[1] Note in _Geographical Journal_, xx., on S. Yoshiwara, "Raised
Coral Reefs in the Islands of the Riukiu Curve," in _Journ. Coll. of
Science, Imp. Univ., Tokyo_ (1901).
LUCIA (or LUCY), ST, virgin and martyr of Syracuse, whose name figures
in the canon of the mass, and whose festival is celebrated on the 13th
of December. According to the legend, she lived in the reign of
Diocletian. Her mother, having been miraculously cured of an illness at
the sepulchre of St Agatha in Catania, was persuaded by Lucia to
distribute all her wealth to the poor. The youth to whom the daughter
had been betrothed forthwith denounced her to Pascasius, the prefect,
who ordered that she should be taken away and subjected to shameful
outrage. But it was found that no force which could be applied was able
to move her from the spot on which she stood; even boiling oil and
burning pitch had no power to hurt her, until at last she was slain with
the sword. The most important documents concerning St Lucy are the
mention in the _Martyrologium Hieronymianum_ and the ancient inscription
discovered at Syracuse, in which her festival is indicated. Many
paintings represent her bearing her eyes in her hand or on a salver.
Some artists have even represented her blind, but nothing in her _Acta_
justifies this representation. It is probable that it originated in a
play upon words (Lucia, from Lat. _lux_, light), just as St Clair is
invoked in cases of eye-disease.
See O. Caietanus, _Vitae sanctorum Siculorum_, i. 114-121 (Palermo,
1657); Ioannes de Ioanne, _Acta sincera sanctae Luciae_ (Palermo,
1758); _Analecta Bollandiana_, xxii. 492; Cahier, _Caractéristiques
des saints_, i. 105 (Paris, 1867). (H. De.)
LUCIAN (d. 312), Christian martyr, was born, like the famous, heathen
writer of the same name, at Samosata. His parents, who were Christians,
died when he was in his twelfth year. In his youth he studied under
Macarius of Edessa, and after receiving baptism he adopted a strictly
ascetic life, and devoted himself with zeal to the continual study of
scripture. Settling at Antioch when Malchion was master of the Greek
school he became a presbyter, and, while supporting himself by his skill
as a rapid writer, became celebrated as a teacher, so that he is
regarded as the founder of the famous theological school of Antioch. He
did not escape suspicion of heresy, and is represented as the connecting
link between Paul of Samosata and Arius. Indeed, on the deposition of
the former (A.D. 268) he was excluded from ecclesiastical fellowship by
three successive bishops of Antioch, while Arius seems to have been
among his pupils (Theodoret, _Hist. Eccl._ i. 3, 4). He was, however,
restored before the outbreak of persecution, and the reputation won by
his high character and learning was confirmed by his courageous
martyrdom. He was carried to Nicomedia before Maximin Daza, and
persisting in his faith perished on the 7th of January 312, under
torture and hunger, which he refused to satisfy with food offered to
idols. His defence is preserved by Rufinus (ix. 6; on Eusebius, _Hist.
Eccl._ ix. 9). His remains were conveyed to Drepanum in Bithynia, and
under Constantine the town was founded anew in his honour with the name
of Helenopolis, and exempted from taxes by the emperor (A.D. 327) (see
_Chron. Pasch._, Bonn ed., p. 527). Here in 387, on the anniversary of
his death, Chrysostom delivered the panegyrical homily from which, with
notices in Eusebius, Theodoret and the other ecclesiastical historians,
the life by Jerome (_Vir. Ill._ cap. 77), but especially from the
account by S. Metaphrastes (cited at length in Bernhardy's notes to
Suidas, _s.v._ [Greek: notheuei]), the facts above given are derived.
See also, for the celebration of his day in the Syriac churches, Wright,
_Cat. of Syr._ MSS. p. 283.
Jerome says that Lucian wrote _Libelli de fide_ and several letters,
but only a short fragment of one epistle remains (_Chron. Pasch._, ed.
Dindorf, i. 516). The authorship of a confession of faith ascribed to
Lucian and put forth at the semi-Arian synod of Antioch (A.D. 341) is
questioned. Lucian's most important literary labour was his edition of
the Greek Old Testament corrected by the Hebrew text, which, according
to Jerome (_Adv. Ruf._ ii. 77), was in current use from Constantinople
to Antioch. That the edition of Lucian is represented by the text used
by Chrysostom and Theodoret, as well as by certain extant MSS., such
as the Arundelian of the British Museum, was proved by F. Field
(_Prol. ad Origenis Hexapla_, cap. ix.).
Before the publication of Field's _Hexapla_, Lagarde had already
directed his attention to the Antiochian text (as that of Lucian may
be called) and ultimately published the first part (Genesis, 2 Esdras,
Esther) of a provisional reconstructed text. The distinguishing marks
of the Lucianic recension are thus summarized by S. R. Driver, _Notes
on Heb. Text of Samuel_, p. li. seq.: (1) The substitution of synonyms
for the words employed by the Septuagint; (2) the occurrence of double
renderings; (3) the occurrence of renderings "which presuppose a
Hebrew original self-evidently superior in the passages concerned to
the existing Massoretic text," a peculiarity which makes it very
important for the criticism of the Hebrew Bible. From a statement of
Jerome in his preface to the gospels it seems probable that Lucian had
also a share in fixing the Syrian recension of the New Testament text,
but of this it is impossible to speak with certainty. He was
associated in his work with the Hebraist Dorotheus.
See, generally, A. Harnack's art. in Hauck-Herzog, _Realencyk_. vol.
xi., and for "remains" Routh, Rel. Sac. iv. 3-17. A full account of
his recension of the Septuagint is given in H. B. Swete's
_Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek_, p. 81 sqq.; and a good
account of his doctrinal position in the prolegomena to the volume on
_Athanasius_ in the series of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (p.
xxviii.) and A. Harnack's _History of Dogma_, especially vol. iv.
LUCIAN [[Greek: Loukianos]] (c. A.D. 120-180), Greek satirist of the
Silver Age of Greek literature, was born at Samosata on the Euphrates in
northern Syria. He tells us in the _Somnium_ or _Vita Luciani_, 1, that,
his means being small, he was at first apprenticed to his maternal
uncle, a statuary, or rather sculptor of the stone pillars called
Hermae. Having made an unlucky beginning by breaking a marble slab, and
having been well beaten for it, he absconded and returned home. Here he
had a dream or vision of two women, representing Statuary and
Literature. Both plead their cause at length, setting forth the
advantages and the prospects of their respective professions; but the
youth chooses [Greek: Paideia], and decides to pursue learning. For some
time he seems to have made money as a [Greek: rhêtôr], following the
example of Demosthenes, on whose merits and patriotism he expatiates in
the dialogue _Demosthenis Encomium_. He was very familiar with the rival
schools of philosophy, and he must have well studied their teachings;
but he lashes them all alike, the Cynics, perhaps, being the chief
object of his derision. Lucian was not only a sceptic; he was a scoffer
and a downright unbeliever. He felt that men's actions and conduct
always fall far short of their professions and therefore he concluded
that the professions themselves were worthless, and a mere guise to
secure popularity or respect. Of Christianity he shows some knowledge,
and it must have been somewhat largely professed in Syria at the close
of the 2nd century.[1] In the _Philopatris_ (q.v.), though the dialogue
so called is generally regarded as spurious, there is a statement of the
doctrine of the Trinity,[2] and the "Galilaean who had ascended to the
third heaven" (12), and "renewed" ([Greek: anekainisen]) by the waters
of baptism, may possibly allude to St Paul. The doctrines of the [Greek:
Logos] and the "Light of the world," and that God is in heaven making a
record of the good and bad actions of men,[3] seem to have come from
the same source, though the notion of a written catalogue of human
actions to be used in judgment was familiar to Aeschylus and Euripides.
As a satirist and a wit Lucian occupies in prose literature the unique
position which Aristophanes holds in Greek poetry. But whether he is a
mere satirist, who laughs while he lashes, or a misanthrope, who hates
while he derides, is not very clear. In favour of the former view it may
be said that the two main objects of his ridicule are mythology and the
sects of philosophy; in favour of the latter, his bitter exposure of
imposture and chicanery in the _Alexander_, and the very severe attacks
he makes on the "humbug" of philosophy,[4] which he everywhere assails
with the most acrimonious and contemptuous epithets.
As a writer Lucian is fluent, easy and unaffected, and a close follower
of the best Attic models, such as Plato and the orators. His style is
simpler than Plutarch's, and some of his compositions, especially the
_Dialogues of the Gods_ (pp. 204-287) and _of the Marine Deities_
(288-327), and, above all, the _Dialogues of the Dead_ (329-454), are
models of witty, polished and accurate Greek composition. Not less
clever, though rather lax in morality, are the [Greek: hetairikoi
dialogoi] (pp. 280-325), which remind us somewhat of the letters of
Alciphron. The sarcasms on the popular mythology, the conversations of
Pluto, Hermes, Charon and others of the powers in Hades, show a positive
disbelief in any future state of existence. The model Lucian followed in
these dialogues, as well in the style as in the sparkling and playful
repartee, was the Platonic conversations, founded on the drama, of which
the dialogue may be called the prose representative. Aristotle never
adopted it, perhaps regarding it as beneath the true dignity of
philosophy. The dialogue, in fact, was revived and improved by
Lucian,[5] the old traditions of the [Greek: logopoioi] and [Greek:
logographoi], and, above all, the immense influence of rhetoric as an
art, having thrown some discredit on a style of composition which, as
introduced by Plato, had formed quite a new era in Greek prose
composition. For rhetoric loved to talk, expatiate and declaim, while
dialectic strove to refute by the employment of question and answer,
often in the briefest form.
Lucian evinces a perfect mastery over a language as wonderful in its
inflections as in its immense and varied vocabulary; and it is a
well-merited praise of the author to say that to a good Greek scholar
the pages of Lucian are almost as easy and as entertaining as an English
or French novel. It is true that he employs some forms and compounds
which were not in use in the time of Plato or Demosthenes, and, as one
who lived under Roman rule, has a tendency towards Latinisms. But his
own sentiments on the propriety of diction are shown by his reproof to
Lexiphanes, "if anywhere you have picked up an out-of-the-way word, or
coined one which you think good, you labour to adapt the sense of it,
and think it a loss if you do not succeed in dragging it in somewhere,
even when it is not really wanted."
Lucian founded his style, or obtained his fluency, from the successful
study of rhetoric, by which he appears to have made a good income from
composing speeches which attracted much attention. At a later period in
life he seems to have held a lucrative legal office in Egypt, which he
retained till his death.
His extant works are so numerous that of some of the principal only a
short sketch can be given. More than 80 pieces have come down to us
under his name (including three collections of 71 shorter dialogues), of
which about 20 are spurious or of doubtful authorship. To understand
them aright we must remember that the whole moral code, the entire "duty
of man," was included, in the estimation of the pagan Greek, in the
various schools of philosophy. As these were generally rivals, and the
systems they taught were more or less directly antagonistic, truth
presented itself to the inquirer, not as one, but as manifold. The
absurdity and the impossibility of this forms the burden of all Lucian's
writings. He could only form one conclusion, viz. that there is no such
thing as truth.
One of the best written and most amusing treatises of antiquity is
Lucian's _True History_, forming a rather long narrative in two books,
which suggested Swift's _Gulliver's Travels_, Rabelais's _Voyage of
Pantagruel_ and Cyrano de Bergerac's _Journey to the Moon_. It is
composed, the author tells us in a brief introduction, not only as a
pastime and a diversion from severer studies, but avowedly as a satire
on the poets and logographers who had written so many marvellous tales.
He names Ctesias and Homer; but Hellanicus and Herodotus, perhaps other
[Greek: logopoioi] still earlier, appear to have been in his mind.[6]
The only true statement in his _History_, he wittily says (p. 72), is
that it contains nothing but lies from beginning to end.
The main purport of the story is to describe a voyage to the moon. He
set out, he tells us, with fifty companions, in a well-provisioned ship,
from the "Pillars of Hercules," intending to explore the western ocean.
After eighty days' rough sailing they came to an island on which they
found a Greek inscription, "This was the limit of the expedition of
Heracles and Dionysus"; and the visit of the wine-god seemed attested by
some miraculous vines which they found there. After leaving the island
they were suddenly carried up, ship and all, by a whirlwind into the
air, and on the eighth day came in sight of a great round island shining
with a bright light (p. 77), and lying a little above the moon. In a
short time they are arrested by a troop of gigantic "horse-vultures" and
brought as captives to the "man in the moon," who proves to be Endymion.
He is engaged in a war with the inhabitants of the sun, which is ruled
by King Phaëthon, the quarrel having arisen from an attempt to colonize
the planet Venus (Lucifer). The voyagers are enlisted as "Moonites," and
a long description follows of the monsters and flying dragons engaged in
the contest. A fight ensues, in which the slaughter is so great that the
very clouds are tinged with red (p. 84). The long description of the
inhabitants of the moon is extremely droll and original. After
descending safely into the sea, the ship is swallowed by a huge "sea
serpent" more than 100 miles long. The adventures during the long
confinement in the creature's belly are most amusing; but at last they
sail out through the chinks between the monster's teeth, and soon find
themselves at the "Fortunate Islands." Here they meet with the spirits
of heroes and philosophers of antiquity, on whom the author expatiates
at some length. The tale comes to an abrupt end with an allusion to
Herodotus in the promise that he "will tell the rest in his next books."
Another curious and rather long treatise is entitled [Greek: Loukios hê
Onos], the authorship of which is regarded as doubtful. Parts of the
story are coarse enough; the point turns on one Lucius visiting in a
Thessalian family, in which the lady of the house was a sorceress.
Having seen her changed into a bird by anointing herself with some
potent drug, he resolves to try a similar experiment on himself, but
finds that he has become an ass, retaining, however, his human senses
and memory. The mistake arose from his having filched the wrong
ointment; however, he is assured by the attendant, Palaestra, that if he
can but procure roses to eat, his natural form will be restored. In the
night a party of bandits break into the house and carry off the stolen
goods into the mountains on the back of the unfortunate donkey, who gets
well beaten for stumbling on the rough road. Seeing, as he fancies, some
roses in a garden, he goes in quest of them, and again gets beaten as a
thief by the gardener (p. 585). After many adventures with the bandits,
he attempts to run away, but is caught. A council is held, and he is
condemned to die together with a captive girl who had essayed to escape
on his back. Suddenly, however, soldiers appear, and the bandits are
arrested (p. 595). Again the ass escapes "to the great and populous city
of Beroea in Macedonia" (p. 603). Here he is sold to a strolling
conjurer, afterwards to a market-gardener; and both experiences are
alike painful. Again he passes into the possession of a cook, where he
gets fat and sleek on food more suited to his concealed humanity than
the hard fare he has of late lived upon (p. 614). At last, during an
exhibition in the theatre, he sees some roses being carried past, and,
making a successful rush to devour them, he recovers his former shape.
"I am Lucius," he exclaims to the wondering president of the exhibition,
"and my brother's name is Caius. It was a Thessalian witch that changed
me into a donkey." Thus all ends well, and he returns safe to his
country.
The treatise _On the Syrian Goddess_ (Mylitta, the moon-goddess, the
Semitic Aphrodite) is written in the Ionic dialect in imitation perhaps
of the style of Herodotus, though the resemblance is by no means close.
The writer professes to be an Assyrian (p. 452), and to describe the
wonders in the various temples of Palestine and Syria; he descants on
the eunuchs of Syria and the origin of the self-imposed privation of
manhood professed and practised by the Galli. The account of the
temples, altars and sacrifices is curious, if really authentic; after
the manner of Pausanias it is little more than a list, with the reasons
in most cases added, or the origin of the custom explained.
_De Morte Peregrini_ is a narrative of one Proteus, a Cynic, who after
professing various doctrines, and among them those of Christianity,
ended his own life by ascending a burning pyre (see PEREGRINUS PROTEUS).
_Bis accusatus_ ("Twice Accused") is a dialogue beginning with a satire
on the folly of the popular notion that the gods alone are happy. Zeus
is represented as disproving this by enumerating the duties that fall to
their lot in the government of the world, and Hermes remarks on the vast
crowds of philosophers of rival sects, by whose influence the respect
and worship formerly paid to the gods have seriously declined. A trial
is supposed to be held under the presidency of the goddess [Greek:
Dikê], between the Academy, the Porch, the schools of the Cynics and
Epicureans, and Pleasure, Revelry, Virtue, Luxury, &c., as variously
impugned or defended by them. Then Conversation and Rhetoric come before
the court, each having an action for defamation to bring against Syrus
the essayist, who of course is Lucian himself (p. 823). His defence is
heard, and in both cases he is triumphantly acquitted. This essay is
brilliant from its clever parodies of Plato and Demosthenes, and the
satire on the Socratic method of arguing by short questions and answers.
The _Lover of Lying_ ([Greek: Philopseudês]) discusses the reason why
some persons seem to take pleasure in falsehood for its own sake. Under
the category of lying all mythology (e.g. that of Homer and Hesiod) is
included, and the question is asked, why the hearers of such stories are
amused by them? Quack remedies, charms and miraculous cures are included
among the most popular kinds of falsehood; witchcraft, spiritualism,
exorcism, expulsion of devils, spectres, are discussed in turn, and a
good ghost story is told in p. 57. An anecdote is given of Democritus,
who, to show his disbelief in ghosts, had shut himself up in a tomb, and
when some young men, dressed up with death's heads, came to frighten him
at night, he did not even look up, but called out to them, "Stop your
joking" (p. 59). This treatise, a very interesting one, concludes with
the reflection that truth and sound reason are the only remedies for
vain and superstitious terrors.
The dialogue _Navigium seu Vota_ ("The Ship or the Wishes") gives an
apparently authentic account of the measurements and fittings of an
Egyptian ship which has arrived with a cargo of corn at the Peiraeus,
driven out of its course to Italy by adverse winds. The full length is
180 ft., the breadth nearly 50, the depth from deck to the bottom of the
hold 43 ft. The "wishes" turn on a party of friends, who have been to
see the ship, declaring what they would most desire to possess. One
would have the ship filled with gold, another a fine house with gold
plate; a third would be a "tyrant" with a large force devoted to his
interests; a fourth would like to make himself invisible, enter any
house that he pleased, and be transported through the air to the objects
of his affection. After hearing them all, the first speaker, Lycinus
(Lucian), says that he is content with the privilege of laughing
heartily at the vanity of human wishes, especially when they are those
of professed philosophers.
The dialogue between Philo and Lycinus, _Convivium seu Lapithae_, is a
very amusing description of a banquet, at which a party of dignified
philosophers quarrelled over their viands at a marriage feast, and came
to blows. The style is a good imitation of Plato, and the scene reminds
one of the "clients' dinner" in the fifth satire of Juvenal. Matters
come to a climax by the attempt of one of the guests, Zenothemis, to
secure for himself a fatter fowl which had been served to his next
neighbour Hermon. Each seizes his bird and hits the other with it in the
face, at the same time pulling his beard. Then a general fight ensues.
The story is a satire on philosophy, the favourite topic of a writer who
believed neither in gods nor in men.
The _Piscator_ ("Fisherman"), a dialogue between Lucian, Socrates,
Pythagoras, Empedocles, Plato and others, commences with a general
attack on the author as the enemy of philosophy. Socrates proposes that
the culprit should be tried, and that Philosophia should assist in the
prosecution. Lucian declares that he does not know where such a person
lives, long as he has been looking for her (11). She is found at last,
but declares Lucian has never disparaged her, but only impostors and
pretenders under her name (15). He makes a long defence (pp. 598-606),
abusing the philosophers in the sort of language in which some schools
of theologians abuse the monks of the middle ages (34). The trial is
held in the Acropolis of Athens, and the sham philosophers, dreading a
verdict against them, throw themselves from the rock. A Cynic flings
away his scrip in the hurry, and on examination it is found to contain,
not books or loaves of bread, but gold coins, dice and fragrant essences
(44). At the end Lucian baits his hook with a fig and a gold coin, and
catches gluttonous strollers in the city while seated on the wall of the
Acropolis.
The _Voyage Home_ ([Greek: Kataplous]) opens with the complaint that
Charon's boat is kept waiting for Hermes, who soon appears with his
troop of ghosts. Among them is a [Greek: tyrannos], one Megapenthes,
who, as his name is intended to express, mourns greatly over the life he
has just left. Amusing appeals are made by other souls for leave to
return to life, and even bribes are offered to the presiding goddess of
destiny, but Clotho is inexorable. The moral of the piece is closely
like that of the parable of Dives and Lazarus: the rich and prosperous
bewail their fate, while the poor and afflicted find rest from their
troubles, and have no desire to return to them. The [Greek: tyrannos]
here is the man clothed in purple and fine linen, and Lucian shows the
same bitter dislike of tyrants which Plato and the tragic writers
display. The heavy penalty is adjudged to Megapenthes that he may ever
remember in the other world the misdeeds done in life.
The _Sales of Lives_ is an auction held by Zeus to see what price the
lives of philosophers of the rival sects will bring. A Pythagorean, who
speaks in the Ionic dialect, first undergoes an examination as to what
he can teach, and this contains an enumeration of the doctrines usually
ascribed to that sect, including metempsychosis. He is valued at 7s.
6d., and is succeeded by Diogenes, who avows himself the champion of
truth, a cosmopolitan (8), and the enemy of pleasure. Socrates brings
two talents, and is purchased by Dion, tyrant of Syracuse (19).
Chrysippus, who gives some specimens of his clever quibbles,[7] is
bought for fifty pounds, Aristotle for nearly a hundred, while Pyrrho
the sceptic (or one of his school), who professes to "know nothing,"
brings four pounds, "_because_ he is dull and stupid and has no more
sense than a grub" (27). But the man raises a doubt, "whether or not he
has really been bought," and refuses to go with the purchaser till he
has fully considered the matter.
_Timon_ is a very amusing and witty dialogue. The misanthrope, once
wealthy, has become a poor farm-labourer, and reproaches Zeus for his
indifference to the injustice of man. Zeus declares that the noisy
disputes in Attica have so disgusted him that he has not been there for
a long time (9). He tells Hermes to conduct Plutus to visit Timon, and
see what can be done to help him. Plutus, who at first refuses to go, is
persuaded after a long conversation with Hermes, and Timon is found by
them digging in his field (31). Poverty is unwilling to resign her
votary to wealth; and Timon himself is with difficulty persuaded to turn
up with his mattock a crock of gold coins. Now that he has once more
become rich, his former flatterers come cringing with their
congratulations and respects, but they are all driven off with broken
heads or pelted with stones. Between this dialogue and the _Plutus_ of
Aristophanes there are many close resemblances.
_Hermotimus_ (pp. 739-831) is one of the longer dialogues, Hermotimus, a
student of the Stoic philosophy for twenty years (2), and Lucian
(Lycinus) being the interlocutors. The long time--forty years at the
least--required for climbing up to the temple of virtue and happiness,
and the short span of life, if any, left for the enjoyment of it, are
discussed. That the greatest philosophers do not always attain perfect
indifference, the Stoic _ultimatum_, is shown by the anecdote of one who
dragged his pupil into court to make him pay his fee (9), and again by a
violent quarrel with another at a banquet (11). Virtue is compared to a
city with just and good and contented inhabitants; but so many offer
themselves as guides to the right road to virtue that the inquirer is
bewildered (26). What is truth, and who are the right teachers of it?
The question is argued at length, and illustrated by a peculiar custom
of watching the pairs of athletes and setting aside the reserved
combatant ([Greek: paredros]) at the Olympian games by the marks on the
ballots (40-43). This, it is argued, cannot be done till all the ballots
have been examined; so a man cannot select the right way till he has
tried all the ways to virtue. But to know the doctrines of all the sects
is impossible in the term of a life (49). To take a taste of each, like
trying a sample of wine, will not do, because the doctrines taught are
not, like the crock of wine, the same throughout, but vary or advance
day by day (59). A suggestion is made (68) that the searcher after truth
should begin by taking lessons in the science of discrimination, so as
to be a good judge of truth before testing the rival claims. But who is
a good teacher of such a science? (70). The general conclusion is that
philosophy is not worth the pursuit. "If I ever again," says Hermotimus,
"meet a philosopher on the road, I will shun him, as I would a mad dog."
The _Anacharsis_ is a dialogue between Solon and the Scythian
philosopher, who has come to Athens to learn the nature of the Greek
institutions. Seeing the young men performing athletic exercises in the
Lyceum, he expresses his surprise at such a waste of energy. This gives
Socrates an opportunity of descanting at length on training as a
discipline, and emulation as a motive for excelling. Love of glory,
Solon says, is one of the chief goods in life. The argument is rather
ingenious and well put; the style reminds us of the minor essays of
Xenophon.
The _Alexander_ or _False Prophet_ is the subject of a separate article
(see ALEXANDER THE PAPHLAGONIAN).
These are the chief of Lucian's works. Many others, e.g. _Prometheus_,
_Menippus_, _Life of Demonax_, _Toxaris_, _Zeus Tragoedus_, _The Dream
or the Cock_, _Icaromenippus_ (an amusing satire on the physical
philosophers), are of considerable literary value. (F. A. P.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Editio princeps (Florence, 1496); valuable editions
with notes by T. Hemsterhuis and J. F. Reitz (1743-1746, with _Lexicon
Lucianeum_ by C. C. Reitz) and J. T. Lehmann (1822-1831). Editions of
the text by C. Jacobitz (1886-1888) and J. Sommerbrodt (1886-1899).
The scholia have been edited by H. Rabe in the Teubner series (1906).
There are numerous editions of separate portions of Lucian's works and
translations in most European languages; amongst the latter may be
mentioned the German version by C. M. Wieland (1788), with valuable
notes and commentaries: English; one by several hands (1711), for
which Dryden had previously written an unsatisfactory life of the
author, by T. Francklin (1780) and W. Tooke (1820): and French; of
_The Ass_, by P. L. Courier, with full bibliography by A. J. Pons
(1887), and of the complete works by E. Talbot (1866) and Belin de
Ballu (1789; revised ed. by L. Humbert, 1896). A complete modern
English translation, racy and colloquial, appeared in 1905, _The Works
of Lucian of Samosata_, by H. W. Fowler and F. G. Fowler. On Lucian
generally, the best work is M. Croiset's _Essai sur la vie et les
oeuvres de Lucien_ (1882); see also E. Egger, "Parallèle de Lucien et
Voltaire," in _Mémoires de littérature ancienne_ (1862); C. Martha,
_Les Moralistes sous l'empire romain_ (1866); H. W. L. Hime, _Lucian,
the Syrian Satirist_ (1900); Sir R. C. Jebb, _Essays and Addresses_
(1907); "Lucian," by W. L. Collins in Blackwood's _Ancient Classics
for English Readers_; the Prolegomena to editions of select works with
notes by Sommerbrodt; and the exhaustive bibliography of the earlier
literature in Engelmann, _Scriptores Graeci_ (1880). On some special
questions see E. Rohde, _Über Lucians Schrift_ [Greek: Loukios hê
Onos] (Leipzig, 1869); C. Buerger, _De Lucio Patrensi_ (Berlin, 1887);
J. Bernays, _Lucian und die Kyniker_ (Berlin, 1879); C. G. Jacob,
_Characteristik Lucians von Samosata_ (Hamburg, 1832); C. F. Hermann,
_Charakteristik Lucians_ (Göttingen, 1849); P. M. Bolderman, _Studia
Lucianea_ (Leiden, 1893); R. Helm, "Lucian und die
Philosophenschulen," in _Neue Jahrb. f. das klassische Altertum_
(1901), pp. 188, 263, 367.