[1] Some confusion has arisen owing to the similarity of the names
Luca and Luna; the theory of E. Bormann in _Corp. Inscrip. Latin_.
(Berlin, 1888), xi. 295 is here followed.
LUCCA, BAGNI DI (Baths of Lucca, formerly _Bagno a Corsena_), a commune
of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Lucca, containing a number of
famous watering-places. Pop. (1901) 13,685. The springs are situated in
the valley of the Lima, a tributary of the Serchio; and the district is
known in the early history of Lucca as the Vicaria di Val di Lima. Ponte
Serraglio (16 m. N. of Lucca by rail) is the principal village (pop.
1312), but there are warm springs and baths also at Villa, Docce Bassi,
Bagno Caldo, &c. The springs do not seem to have been known to the
Romans. Bagno a Corsena is first mentioned in 1284 by Guidone de
Corvaia, a Pisan historian (Muratori, _R.I.S._ vol. xxii.). Fallopius,
who gave them credit for the cure of his own deafness, sounded their
praises in 1569; and they have been more or less in fashion since. The
temperature of the water varies from 98° to 130° Fahr.; in all cases it
gives off carbonic acid gas and contains lime, magnesium and sodium
products. In the village of Bagno Caldo there is a hospital constructed
largely at the expense of Nicholas Demidoff in 1826. In the valley of
the Serchio, 3 m. below Ponte a Serraglio, is the medieval Ponte del
Diavolo (1322) with its lofty central arch.
LUCCEIUS, LUCIUS, Roman orator and historian, friend and correspondent
of Cicero. A man of considerable wealth and literary tastes, he may be
compared with Atticus. Disgusted at his failure to become consul in 60,
he retired from public life, and devoted himself to writing a history of
the Social and Civil Wars. This was nearly completed, when Cicero
earnestly requested him to write a separate history of his (Cicero's)
consulship. Cicero had already sung his own praises in both Greek and
Latin, but thought that a panegyric by Lucceius, who had taken
considerable interest in the affairs of that critical period, would have
greater weight. Cicero offered to supply the material, and hinted that
Lucceius need not sacrifice laudation to accuracy. Lucceius almost
promised, but did not perform. Nothing remains of any such work or of
his history. In the civil war he took the side of Pompey; but, having
been pardoned by Caesar, returned to Rome, where he lived in retirement
until his death.
Cicero's _Letters_ (ed. Tyrrell and Purser), especially _Ad Fam._ v.
12; and Orelli, _Onomasticon Tullianum_.
LUCCHESINI, GIROLAMO (1751-1825), Prussian diplomatist, was born at
Lucca on the 7th of May 1751, the eldest son of Marquis Lucchesini. In
1779 he went to Berlin where Frederick the Great gave him a court
appointment, making use of him in his literary relations with Italy.
Frederick William II., who recognized his gifts for diplomacy, sent him
in 1787 to Rome to obtain the papal sanction for the appointment of a
coadjutor to the bishop of Mainz, with a view to strengthening the
German Fürstenbund. In 1788 he was sent to Warsaw, and brought about a
rapprochement with Prussia and a diminution of Russian influence at
Warsaw. He was accredited ambassador to the king and republic of Poland
on the 12th of April 1789. Frederick William was at that time
intriguing with Turkey, then at war with Austria and Russia. Lucchesini
was to rouse Polish feeling against Russia, and to secure for Prussia
the concourse of Poland in the event of war with Austria and Russia. All
his power of intrigue was needed in the conduct of these hazardous
negotiations, rendered more difficult by the fact that Prussian policy
excluded the existence of a strong Polish government. A Prusso-Polish
alliance was concluded in March 1790. Lucchesini had been sent in
January of that year to secure the alliance of Saxony against Austria,
and in September he was sent to Sistova, where representatives of the
chief European powers were engaged in settling the terms of peace
between Austria and Turkey, which were finally agreed upon on the 4th of
August 1791. Before he returned to Warsaw the Polish treaty of which he
had been the chief author had become a dead letter owing to the
engagements made between Prussia and Austria at Reichenbach in July
1790, and Prussia was already contemplating the second partition of
Poland. He was recalled at the end of 1791, and in July 1792 he joined
Frederick William in the invasion of France. He was to be Prussian
ambassador in Paris when the allied forces should have reinstated the
authority of Louis XVI. He was opposed alike to the invasion of France
and the Austrian alliance, but his prepossessions did not interfere with
his skilful conduct of the negotiations with Kellermann after the allies
had been forced to retire by Dumouriez's guns at Valmy, nor with his
success in securing the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt's assistance
against France. In 1793 he was appointed ambassador to Vienna, with the
ostensible object of securing financial assistance for the Rhenish
campaign. He accompanied Frederick William through the Polish campaign
of 1793-94, and in the autumn returned to Vienna. His anti-Austrian bias
made him extremely unpopular with the Austrian court, which asked in
vain for his recall in 1795. In 1797, after a visit to Italy in which he
had an interview with Napoleon at Bologna, these demands were renewed
and acceded to. In 1800 he was sent by Frederick William III. on a
special mission to Paris. Despatches in which he expressed his distrust
of Bonaparte's peaceful professions and his conviction of the danger of
the continuance of a neutral policy were intercepted by the first
consul, who sought his recall, but eventually accepted him as regular
ambassador (1802). He consistently sought friendly relations between
France and Prussia, but he warned his government in 1806 of Napoleon's
intention of restoring Hanover to George III. and of Murat's aggressions
in Westphalia. He was superseded as ambassador in Paris in September
just before the outbreak of war. After the disaster of Jena on the 14th
of October he had an interview with Duroc near Wittenberg to seek terms
of peace. After two unsuccessful attempts at negotiation, the first
draft being refused by Napoleon, the second by Frederick William, he
joined the Prussian court at Königsberg only to learn that his services
were no longer required. He then joined the court of Elisa, grand
duchess of Tuscany, at Lucca and Florence, and after Napoleon's fall
devoted himself to writing. He died on the 20th of October 1825.
He published in 1819 three volumes, _Sulle cause et gli effetti della
confederazione rhenana_, at Florence, but revealed little that was not
already available in printed sources. His memoirs remained in MS. His
despatches are edited by Bailleu in _Preussen und Frankreich_
(Leipzig, 1887, _Publikationen aus den preussischen Staatsarchiven_).
LUCENA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cordova, 37 m.
S.S.E. of Cordova, on the Madrid-Algeciras railway. Pop. (1900) 21,179.
Lucena is situated on the Cascajar, a minor tributary of the Genil. The
parish church dates from the beginning of the 16th century. The chief
industries are the manufacture of matches, brandy, bronze lamps and
pottery, especially the large earthenware jars (_tinajas_) used
throughout Spain for the storage of oil and wine, some of which hold
more than 300 gallons. There is considerable trade in agricultural
produce, and the horse fair is famous throughout Andalusia. Lucena was
taken from the Moors early in the 14th century; it was in the attempt to
recapture it that King Boabdil of Granada was taken prisoner in 1483.
LUCERA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, 12½ m. W.N.W. by rail
of Foggia. Pop. (1901) 16,962. It is situated upon a lofty plateau, the
highest point of which (823 ft.), projecting to the W., was the ancient
citadel, and is occupied by the well-preserved castle erected by
Frederick II., and rebuilt by Pierre d'Angicourt about 1280. The
cathedral, originally Romanesque, but restored after 1300 is in the
Gothic style; the façade is good, and so is the ciborium. The interior
was restored in 1882. The town occupies the site of the ancient Luceria,
the key of the whole country. According to tradition the temple of
Minerva, founded by Diomede, contained the Trojan Palladium, and the
town struck numerous bronze coins; but in history it is first heard of
as on the Roman side in the Samnite Wars (321 B.C.), and in 315 or 314
B.C. a Latin colony was sent here. It is mentioned in subsequent
military history, and its position on the road from Beneventum, via
Aecae (mod. _Troja_) to Sipontum, gave it some importance. Its wool was
also renowned. It now contains no ancient remains above ground, though
several mosaic pavements have been found and there are traces of the
foundations of an amphitheatre outside the town on the E. The town-hall
contains a statue of Venus, a mosaic and some inscriptions (but cf. Th.
Mommsen's remarks on the local neglect of antiquities in _Corp. Inscr.
Lat._ ix. 75). In 663 it was destroyed by Constans II., and was only
restored in 1223 by Frederick II., who transported 20,000 Saracens
hither from Sicily. They were at first allowed religious freedom, but
became Christians under compulsion in 1300. Up to 1806 Lucera was the
capital of the provinces of Basilicata and Molise. (T. As.)
LUCERNE (Ger. _Luzern_; Ital. _Lucerna_), one of the cantons of central
Switzerland. Its total area is 579.3 sq. m., of which 530.2 sq. m. are
classed as "productive" (forests covering 120.4 sq. m., and vineyards
.04 sq. m.). It contains no glaciers or eternal snows, its highest
points being the Brienzer Rothhorn (7714 ft.) and Pilatus (6995 ft.),
while the Rothstock summit (5453 ft.) and the Kaltbad inn, both on the
Rigi, are included in the canton, the loftiest point of the Rigi range
(the Kulm) being entirely in Schwyz. The shape of the canton is an
irregular quadrilateral, due to the gradual acquisition of rural
districts by the town, which is its historical centre. The northern
portion, about 15½ sq. m., of the Lake of Lucerne is in the canton. Its
chief river is the Reuss, which flows through it for a short distance
only receiving the Kleine Emme that flows down through the Entlebuch. In
the northern part the Wigger, the Suhr and the Wynen streams flow
through shallow valleys, separated by low hills. The canton is fairly
well supplied with railways. The lakes of Sempach and Baldegg are wholly
within the canton, which also takes in small portions of those of
Hallwil and of Zug.
In 1900 the population numbered 146,519, of which 143,337 were
German-speaking, 2204 Italian-speaking and 747 French-speaking, while
134,020 were Romanists, 12,085 Protestants and 319 Jews. Its capital is
Lucerne (q.v.); the other towns are Kriens (pop. 5951), Willisau (4131),
Ruswil (3928), Littau (3699), Emmen (3162) and Escholzmatt (3127). The
peasants are a fine race, and outside the chief centres for foreign
visitors have retained much of their primitive simplicity of manners and
many local costumes. In the Entlebuch particularly the men are of a
robust type, and are much devoted to wrestling and other athletic
exercises. That district is mainly pastoral and is famous for its butter
and cheese. Elsewhere in the canton the pastoral industry (including
swine-breeding) is more extended than agriculture, while chiefly in and
around Lucerne there are a number of industrial establishments. The
_industrie des étrangers_ is greatly developed in places frequented by
foreign visitors. The population as a whole is Conservative in politics
and devotedly Romanist in religion. But owing to the settlement of many
non-Lucerne hotel-keepers and their servants in the town of Lucerne the
capital is politically Radical.
The canton ranks officially third in the Swiss confederation next after
Zürich and Bern. It was formerly in the diocese of Constance, and is now
in that of Basel. It contains 5 administrative districts and 107
communes. The existing cantonal constitution dates in its main features
from 1875. The legislature or _Grossrath_ consists of members elected in
55 electoral circles, in the proportion of 1 to every 1000 souls (or
fraction over 500) of the Swiss population, and lasts for 4 years. On
the 4th of April 1909 proportional representation was adopted for
elections of members of the _Grossrath_. Since 1905 the executive of 7
members is elected by a popular vote for 4 years, as are the 2 members
of the federal _Ständerath_ and the 7 members of the federal
_Nationalrath_. Five thousand citizens can demand a facultative
referendum as to all legislative projects and important financial
decrees, or as to the revision of the cantonal constitution, while the
same number can also revoke the mandate of the cantonal legislature
before its proper term of office has ended, though this revocation does
not affect the executive. Four thousand citizens have the right of
"initiative" as to constitutional amendments or legislative projects.
The canton is composed of the various districts which the town acquired,
the dates being those at which the particular region was finally
secured--Weggis (1380), Rothenburg, Kriens, Horw, Sempach and Hochdorf
(all in 1394), Wolhusen and the Entlebuch (1405), the so-called
"Habsburger region" to the N.E. of the town of Lucerne (1406), Willisau
(1407), Sursee and Beromünster (1415), Malters (1477) and Littau (1481),
while in 1803, in exchange for Hitzkirch, Merenschwand (held since 1397)
was given up. (W. A. B. C.)
LUCERNE, the capital of the Swiss canton of the same name. It is one of
the principal tourist centres of Switzerland, being situated on the St
Gotthard railway line, by which it is 59 m. from Basel and 180 m. from
Milan. Its prosperity has always been bound up with the St Gotthard
Pass, so that the successive improvements effected on that route (mule
path in the 13th century, carriage road 1820-1830, and railway tunnel in
1882) have had much effect on its growth. It is beautifully situated on
the banks of the river Reuss, just as it issues from the Lake of
Lucerne, while to the south-west rises the rugged range of Pilatus,
balanced on the east by the more smiling ridge of the Rigi and the calm
waters of the lake. The town itself is very picturesque. On the rising
ground to its north still stand nine of the towers that defended the old
town wall on the Musegg slope. The Reuss is still crossed by two quaint
old wooden bridges, the upper being the Kapellbrücke (adorned by many
paintings illustrating the history of Switzerland and the town and
clinging to the massive Wasserthurm) and the lower the Mühlenbrücke
(also with paintings, this time of the Dance of Death). The old
Hofbrücke (on the site of the Schweizerhof quay) was removed in 1852,
when the process of embanking the shore of the lake began, the result
being a splendid series of quays, along which rise palatial hotels. The
principal building is the twin-towered Hofkirche (dedicated to St Leger
or Leodegar) which, though in its present form it dates only from
1633-1635, was the centre round which the town gradually gathered;
originally it formed part of a Benedictine monastery, but since 1455 has
been held by a college of secular canons. It has a fine 17th-century
organ. The 16th-century town-hall (Rathhaus) now houses the cantonal
museum of antiquities of all dates. Both the cantonal and the town
libraries are rich in old books, the latter being now specially devoted
to works (MS. or printed) relating to Swiss history before 1848. The
Lion monument, designed by Thorwaldsen, dedicated in 1821, and
consisting of a dying lion hewn out of the living sandstone,
commemorates the officers and men of the Swiss Guard (26 officers and
about 760 men) who were slain while defending the Tuileries in Paris in
1792, and is reflected in a clear pool at its foot. In the immediate
neighbourhood is the Glacier Garden, a series of potholes worn in the
sandstone rock bed of an ancient glacier. Among modern buildings are the
railway station, the post office and the Museum of War and Peace, all in
the new quarter on the left bank of the Reuss. In the interior of the
town are many quaint old private houses. In 1799 the population numbered
but 4337, but had doubled by 1840. Since then the rise has been rapid
and continuous, being 29,255 in 1900. The vast majority are
German-speaking (in 1900 there were 1242 Italian-speaking and 529
French-speaking persons) and Romanists (in 1900 there were 4933
Protestants and 299 Jews).
The nucleus of the town was a Benedictine monastery, founded about 750
on the right bank of the Reuss by the abbey of Murbach in Alsace, of
which it long remained a "cell." It is first mentioned in a charter of
840 under the name of "Luciaria," which is probably derived from that of
the patron saint of the monastery, St Leger or Leodegar (in O. Ger.
_Leudegar_ or _Lutgar_)--the form "Lucerrun" is first found in 1252.
Under the shadow of this monastery there grew up a small village. The
germs of a municipal constitution appear in 1252, while the growing
power of the Habsburgs in the neighbourhood weakened the ties that bound
Lucerne to Murbach. In 1291 the Habsburgs finally purchased Lucerne from
Murbach, an act that led a few weeks later to the foundation of the
Swiss Confederation, of which Lucerne became the fourth member (the
first town to be included) in 1332. But it did not get rid of all traces
of Habsburg domination till after the glorious victory of Sempach
(1386). That victory led also to the gradual acquisition of territory
ruled by and from the town. At the time of the Reformation Lucerne clave
to the old faith, of which ever since it has been the great stronghold
in Switzerland. The papal nuncio resided here from 1601 to 1873. In the
16th century, as elsewhere in Switzerland, the town government fell into
the hands of an aristocratic oligarchy, whose power, though shaken by
the great peasant revolt (1653) in the Entlebuch, lasted till 1798.
Under the Helvetic republic (1798-1803) Lucerne was the seat of the
central government, under the Act of Mediation (1803-1814) one of the
six "Directorial" cantons and from 1815 to 1848 one of the three ruling
cantons. The patrician government was swept away by the cantonal
constitution of 1831. But in 1841 the Conservatives regained power,
called in the Jesuits (1844) and so brought about the Sonderbund War
(1847) in which they were defeated, the decisive battle taking place at
Gisikon, not far from Lucerne. Since 1848 Lucerne has been in disfavour
with the Radicals who control the federal government, and has not been
chosen as the site of any great federal institution. The Radicals lost
power in the canton in 1871, after which date the Conservatives became
predominant in the canton, though in the town the Radicals were in the
majority.
See J. J. Blumer, _Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte d. Schweiz.
Demokratien_ (3 vols., St Gall, 1850-1859); A. L. Gassmann, _Das
Volkslied im Luzerner Wiggerthal u. Hinterland_ (Basel, 1906);
_Geschichtsfreund_ (organ of the Historical Society of the Forest
Cantons) from 1843. A. von Liebenau, _Charakterbilder aus Luzern's
Vergangenheit_ (2 vols., Lucerne, 1884-1891); T. von Liebenau, _Das
alte Luzern_ (Lucerne, 1881) and "Der luzernische Bauernkrieg vom
1653" (3 articles in vols. xviii.-xx., 1893-1895, of the _Jahrbuch f.
Schweizerische Geschichte_); _Heimathkunde für den Kanton Luzern_ (6
vols., Lucerne, 1867-1883); A. Lütolf, _Sagen, Bräuche, Legenden aus
d. Fünf Orten_ (Lucerne, 1862); K. Pfyffer, _Der Kanton Luzern_ (2
vols., 1858-1859) and _Geschichte d. Stadt u. Kanton Luzern_ (2 vols.,
new ed., 1861); A. P. von Segesser, _Rechtsgeschichte d. Stadt u.
Republik Luzern_ (4 vols., 1850-1858) and _45 Jahre (1841-1887) im
Luzernischen Staatsdienst_ (Bern, 1887); J. Sowerby, _The Forest
Cantons of Switzerland_ (London, 1892). (W. A. B. C.)
LUCERNE, LAKE OF, the name usually given by foreigners to the principal
lake of Central Switzerland. In French it is called the _Lac des Quatre
Cantons_, and in German the _Vierwaldstättersee_, this term being often
wrongly translated "Lake of the Four Forest Cantons," whereas it means
the "Lake of the Four Valleys"--_valles_--which form the four Cantons of
Lucerne, Unterwalden, Uri and Schwyz. It takes its name from the town of
Lucerne, which is situated at its west end, just where the Reuss issues
from the lake, after having entered it at Flüelen at the east end and so
practically formed it; the Muota enters the lake at Brunnen (northern
shore) and the two mountain streams called the Engelberg and the Sarnen
Aa at Buochs and Alpnachstad respectively (S.). The lake is generally
supposed to be, on the whole, the most beautiful in Switzerland. This is
partly due to the steep limestone mountains between which it lies, the
best known being the Rigi (5906 ft.) to the N., and Pilatus (6995 ft.)
to the S.W., and to the great promontories that thrust themselves into
its waters, such as those of Horw (S.), of Bürgenstock (S.), of
Meggenhorn (N.) and of Seelisberg (S.), and partly to the irregularity
of its shape. It is, in fact, composed of four main basins (with two
side basins), which represent four different valleys, orographically
distinct, and connected only by narrow and tortuous channels. There is,
first, the most easterly basin, the _Bay of Uri_, extending from Flüelen
on the south to Brunnen on the north. At Brunnen the great delta of the
Muota forces the lake to the west, so that it forms the _Bay of Gersau_
or the _Gulf of Buochs_, extending from the promontory of Seelisberg
(E.) to that of the Bürgenstock (W.). Another narrow strait between the
two "Noses" (_Nasen_) leads westwards to the _Basin of Weggis_, enclosed
between the Rigi (N.) and the Bürgenstock promontory (S.). This last
named bay forms the eastern arm of what is called the Cross of Lucerne,
the western arm of which is formed by the Bay of Lucerne, while the
northern arm is the Bay of Küssnacht and the southern that of
_Hergiswil_, prolonged S.W. by the _Bay of Alpnach_, with which it is
joined by a very narrow channel, spanned by the Acher iron bridge. The
Bay of Uri offers the sternest scenery, but is the most interesting, by
reason of its connexion with early Swiss history--at Brunnen the
Everlasting League of 1315 was really made, while the legendary place of
meeting of the founders of Swiss freedom was the meadow of the Rütli on
the west (purchased by the Confederation in 1859), and the site of
Tell's leap is marked by the Chapel of Tell (E.). Nearly opposite
Brunnen, close to the west shore, an isolated rock (the _Schillerstein_
or _Mythenstein_) now bears an inscription in honour of Friedrich
Schiller, the author of the famous play of _William Tell_ (1804). In the
Bay of Gersau the most interesting spot is the village of Gersau (N.),
which formed an independent republic from 1390 to 1798, but in 1818 was
finally united to the canton of Schwyz. In the next basin to the west is
Weggis (N.), also for long in the middle ages a small independent state;
to the S.E. of Weggis, on the north shore of the lake, is Vitznau,
whence a rack railway (1871) leads up to the top of the Rigi (4¼ m.),
while S.W. of Weggis, on the south shore of the lake, is Kehrsiten,
whence an electric railway leads up to the great hotels on the
Bürgenstock promontory (2854 ft.). The town of Lucerne is connected with
Flüelen by the main line of the St Gotthard railway (32 m.), though only
portions of this line (from Lucerne to Küssnacht, 10½ m., and from
Brunnen to Flüelen, 7 m.) run along the shore; Brunnen is also connected
with Flüelen by the splendid carriage road known as the Axenstrasse (7¼
m.) and is the starting-point of an electric line (1905) up to Morschach
(S.E.) and the great hotels of Axenstein and Axenfels near it. On the
promontory between Lucerne and Küssnacht stands the castle of New
Habsburg (modern), while from Küssnacht a carriage road leads through
the remains of the "Hollow Way" (_Hohle Gasse_), the scene of the
legendary murder of Gessler by William Tell. The west shore of the
southern arm, or the basin of Hergiswil and the Bay of Alpnach, is
traversed from Horw to Alpnachstad by the Brünig railway (5½ m.), which
continues towards Sarnen (Obwalden) and the Bernese Oberland, S.W. from
Alpnachstad, whence a rack railway leads N.W. up Pilatus (2¾ m.).
Opposite Hergiswil, but on the east shore of the Basin of Hergiswil, is
Stanstad, the port of Stans (Nidwalden), which is connected by an
electric line with Engelberg (14 m.). The first steamer was placed on
the lake in 1835. Lucerne is the only town of importance, but several
spots serve as ports for neighbouring towns or large villages (Brunnen
for Schwyz, Flüelen for Altdorf, Stanstad for Stans, Alpnachstad for
Sarnen). Most of the villages on the shores are frequented in summer by
visitors (Gersau also in winter), especially Hertenstein, Weggis,
Gersau, Brunnen, Beckenried and Hergiswil, while great hotels,
commanding magnificent views, have been built on heights above it, such
as the Bürgenstock, Seelisberg, and near Morschach, above Brunnen,
besides those on the Rigi, Pilatus and the Stanserhorn. The area of the
lake is about 44½ sq. m., its length about 24 m., its greatest width
only 2 m. and its greatest depth 702 ft., while the surface of the water
is 1434 ft. above sea-level. Of the total area about 15½ sq. m. are in
the Canton of Lucerne, 13 sq. m. in that of Nidwalden, 7½ sq. m. in that
of Uri, 7½ sq. m. in that of Schwyz, and about 1 sq. m. in that of
Obwalden. (W. A. B. C.)
LUCERNE, PURPLE MEDICK or ALFALFA, known botanically as _Medicago
sativa_, a plant of the natural order Leguminosae. In England it is
still commonly called "lucerne," but in America "alfalfa," an Arabic
term ("the best fodder"), which, owing to its increasing cultivation in
the western hemisphere, has come into widening usage since the
introduction of the plant by the Spaniards. It is an erect perennial
herb with a branched hollow stem 1 to 2 ft. high, trifoliolate leaves,
short dense racemes of small yellow, blue or purple flowers, and downy
pods coiled two or three times in a loose spiral. It has a
characteristic long tap-root, often extending 15 ft. or more into the
soil. It is a native of the eastern Mediterranean region, but was
introduced into Italy in the 1st century A.D., and has become more
widely naturalized in Europe; it occurs wild in hedges and fields in
Britain, where it was first cultivated about 1650. It seems to have been
taken from Spain to Mexico and South America in the 16th century, but
the extension of its cultivation in the Western States of the American
Union practically dates from the middle of the 19th century, and in
Argentina its development as a staple crop is more recent. It is much
cultivated as a forage crop in France and other parts of the continent
of Europe, but has not come into such general use in Britain, where,
however, it is frequently met with in small patches in districts where
the soil is very light, with a dry subsoil. Its thick tap-roots
penetrate very deeply into the soil; and, if a good cover is once
obtained, the plants will yield abundant cuttings of herbage for eight
or ten years, provided they are properly top-dressed and kept free from
perennial weeds. The time to cut it is, as with clover and sainfoin,
when it is in early flower.
[Illustration: Lucerne (_Medicago sativa_), ½ nat. size.
1, Flower, enlarged.
2, Half-ripe fruit, ¾ nat. size.
3, Fruit, enlarged.]
In the United States alfalfa has become the staple leguminous forage
crop throughout the western half of the country. Some idea of the
increase in its cultivation may be obtained from the figures for Kansas,
where in 1891 alfalfa was cultivated over 34,384 acres, while in 1907
the number was 743,050. The progress of irrigation has been an important
factor in many districts. The plant requires a well-drained soil (deep
and permeable as possible), rich in lime and reasonably free from weeds.
See, for practical directions as to cultivation, _Farmers' Bulletin_
339 of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, by J. M. Westgate
(Washington, December 1908).
LUCHAIRE, DENIS JEAN ACHILLE (1846-1908), French historian, was born in
Paris on the 24th of October 1846. In 1879 he became a professor at
Bordeaux and in 1889 professor of medieval history at the Sorbonne; in
1895 he became a member of the _Académie des sciences morales et
politiques_, where he obtained the Jean Reynaud prize just before his
death on the 14th of November 1908. The most important of Achille
Luchaire's earlier works is his _Histoire des institutions monarchiques
de la France sous les premiers Capétiens_ (1883 and again 1891); he also
wrote a _Manuel des institutions françaises: période des Capétiens
directs_ (1892); _Louis VI. le Gros, annales de sa vie et de son règne_
(1890); and _Étude sur les actes de Louis VII._ (1885). His later
writings deal mainly with the history of the papacy, and took the form
of an elaborate work on Pope Innocent III. This is divided into six
parts: (1.) _Rome et Italie_ (1904); (ii.) _La Croisade des Albigeois_
(1905); (iii.) _La Papauté et l'empire_ (1905); (iv.) _La Question
d'Orient_ (1906); (v.) _Les Royautés vassales du Saint-Siège_ (1908);
and (vi.) _Le Concile de Latran et la réforme de l'Église_ (1908). He
wrote two of the earlier volumes of E. Lavisse's _Histoire de France_.
LUCHU ARCHIPELAGO (called also RIUKIU, LOO-CHOO and LIUKIU), a long
chain of islands belonging to Japan, stretching from a point 80 m. S. of
Kiushiu to a point 73 m. from the N.E. coast of Formosa, and lying
between 24° and 30° N. and 123° and 130° E. Japanese cartographers
reckon the Luchu islands as 55, having a total coast-line of 768 m., an
area of 935 sq. m., and a population of about 455,000. They divide them
into three main groups, of which the northern is called Oshima-shoto;
the central, Okinawa-gunto; and the southern, Sakishima-retto. The terms
_shoto_, _gunto_ and _retto_ signify "archipelago," "cluster of islands"
and "string of islands" respectively. The last-named group is subdivided
into Miyako-gunto and Yayeyama-gunto. The principal islands of these
various groups are:--
_Oshima-shoto_--
Amami-Oshima 34 m. long and 17 m. broad
Tokuno-shima 16 " 8½ "
_Okinawa-gunto_--
Okinawa-shima (Great Luchu) 63½ m. long and 14½ m. broad
Kume-shima 9¾ " 7½ "
Okinoerabu-shima 9½ " 5 "
Ihiya-shima 5 " 2½ "
_Miyako-gunto_--
Miyako-shima 12¼ m. long and 12 m. broad
Erabu-shima 4¾ " 3½ "
_Yayeyama-gunto_--
Ishigaki-shima 24½ m. long and 14½ m. broad
Iriomoto-shima 14½ " 14 "
Yonakuni-shima 7(1/3) " 3½ "
The remaining islands of the archipelago are of very small size,
although often thickly populated. Almost at the extreme north of the
chain are two islands with active volcanoes: Nakano-shima (3485 ft.) and
Suwanose-shima (2697 ft.), but the remaining members of the group give
no volcanic indications, and the only other mountain of any size is
Yuwan-dake (2299 ft.) in Amami-Oshima. The islands "are composed chiefly
of Palaeozoic rocks--limestones and quartzites found in the west, and
clay, slate, sandstone and pyroxenite or amphibolite on the east....
Pre-Tertiary rocks have been erupted through these. The outer
sedimentary zone is of Tertiary rocks."[1] The capital is Shuri in
Okinawa, an old-fashioned place with a picturesque castle. The more
modern town of Nafa, on the same island, possesses the principal harbour
and has considerable trade.
The scenery of Luchu is unlike that of Japan. Though so close to the
tropics, the islands cannot be said to present tropical features: the
bamboo is rare; there is no high grass or tangled undergrowth; open
plains are numerous; the trees are not crowded together; lakes are
wanting; the rivers are insignificant; and an unusual aspect is
imparted to the scenery by numerous coral crags. The temperature in
Nafa ranges from a mean of 82° F. in July to 60° in January. The
climate is generally (though not in all the islands) pleasant and
healthy, in spite of much moisture, the rainfall being very heavy.
The fauna includes wild boars and deer, rats and bats. Excellent small
ponies are kept, together with cattle, pigs and goats. The majority of
the islands are infested with venomous snakes called _habu_
(_Trimeresurus_), which attain a length of 6 to 7 ft. and a diameter
of from 2½ to 3 in. Their bite generally causes speedy death, and in
the island of Amami-Oshima they claim many victims every year. The
most important cultivated plant is the sugar-cane, which provides the
principal staple of trade.
Luchu is noted for the production of particularly durable
vermilion-coloured lacquer, which is much esteemed for table utensils
in Japan. The islands also manufacture certain fabrics which are
considered a speciality. These are _Riukiu-tsumugi_, a kind of fine
pongee; the so-called _Satsuma-gasuri_, a cotton fabric greatly used
for summer wear; _basho-fu_, or banana-cloth (called also
_aka-basho_), which is woven from the fibre of a species of banana;
and _hoso-jofu_, a particularly fine hempen stuff, made in
Miyako-shima, and demanding such difficult processes that six months
are required to weave and dye a piece 9½ yds. long.
_People._--Although the upper classes in Luchu and Japan closely
resemble each other, there are palpable differences between the lower
classes, the Luchuans being shorter and better proportioned than the
Japanese; having higher foreheads, eyes not so deeply set, faces less
flattened, arched and thick eyebrows, better noses, less marked
cheek-bones and much greater hairiness. The last characteristic has
been attributed to the presence of Ainu blood, and has suggested a
theory that when the Japanese race entered south-western Japan from
Korea, they drove the Ainu northwards and southwards, one portion of
the latter finding their way to Luchu, the other to Yezo. Women of the
upper class never appear in public in Luchu, and are not even alluded
to in conversation, but women of the lower orders go about freely with
uncovered faces. The Luchu costume resembles that of Japan, the only
marked difference being that the men use two hairpins, made of gold,
silver, pewter or wood, according to the rank of the wearer. Men shave
their faces until the age of twenty-five, after which moustache and
beard are allowed to grow, though the cheeks are kept free from hair.
Their burial customs are peculiar and elaborate, and their large
sepulchres, generally mitre-shaped, and scattered all over the
country, according to Chinese fashion, form a striking feature of the
landscape. The marriage customs are also remarkable. Preliminaries are
negotiated by a middleman, as in China and Japan, and the subsequent
procedure extends over several days. The chief staple of the people's
diet is the sweet potato, and pork is the principal luxury. An ancient
law, still in force, requires each family to keep four pigs. In times
of scarcity a species of sago (obtained from the _Cycas revoluta_) is
eaten. There is a remarkable absence of religious influence in Luchu.
Places of worship are few, and the only function discharged by
Buddhist priests seems to be to officiate at funerals. The people are
distinguished by gentleness, courtesy and docility, as well as by
marked avoidance of crime. With the exception of petty thefts, their
Japanese administrators find nothing to punish, and for nearly three
centuries no such thing as a lethal weapon has been known in Luchu.
Professor Chamberlain states that the Luchuan language resembles the
Japanese in about the same degree as Italian resembles French, and
says that they are sister tongues, many words being identical, others
differing only by letter changes which follow certain fixed analogies,
and sentences in the one being capable of translation into the other
word for word, almost syllable for syllable.
_History._--Tinsunshi, "Grandson of Heaven," is the mythical founder of
the Luchu monarchy. Towards the close of the 12th century his
descendants were driven from the throne by rebellion, but the old
national party soon found a victorious leader in Shunten, son of
Tametomo, a member of the famous Minamoto family, who, having been
expelled from Japan, had come to Luchu and married there. The
introduction of the arts of reading and writing are assigned to
Shunten's reign. Chinese invasions of Luchu may be traced back to A.D.
605, but they did not result in annexation; and it was in 1372 that
China first obtained from the Luchuans recognition of supremacy. Luchuan
relations with Japan had long been friendly, but at the end of the 16th
century the king refused Japan assistance against Korea, and in 1609 the
prince of Satsuma invaded the islands with 3000 men, took the capital by
storm, captured the king and carried him off to Kagoshima. A few years
later he was restored to his throne on condition of acknowledging
Japanese suzerainty and paying tribute. The Luchuans nevertheless
continued to pay tribute to China also.
The Chinese government, however, though taking a benevolent interest in
the welfare of the islanders, never attempted to bring them under
military sway. The incongruity of this state of affairs did not force
itself upon Japan's attention so long as her own empire was divided into
a number of semi-independent principalities. But in 1879 the Japanese
government, treating Luchu as an integral part of the mikado's
dominions, dethroned its prince, pensioned him as the other feudal
chiefs had been pensioned, and converted Luchu into a prefecture under
the name of Okinawa. This name signifies "extended rope," and alludes to
the attenuated nature of the archipelago. China remonstrating, a
conference was held in Peking, when plenipotentiaries of the two empires
signed an agreement to the effect that the archipelago should be divided
equally between the claimants. The Chinese government, however, refused
to ratify this compromise, and the Japanese continued their measures for
the effective administration of all the islands. Ultimately (1895)
Formosa also came into Japan's possession, and her title to the whole
chain of islands ceased to be disputed.
Though Captain Broughton, of H.M.S. "Providence," was wrecked on
Miyako-shima and subsequently visited Nafa in 1797, it was not till the
"Alceste" and "Lyra" expedition in 1816-1817, under Captains Basil Hall
and Murray Maxwell, that detailed information was obtained about Luchu.
The people at that time showed a curious mixture of courtesy and
shyness. From 1844 efforts were made by both Catholic (French) and
Protestant missionaries to Christianize them, but though hospitable they
made it clear that these efforts were unwelcome. Further visits were
made by British vessels under Captain Beechey (1826) and Sir Edward
Belcher (1845). The American expedition under Commodore M. C. Perry
(1853) added largely to knowledge of the islands, and concluded a treaty
with the Luchuan government.
See Basil Hall, _Account of a Voyage of Discovery to the West Coast of
Corea and the Great Loo-choo Island_ (London, 1818); Comm. M. C.
Perry, _Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the
China Seas and Japan_, 1852-1854 (Washington, 1856); B. H.
Chamberlain, "The Luchu Islands and their Inhabitants," in the
_Geographical Journal_, vol. v. (1895); "Contributions to a
Bibliography of Luchu," in _Trans. Asiatic Soc. Japan_, xxiv. (1896);
C. S. Leavenworth, "History of the Loo-choo Islands," _Journ. China
Br. Royal Asiatic Soc._ xxxvi. (1905).