and a
few others are singing, drumming, and using the gourd rattles, other
members of his band, as well as members of the other bands, who care
to, and who have bought the privilege, come to his seat and join in
the dancing. When this is over, he and a few others either from his
own or from some other band, who have bought the privilege, go to the
fireplace, where the leader delivers a speech and begins the major
dancing-songs, in which the privileged members participate. When this
is over, the drum is tied to one of the members thus privileged,
generally the one who has been drumming, and the circuit of the lodge
is twice made, the leader and his two assistants at the head, followed
by the other members of his band. Two stops are made at the west, and
two at the east, end of the lodge, where songs known as “completion
songs” are sung. Then the lodge circuit is made four times, all
chanting “wahi-hi-hi,” slowly at first, but then faster, the speed of
the walking corresponding to that of the chanting. Then, with a final
strong “e-ho-ho,” drum and gourds are deposited in front of the next
band. All now return to their seats, where, before sitting down, the
leader delivers a short speech.
This basic ritual is repeated by each band in the manner described. As
it is so often broken up by the intrusion of other rituals, it will be
best to divide it into four parts. These parts are never broken up.
Whenever intrusive elements occur, they either precede or follow.
The first part consists of all that takes place between the first
speech of the leader and the completion of the initial song. The speech
referred to is the one that follows the smoking ritual, which may, on
the whole, be reckoned as belonging to the introductory ritual, such as
the entrance ritual. The second part consists of all that transpires
between the second speech and the completion of the minor dancing-song.
The third part consists of all that transpires between the speech at
the fireplace and the completion of the major dancing-songs. The fourth
part consists of all that transpires between the completion of the
major dancing-songs, and the last speech the leader makes after he has
passed the drum and gourds to the next band.
The most bewildering intrusion is that which follows the second part.
Before the leader and his assistants go to the fireplace, the elaborate
general shooting ritual takes place. After the specially designated men
of each band have been shot, those specially privileged proceed to the
fireplace. Here they sing the shooting-songs until the shooting ritual
is over. The first set of drummers and gourd-rattle holders are often
relieved by a second set. It is only when the shooting-songs have been
completed, that the leader and his assistants proceed to the fireplace
to begin the third part of the basic ritual.
V. CEREMONY AS A WHOLE.—As stated before, there are certain speeches
and types of action that cannot be fitted into the above description.
This is especially true of myths; and these, with the exception of the
content of the myth, will now be considered in connection with the
description of the entire ritual as related to me by Blowsnake, and
based on the above divisions. The ceremony begins with an account of
the manner in which Blowsnake was induced to join the society. Upon
his acceptance, and payment of the required amount of material, the
ceremony began.
The first two nights consisted of an informal salutation, two
explanatory speeches and four myths, the latter in no way connected
with any part of the Medicine Dance. The last three myths deal with the
legendary account of the origin of the Winnebago Medicine Dance, and
its dissemination among the tribe.
At sunset the leader of the band to which the candidate has applied for
admission, gathers together the members of his band, and all retire
to a little lodge near his home, in order to begin the Four Nights’
Preparation. It is only after the leader has finished the first song
that the other four bands who are holding corresponding preparations
are allowed to begin. What actually takes place during these four
nights is not positively known, but there is little doubt that they are
used as a general rehearsal of songs, speeches, and other elements of
the ceremony.[4] In all probability, the candidate who is present in
the lodge of his future ancestor-host is likewise instructed in as many
things as an uninitiated member is allowed to know. This instruction
consists in the teaching of certain myths and types of action.
On the morning after the last of the four nights, the candidate is
given some sacrificial tobacco, and told to go in search of a stone
for the sweat-bath. He selects a stone that he can carry on his back
easily. Before picking it up, he pours tobacco on it. As soon as the
stone is brought to the lodge of the host, it is heated. The candidate
is now despatched for some oak-branches, four pieces of oak-wood about
two feet and a half in length, and some grass. The grass is used for
improvised seats. The oak-wood is used for the four construction poles
of the sweat-lodge. They are placed in the east, north, west, and
south points respectively. It is not permitted to trim the tops of the
oak-wood. When all the bands have gathered near the medicine-lodge, and
retired to their improvised lodges, the ancestor-host and the candidate
go to the lodge of the East leader (that is, to the lodge of the band
first invited), and greet him by touching his head with their hand.
He answers with “ho-o-o.” The leader of the first band rises, and,
accompanied by his two assistants, goes to the sweat-lodge. The
ancestor-host goes to the lodges of the other bands and greets the
leaders in a similar manner. After the leader and assistants of the
band last invited have entered the sweat-lodge, the ancestor-host, the
candidate, and his assistants enter, and the ceremonies begin.
After the ceremonial salutation and an introductory speech, the
ancestor-host, as the leader of the band giving the Medicine Dance
may now be called, rises, and, taking his invitation-stick and some
tobacco, approaches the leader of each band, and, blessing him, thanks
him for coming, and assures him at the same time to how great a degree
his presence will contribute toward the success of the performance of
the ritual. He then returns to his seat. The leaders thank him in turn.
Now follow the fire and smoking rituals, which in turn are followed
by twelve speeches of a general and of an explanatory character. Then
comes the “strengthening” ritual; and immediately after come two
exceedingly long myths describing the initiation of the first man
into the secrets of the lodge, as well as the symbolic meaning of
the shooting ritual. All now undress and take a sweat-bath. Female
candidates are excluded. A number of short speeches follow, and the
whole concludes with the exit ritual.
The drum and gourds are used to accompany the song. The basic ritual
is perhaps present, to a certain extent. However, it was impossible to
witness the ritual, and for this reason the procedure seems somewhat
hazy to the writer.
When the ritual in the sweat-bath is over, there is a slight pause. The
candidate, the ancestor-host and his band, enter the medicine-lodge,
and, after taking their seats, sing a few songs. When the last song is
concluded, the other bands enter in the order of their invitation. Now
comes the entrance ritual followed by the smoking ritual. Thereupon
the ancestor-host rises and delivers the opening speech of the basic
ritual. The ancestor-host does not go through the entire basic ritual
at this time, because he is not permitted to begin the shooting ritual.
Soon after the beginning of the basic ritual by the ancestor-host,
generally after the second speech, gourds and drum are passed to the
leader of the East Band. This one rises and begins the basic ritual,
which he interrupts at the end of the second part, in order to begin
the general shooting ritual. When that is finished, he continues with
the third and fourth parts of the basic ritual. Then drum and gourds
are passed to the North Band. Its leader now in turn begins his basic
ritual, but stops after the second part, where the presentation-of-food
ritual and the smoking ritual intervene. It is now about midnight, and
a feast is partaken of. As soon as the feast is finished, and the lodge
has been cleared of food and eating-utensils, the leader of the North
Band continues with the third and fourth parts of the basic ritual. The
leaders of the West and South Bands perform the basic ritual without
any interruptions, except, of course, that of the general shooting
ritual between the second and third parts. The drum and gourds have now
reached the ancestor-host, who goes through the third and fourth parts
of the basic ritual. There is, however, some doubt as to whether this
is always done. Then follows the exit ritual, and all pass out to rest
for a few hours.
A short time preceding dawn, the candidate, the leaders of the East and
North Bands, and the ancestor-host, each with two assistants, and all
other members who are privileged to do so, leave the lodge and walk to
the brush, where the candidate is to be initiated into the mysteries
of the sacred shell and the shooting. Each band must have one or more
of its members present at this ritual.[5] When they are near the place
set aside for the secret ritual, the order of marching, which up to
this time had been of no consequence, changes into that of single file,
the leader of the East Band leading. When they have arrived at the
place, all stop. The East leader now informs those present that he is
going to make a road for the candidate, symbolical of the path of life,
which forms the basis of the sweat-bath and Medicine Dance. Singing,
he circles the spot four times. At the end of the fourth circuit he
stops, and all turn around and face east. The leader of the North Band
has also the right to go through this ritual, but he does not always do
it. Repeating the ceremony is in all probability connected with extra
expense. All now sit down, and the specific rites of the brush ritual
begin.
The ancestor-host rises, and, taking the candidate with him, goes
to the leader of the East Band and speaks to him. Then he and the
candidate return to their seats. The East leader now relates to the
candidate a portion of the story of the creation of the earth and of
the first man. The North leader then tells the story of the journey to
the land of the spirits, to the lodge of the earth-maker. When this is
finished, the two leaders teach the candidate how to go through the
actions incidental to the shooting, the swallowing of the shell, and
the recovery from its effects. When they think that he is sufficiently
adept in all these actions, they dress him in his new suit, put on a
new pair of moccasins, decorate him with finery, and return to the
medicine-lodge.
These rites generally last until about eight in the morning; so that
when those who have participated in the brush ritual are returning,
the other members of the Medicine Dance are also about ready to begin
the day ceremony, the principal one of the entire Medicine Dance. The
ancestor-host again precedes the other leaders in entering the lodge.
Then follows the entrance ritual. During this ritual the drum is struck
four times at stated intervals. The smoking ritual now follows. When
it is concluded, the ancestor-host rises to begin the basic ritual,
which is interrupted at the end of the second part. Gourds and drum
are passed to the East Band, whose basic ritual is also interrupted
at the end of the second part. Now follows, first the initiation of
the candidate into the Medicine Dance, and then the general shooting
ritual. When the East leader has concluded, drum and gourds are passed
to the North Band, whose basic ritual is not interrupted, as upon the
preceding day. At the conclusion of the basic ritual of the North Band,
the food-presentation ritual follows, then that of the smoking ritual,
and finally the feast. After the feast, the leader of the West Band
narrates the origin myth of the Medicine Dance, which is continued by
the leader of the South Band. The presents are then distributed. After
this, the basic ritual is continued by the leader of the West Band,
followed by that of the South Band, and finally drum and gourds are
passed to the ancestor-host. He either finishes the third and fourth
parts of the basic ritual, or takes drum and gourds to the fireplace.
The exit ritual now begins, and at about sunset the entire ceremony of
the Medicine Dance is over. On the whole, it must be said, that the
main difference between (_a_) and (_b_) of Part IV setting aside the
initiation, lies simply in the number of myths told and the greater
length of the speeches.
B. DESCRIPTION OF THE OJIBWA MIDEWIWIN
As I shall have occasion to refer frequently to the Midewiwin of the
Ojibwa and Menominee, a short summary of these two ceremonies will be
inserted here.
The Ojibwa Midewiwin is a society of shamans of both sexes. It is
graded into four degrees, special initiation being required for each
degree. The ritual of all the degrees seems to be the property of five
shamans,—the four so-called “mide-priests” and the preceptor. In the
lodge the preceptor occupies a position to the side of the candidate
and the mide-priests sitting near the western entrance.[6]
There are two methods of admission. A man may apply because in his
fasting some manito connected with the Midewiwin has appeared to him,
or he may take the place of an individual who has died while preparing
for initiation. As soon as the candidate’s application has been
accepted, a preceptor is selected, whose duty it is to instruct the new
pupil in the mide teachings, and explain to him the meaning and origin
of the regalia, the songs, and the origin of the Midewiwin itself, by
means of birch-bark records. The time required for this instruction
varies, depending upon the preceptor and the amount of payment. The
knowledge required for each degree is definitely determined, and is
imparted almost entirely during this preparatory instruction. When the
candidate has acquired the specified information, and the required
payments have been made, a four-nights’ preparation takes place, during
which he takes four sweat-baths. At dawn of the day of initiation he
repairs to the sweat-lodge, clad in his best clothes, to await the
arrival of his preceptor and the four officiating priests.
The initiation ceremonies which follow are the same for the second,
third, and fourth degrees in almost all details, except that those for
the fourth are more elaborate. The first degree is like the others in
its possession of a shooting ceremony and general speeches, but differs
in elaboration and symbolism of the ritual.
The shooting is performed by the four officiating mide; but it is
only the leader of these four who succeeds in rendering the candidate
unconscious. A candidate for the first degree is shot in the breast;
one for the second, in the joints; and one for the third and fourth,
in the joints and forehead. After he has been initiated, the candidate
tries his power on all the members present. Indiscriminate shooting, as
described among the Winnebago, only occurs at the initiation into the
fourth degree.