[1] Louisville cement, one of the best-known varieties of natural
cement, was first manufactured in Shipping Port, a suburb of
Louisville, in 1829 for the construction of the Louisville & Portland
Canal; the name is now applied to all cement made in the Louisville
District in Kentucky and Indiana. There is a large Portland cement
factory just outside the city.
[2] Captain Thomas Bullitt (1730-1778), a Virginian, commanded a
company under Washington at Great Meadows (July 4, 1754), was in
Braddock's disastrous expedition in 1755, and after the defeat of
Major James Grant in 1758 saved his disorganized army by a cleverly
planned attack upon the pursuers. He became Adjutant-General of
Virginia after the peace of 1763, and took part in the movements
which forced Lord Dunmore to leave Norfolk. Subsequently he served in
South Carolina under Colonel Lee.
LOULÉ, a town of southern Portugal, in the district of Faro (formerly
the province of Algarve); beautifully situated in an inland hilly
district, 10 m. N.N.W. of the seaport of Faro and 5 m. from São João da
Venda on the Lisbon-Faro railway. Pop. (1900) 22,478. Apart from Lisbon,
Oporto and Braga, Loulé is the most populous town in the kingdom. It is
surrounded by walls and towers dating from the Moorish period. The
neighbouring church of Nossa Senhora da Piedade is a favourite resort of
pilgrims. Basket-making is the principal industry; leather, porcelain
and various products of the palm, agave and esparto grass are also
manufactured.
LOURDES, a town of south-western France in the department of
Hautes-Pyrénées, at the foot of the Pyrenees, 12 m. S.S.W. of Tarbes on
the main line of the Southern railway between that town and Pau. Pop.
(1906) 7228. Lourdes is divided into an old and a new town by the Gave
de Pau, which at this point leaves the valley of Argelès and turns
abruptly to the west. The old quarter on the right bank surrounds on
three sides a scarped rock, on which stands the fortress now used as a
prison. Its large square keep of the 14th century is the chief survival
of feudal times. Little is left of the old fortifications except a tower
of the 13th or 14th century, surmounting a gateway known as the Tour de
Garnabie. The old quarter is united with the new town by a bridge which
is continued in an esplanade leading to the basilica, the church of the
Rosary and the Grotto, with its spring of healing water. The present
fame of Lourdes is entirely associated with this grotto, where the
Virgin Mary is believed in the Roman Catholic world to have revealed
herself repeatedly to a peasant girl named Bernadette Soubirous in 1858.
A statue of the Virgin stands on a rock projecting above the grotto, the
walls of which are covered with crutches and other votive offerings; the
spot, which is resorted to by multitudes of pilgrims from all quarters
of the world, is marked by a basilica built above the grotto and
consecrated in 1876. In addition the church of the Rosary, a rich
building in the Byzantine style, was erected in front of and below the
basilica from 1884 to 1889. Not far from the grotto are several other
caves, where prehistoric remains have been found. The Hospice de
Notre-Dame de Douleurs is the chief of the many establishments provided
for the accommodation of pilgrims.
Lourdes is a fortified place of the second class; and is the seat of the
tribunal of first instance of the arrondissement of Argelès. There are
marble and slate quarries near the town. The pastures of the
neighbourhood support a breed of Aquitaine cattle, which is most highly
valued in south-western France.
The origin of Lourdes is uncertain. From the 9th century onwards it was
the most important place in Bigorre, largely owing to the fortress which
is intimately connected with its history. In 1360 it passed by the
treaty of Brétigny from French to English hands, and its governor was
murdered by Gaston Phoebus viscount of Béarn, for refusing to surrender
it to the count of Anjou. Nevertheless the fortress did not fall into
the possession of the French till 1406 after a blockade of eighteen
months. Again during the wars of religion the castle held out
successfully after the town had been occupied by the troops of the
Protestant captain Gabriel, count of Montgomery. From the reign of Louis
XIV. to the beginning of the 19th century the castle was used as a state
prison. Since the visions of Bernadette Soubirous, their authentication
by a commission of enquiry appointed by the bishop of Tarbes, and the
authorization by the pope of the cult of Our Lady of Lourdes, the
quarter on the left bank of the Gave has sprung up and it is estimated
that 600,000 pilgrims annually visit the town. The chief of the
pilgrimages, known as the national pilgrimage, takes place in August.
Several religious communities have been named after Our Lady of Lourdes.
Of these one, consisting of sisters of the third order of St Francis,
called the Congregation of Our Lady of Lourdes (founded 1877), has its
headquarters in Rochester, Minnesota. Another, the Order of Our Lady of
Lourdes, was founded in 1883 for work in the archdiocese of New Orleans.
See G. Marès, _Lourdes et ses environs_ (Bordeaux, 1894); Fourcade,
_L'Apparition de la grotte de Lourdes_ (Paris, 1862) and _L'Apparition
... considérée au point de vue de l'art chrétien_ (Bordeaux, 1862);
Boissarie, _Lourdes, histoire médicale_ (Paris, 1891); Bertrin, _Hist.
critique des événements de Lourdes_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1905), written
under authority of the bishop of Tarbes; H. Lasserre, _Miraculous
Episodes of Lourdes_ (London, 1884, tr.); R. F. Clarke, _Lourdes and
its Miracles_ (_ib_., 1889) and _Medical Testimony to the Miracles_
(_ib_., 1892); D. Barbé, _Lourdes hier, aujourd'hui, demain_ (Paris,
1893; Eng. trans. by A. Meynell, London, 1894); J. R. Gasquet, _The
Cures at Lourdes_ (London, 1895); _Les Pèlerinages de Lourdes.
Cantiques, insignes, costumes_ (Lourdes, 1897); W. Leschner, _The
Origin of Lourdes_ (London, 1900). Zola's _Lourdes_ (Paris, 1894), a
criticism from the sceptical point of view, in the form of a realistic
novel, has called forth many replies from the Catholic side.
LOURENÇO MARQUES, capital of Portuguese East Africa, or Mozambique, on
the north bank of the Espirito Santo or English river, Delagoa Bay, and
396 m. by rail via Pretoria from Johannesburg. Pop. (1904) 9849, of whom
4691 were Europeans and 1690 Asiatics. The town is situated close to the
mouth of the river in 25° 53´ S. and 32° 30´ E., and is built upon a
low-lying spit of sand, formerly surrounded by swamps. The streets are
regularly laid out and adorned by several fine buildings. The principal
thoroughfare, the Avenida Aguiar, 2 m. long, goes from the centre of the
town to Reuben Point. The harbour is well equipped with piers, quays,
landing sheds and electric cranes, which enable large steamers to
discharge cargoes direct into the railway trucks. The depth of water at
low tide is 18 ft. The streets are lit by electricity and there is an
electric tramway system 7 m. in extent. At Reuben Point, which marks the
spot where the English river enters the bay, are the lighthouse,
barracks and the private residences of the wealthy citizens. At its
mouth the English river is about 2 m. across. Lourenço Marques is the
nearest seaport to the Rand gold mines. The port is 8374 m. from
Southampton via Cape Town and 7565 m. via the Suez canal. It is served
by British, Portuguese and German liners, the majority of the goods
imported being shipped at Southampton, Lisbon or Hamburg. Over 50% of
the import trade of Johannesburg is with Lourenço Marques. Great Britain
and British possessions take some 40% of the import trade, Portugal,
Germany, Norway, Sweden and America coming next in order. Most of the
imports, being forwarded to the Transvaal, figure also as exports. The
chief articles of import are food-stuffs and liquors, iron, mineral
oils, inks and dyes, timber and live stock. These all form part of the
transit trade. There is practically no export trade by sea save in coal,
which is brought chiefly from the collieries at Middelburg in the
Transvaal. At Port Matolla, 20 m. from the town, on the river of that
name, one of the feeders of the English river, is a flourishing timber
trade. The average value of the total trade of Lourenço Marques for the
five years 1897-1899 and 1902-1903 (1900 and 1901 being years during
which trade was disorganized by the Anglo-Boer War) was over £3,500,000.
In 1905 the value of the trade of the port was £5,682,000; of this total
the transit trade was worth over £4,500,000 and the imports for local
consumption £1,042,000. The retail trade, and trade with the natives, is
almost entirely in the hands of Indians. The chief import for local
consumption is cheap wine from Portugal, bought by the Kaffirs to the
extent of over £500,000 yearly. These natives form the bulk of the
Africans who work in the Rand gold mines.
Lourenço Marques is named after a Portuguese navigator, who with a
companion (Antonio Calderia) was sent in 1544 by the governor of
Mozambique on a voyage of exploration. They explored the lower courses
of the rivers emptying their waters into Delagoa Bay, notably the
Espirito Santo. The various forts and trading stations which the
Portuguese established, abandoned and re-occupied on the north bank of
the river were all called Lourenço Marques. The existing town dates from
about 1850, the previous settlement having been entirely destroyed by
the natives. In 1871 the town was described as a poor place, with narrow
streets, fairly good flat-roofed houses, grass huts, decayed forts and
rusty cannon, enclosed by a wall 6 ft. high then recently erected and
protected by bastions at intervals. The growing importance of the
Transvaal led, however, to greater interest being taken in Portugal in
the port. A commission was sent by the Portuguese government in 1876 to
drain the marshy land near the settlement, to plant the blue gum tree,
and to build a hospital and a church. It was not, however, until the end
of the 19th century that any marked development took place in the town,
and up to 1903 cargo had to be discharged in tugs and lighters.
In 1873-1877 Mr Burgers, president of the Transvaal, endeavoured,
unsuccessfully, to get a railway built from Pretoria to Delagoa Bay. In
1878-1879 a survey was taken for a line from Lourenço Marques to the
Transvaal, and in 1883 the Lisbon cabinet granted to Colonel Edward
McMurdo, an American citizen, a concession--which took the place of
others which had lapsed--for the building of a railway from Lourenço
Marques to the Transvaal frontier, the Boer government having agreed
(1883) to continue the line to Pretoria. Under this concession Colonel
McMurdo formed in London in 1887 a company--the Delagoa Bay and East
African Railway Company--to construct the line. Meantime a secret
agreement had been come to between President Kruger and Portugal for the
concession to the Transvaal of a "steam tramway" parallel to the
projected railway, should the company not complete the line in the time
specified. The company, however, built the line to the frontier shown on
the Portuguese maps of 1883 within the time limit, the railway being
opened on the 14th of December 1888. The frontier by this date had been
fixed at Komati Poort, 5 m. farther from the coast. Portugal had
previously agreed to grant the company "a reasonable extension of time"
to complete the line if the frontier should be traced farther inland
than shown on the 1883 maps. The Lisbon government required the
extension to Komati Poort to be completed in eight months (five of which
were in the rainy season), an impossible stipulation. The railway not
being finished, the Portuguese seized the line on the 25th of June 1889
and cancelled the concession. Portugal in so doing acted, to all
appearance, under pressure from the Transvaal. Great Britain and America
at once protested, Portugal admitted the illegality of her act and
consented to refer the amount of compensation to the decision of three
Swiss jurists. This was in 1890, when Portugal paid £28,000 on account.
It was not until the 29th of March 1900 that the award was made known.
The arbitrators ordered Portugal to pay--in addition to the £28,000--a
sum, including interest, of £950,000. The damages were promptly paid.
Meantime the railway had been continued from Komati Poort and was opened
for through traffic to Pretoria on the 8th of July 1895. In 1906-1910
another railway (47 m. long) was built from Lourenço Marques due west to
the Swaziland frontier, being a link in a new line to shorten the
distance by rail between the Rand and the sea by some 60 m.
See also DELAGOA BAY and the authorities there cited. The text of the
railway arbitration award was published in French at Berne in 1900.
Annual reports on the trade of Lourenço Marques are issued by the
British Foreign Office.
LOUSE (O. Eng. _lús_, cf. Du. _luis_, Ger. _Laus_, Dan. and Swed.
_lus_), a term applied to small wingless insects, parasitic upon birds
and mammals, and belonging strictly speaking to the order Anoplura,
often included among the Hemiptera, though the term is frequently
extended to the bird-lice constituting the suborder Mallophaga, formerly
included among the Neuroptera. Both agree in having nothing that can be
termed a metamorphosis; they are active from the time of their exit from
the egg to their death, gradually increasing in size, and undergoing
several moults or changes of skin. The true lice (or Anoplura) are found
on the bodies of many Mammalia, and occasion by their presence
intolerable irritation. The number of genera is few. Two species of
_Pediculus_ are found on the human body, and are known ordinarily as the
head-louse (_P. capitis_) and the body-louse (_P. vestimenti_); _P.
capitis_ is found on the head, especially of children. The eggs, laid on
the hairs, and known as "nits," hatch in about eight days, and the lice
are full grown in about a month. Such is their fecundity that it has
been asserted that one female (probably of _P. vestimenti_) may in eight
weeks produce five thousand descendants. Want of cleanliness favours
their multiplication in a high degree--the idea once existed, and is
probably still held by the very ignorant, that they are directly
engendered from dirt. The irritation is caused by the rostrum of the
insect being inserted into the skin, from which the blood is rapidly
pumped up. A third human louse, known as the crab-louse (_Phthirius
pubis_) is found amongst the hairs on other parts of the body,
particularly those of the pubic region, but probably never on the head.
The louse of monkeys is now generally considered as forming a separate
genus (_Pedicinus_), but the greater part of those infesting domestic
and wild quadrupeds are mostly grouped in the large genus
_Haematopinus_, and very rarely is the same species found on different
kinds of animals.
The bird-lice (Mallophaga) are far more numerous in species, although
the number of genera is comparatively small. With the exception of the
genus _Trichodectes_, the various species of which are found on
mammalia, all infest birds (as their English names implies) (see
BIRD-LOUSE). Louse-infestation is known as phthiriasis in medical and
veterinary terminology.
AUTHORITIES.--The following works are the most important: Denny,
_Monographia Anoplurorum Britanniae_ (London, 1843); Giebel, _Insecta
Epizoa_ (which contains the working-up of Nitzsch's posthumous
materials; Leipzig, 1874); van Beneden, _Animal Parasites_ (London,
1876); Piaget, _Les Pédiculines_ (Leiden, 1880); Mégnin, _Les
Parasites et les maladies parasitaires_ (Paris, 1880); Neumann,
_Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of Domesticated Animals_ (1892);
Osborn, _Pediculi and Mallophaga affecting Man and the Lower Animals_
(Washington, 1891; U.S. Dept. Agr.); Enderlein, "Läuse-Studien,"
_Zool. Anz._ xxviii. (1904).
LOUTH, a maritime county in the province of Leinster, Ireland, bounded
N.E. by Carlingford Bay and Co. Down, E. by the Irish Sea, S.W. by
Meath, and N.W. by Monaghan and Armagh. It is the smallest county in
Ireland, its area being 202,731 acres or about 317 sq. m. The greater
part of the surface is undulating, with occasionally lofty hills; in the
north-east, on the borders of Carlingford Lough, there is a mountain
range approaching 2000 ft. in height. Many of the hills are finely
wooded, and towards the sea the scenery, in the more elevated districts,
is strikingly picturesque. With the exception of the promontory of
Clogher Head, which rises abruptly to a height of 180 ft., the coast is
for the most part low and sandy. The narrow and picturesque Carlingford
Lough is navigable beyond the limits of the county, and Carlingford and
Greenore are well-known watering-places on the county Louth shore. The
Bay of Dundalk stretches to the town of that name and affords convenient
shelter. The principal rivers, the Fane, the Lagan, the Glyde and the
Dee, flow eastwards. None of these is navigable, but the Boyne, which
forms the southern boundary of the county, is navigable for large
vessels as far as Drogheda.
Almost all this county is occupied by an undulating lowland of
much-folded Silurian shales and fine-grained sandstones; but
Carboniferous Limestone overlies these rocks north and east of
Dundalk. Dolerite and gabbro, in turn invaded by granite, have broken
through the limestone north of Dundalk Bay, and form a striking and
mountainous promontory. There is now no doubt that these rocks, with
those on the adjacent moorland of Slieve Gullion, belong to the early
Cainozoic igneous series, and may be compared with similar masses in
the Isle of Skye. A raised beach provides a flat terrace at Greenore.
Lead ore has been worked in the county, as in the adjacent parts of
Armagh and Monaghan.
In the lower regions the soil is a very rich deep mould, admirably
adapted both for cereals and green crops. The higher mountain regions
are covered principally with heath. Agriculture generally is in an
advanced condition, and the farms are for the most part well drained.
The acreage of tillage is but little below that of pasture. Oats,
barley, flax, potatoes and turnips are all satisfactorily cultivated.
Cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry represent the bulk of the live stock.
Linen manufactures are of some importance. The deep-sea and coast
fishery has its headquarters at Dundalk, and the salmon fisheries at
Dundalk (Castletown river) and Drogheda (river Boyne). These
fisheries, together with oyster beds in Carlingford Lough, are of
great value. The county is traversed from S. to N. by the Great
Northern railway, with a branch westward from Dundalk; while the same
town is connected with the port of Greenore by a line owned by the
London & North-Western railway of England. From Greenore the London &
North-Western railway passenger steamers run regularly to Holyhead.
The town of Ardee is served by a branch from the Great Northern line
at Dromin.
The population (71,914 in 1891; 65,820 in 1901) decreases at about an
average rate, and a considerable number of the inhabitants emigrate.
Of the total population about 92% are Roman Catholics. The principal
towns are Dundalk (pop. 13,076), Drogheda (12,760) and Ardee (1883).
The county includes six baronies and sixty-four parishes. Assizes are
held at Dundalk and quarter sessions at Ardee, Drogheda and Dundalk.
Louth was represented by two county and ten borough members in the
Irish parliament; the two present divisions are the north and south,
each returning one member. The county is in the Protestant dioceses of
Armagh and Clogher and the Roman Catholic diocese of Armagh.
The territory which afterwards became the county Louth was included in
the principality of Uriel, Orgial or Argial, which comprehended also the
greater part of Meath, Monaghan and Armagh. The chieftain of the
district was conquered by John de Courcy in 1183, and Louth or Uriel was
among the shires generally considered to have been created by King John,
and peopled by English settlers. Until the time of Elizabeth it was
included in the province of Ulster. County Louth is rich in antiquarian
remains. There are ancient buildings of all dates, and spears, swords,
axes of bronze, ornaments of gold, and other relics have been discovered
in quantities. Among Druidical remains is the fine cromlech of
Ballymascanlan, between Dundalk and Greenore. Danish raths and other
forts are numerous. It is said that there were originally twenty
religious houses in the county. Of the remains of these the most
interesting are at Monasterboice and Mellifont, both near Drogheda. At
the former site are two churches, the larger dating probably from the
9th century, the smaller from the 13th; a fine round tower, 110 ft. in
height, but not quite perfect; and three crosses, two of which, 27 and
15 ft. in height respectively, are adorned with moulding, sculptured
figures and tracery, and are among the finest in Ireland. At Mellifont
are the remains of the first Cistercian monastery founded in Ireland, in
1142, with a massive gatehouse, an octagonal baptistery and
chapter-house. Carlingford and Drogheda have monastic remains, and at
Dromiskin is a round tower, in part rebuilt. Ardee, an ancient town,
incorporated in 1376, has a castle of the 13th century. At Dunbar a
charter of Charles II. (1679) gave the inhabitants the right to elect a
sovereign. Louth, 5½ m. S.W. from Dundalk, is a decayed town which gave
its name to the county, and contains ruins of an abbey to which was
attached one of the most noted early schools in Ireland.
LOUTH, a market-town and municipal borough in the E. Lindsey or Louth
parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England, on the river Lud, 141½
m. N. of London by the Grimsby branch of the Great Northern railway.
Pop. (1901) 9518. By a canal, completed in 1763, there is water
communication with the Humber. The Perpendicular church of St James,
completed about 1515, with a spire 300 ft. in height, is one of the
finest ecclesiastical buildings in the county. Traces of a building of
the 13th century are perceptible. There are a town hall, a corn exchange
and a market-hall, an Edward VI. grammar school, which is richly
endowed, a commercial school founded in 1676, a hospital and several
almshouses. Thorpe Hall is a picturesque building dated 1584. In the
vicinity are the ruins of a Cistercian abbey (Louth Park). The
industries include the manufacture of agricultural implements,
iron-founding, brewing, malting, and rope and brick-making. The town is
governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 2749 acres.
Louth (_Ludes, Loweth_) is first mentioned in the Domesday record as a
borough held, as it had been in Saxon times, by the bishop of Lincoln,
who had a market there. The see retained the manor until it was
surrendered by Bishop Holbeach to Henry VIII., who granted it to Edward,
earl of Lincoln, but it was recovered by the Crown before 1562. Louth
owed much of its early prosperity to the adjacent Cistercian abbey of
Louth Park, founded in 1139 by Alexander bishop of Lincoln. The borough
was never more than prescriptive, though burgesses were admitted
throughout the middle ages and until 1711, their sole privilege being
freedom from tolls. The medieval government of the town was by the manor
court under the presidency of the bishop's high steward, the custom
being for the reeve to be elected by eighteen ex-reeves. The original
parish church was built about 1170. During the 13th and 14th centuries
nine religious gilds were founded in the town. Fear of confiscation of
the property of these gilds seems to have been one of the chief local
causes of the Lincolnshire Rebellion, which broke out here in 1536. The
disturbance began by the parishioners seizing the church ornaments to
prevent their surrender. The bishop's steward, who arrived to open the
manorial court for the election of a reeve, agreed to ride to ask the
king the truth about the jewels, but this did not satisfy the people,
who, while showing respect to a royal commission, seized and burnt the
papers of the bishop's registrar. After swearing several country
gentlemen to their cause, the rebels dispersed, agreeing to meet on the
following day under arms. Edward VI. in 1551 incorporated Louth under
one warden and six assistants, who were to be managers of the school
founded by the same charter. This was confirmed in 1564 by Elizabeth,
who granted the manor of Louth to the corporation with all rights and
all the lands of the suppressed gilds at an annual fee-farm rent of £84.
James I. gave the commission of the peace to the warden and one
assistant in 1605; a further charter was obtained in 1830. Louth has
never been a parliamentary borough. The markets said to have been held
from ancient times and the three fairs on the third Sunday after Easter
and the feasts of St Martin and St James were confirmed in 1551. Louth
was a seat of the wool trade as early as 1297; the modern manufactures
seem to have arisen at the end of the 18th century, when, according to
the charter of 1830, there was a great increase in the population,
manufactures, trade and commerce of the town.
See E. H. R. Tatham, _Lincolnshire in Roman Times_ (Louth, 1902);
Richard W. Goulding, _Louth Old Corporation Records_ (Louth, 1891).
LOUVAIN (Flem. _Leuven_), a town of Belgium in the province of Brabant,
of which it was the capital in the 14th century before the rise of
Brussels. Pop. (1904) 42,194. Local tradition attributes the
establishment of a permanent camp at this spot to Julius Caesar, but
Louvain only became important in the 11th century as a place of
residence for the dukes of Brabant. In 1356 Louvain was the scene of the
famous _Joyeuse Entrée_ of Wenceslas which represented the principal
charter of Brabant. At that time it had a population of at least 50,000
and was very prosperous as the centre of the woollen trade in central
Belgium. The gild of weavers numbered 2400 members. The old walls of
Louvain were 4½ m. in circumference, and have been replaced by
boulevards, but within them there is a considerable extent of cultivated
ground. Soon after the _Joyeuse Entrée_ a serious feud began between the
citizens and the patrician class, and eventually the duke threw in his
lot with the latter. After a struggle of over twenty years' duration the
White Hoods, as the citizens called themselves, were crushed. In 1379
they massacred seventeen nobles in the town hall, but this crime brought
down on them the vengeance of the duke, to whom in 1383 they made the
most abject and complete surrender. With this civil strife the
importance and prosperity of Louvain declined. Many weavers fled to
Holland and England, the duke took up his residence in the strong castle
of Vilvorde, and Brussels prospered at the expense of Louvain. What it
lost in trade it partially recovered as a seat of learning, for in 1423,
Duke John IV. of Brabant founded there a university and ever since
Louvain University has enjoyed the first place in Belgium. It has always
prided itself most on its theological teaching. In 1679 the university
was established in the old Cloth Workers' Hall, a building dating from
1317, with long arcades and graceful pillars supporting the upper
storeys. The library contains 70,000 volumes and some 500 manuscripts.
Attached to the university are four residential colleges at which the
number of students average two thousand. In the 16th century when the
university was at the height of its fame it counted six thousand.
The most remarkable building in Louvain is the Hôtel de Ville, one of
the richest and most ornate examples of pointed Gothic in the country.
If less ornate than that of Oudenarde it is more harmonious in its
details. It was the work of Mathieu de Layens, master mason, who worked
at it from 1448 to 1463. The building is one of three storeys each with
ten pointed windows forming the façade facing the square. Above is a
graceful balustrade behind which is a lofty roof, and at the angles are
towers perforated for the passage of the light. The other three sides
are lavishly decorated with statuary. The interior is not noteworthy.
Opposite the Hôtel de Ville is the fine church of St Pierre, in the form
of a cross with a low tower to which the spire has never been added. The
existing edifice was built on the site of an older church between 1425
and 1497. It contains seven chapels, in two of which are fine pictures
by Dierich Bouts formerly attributed to Memling. Much of the iron and
brass work is by Jean Matseys. There is also an ancient tomb, being the
monument of Henry I., duke of Brabant, who died in 1235. There are four
other interesting churches in Louvain, viz. Ste Gertrude, St Quentin, St
Michael and St Jacques. In the last-named is a fine De Crayer
representing St Hubert. Some ruins on a hill exist of the old castle of
the counts of Louvain whose title was merged in the higher style of the
dukes of Brabant.
LOUVER, LOUVRE or LUFFER, in architecture, the lantern built upon the
roof of the hall in ancient times to allow the smoke to escape when the
fire was made on the pavement in the middle of the hall. The term is
also applied to the flat overlapping slips of wood, glass, &c., with
which such openings are closed, arranged to give ventilation without the
admission of rain. Openings fitted with louvers are now utilized for the
purposes of ventilation in schools and manufactories.
The word has been derived from the French _l'ouvert_, the "open"
space. This, Minsheu's guess, is now generally abandoned. The Old
French form, of which the English is an adaptation, was _lover_ or
_lovier_. The medieval Latin _lodium_, _lodarium_, is suggested as the
ultimate origin. Du Cange (_Glossarium_, s.v. "lodia") defines it as
_lugurium_, i.e. a small hut. The English form "louvre" is due to a
confusion with the name of the palace in Paris. The origin of that
name is also unknown; _louverie_, place of wolves, is one of the
suggestions, the palace being supposed to have originally been a
hunting-box (see PARIS).
LOUVET, JEAN (c. 1370-c. 1440), called the president of Provence,
occupied the position of president of the Chambre des Comptes at Aix in
1415. Towards the end of that year he went to Paris with Louis II. of
Anjou, king of Sicily, attached himself to the dauphin Charles, and
after having been chief steward of the household to Queen Isabella he
turned against her. He was one of the principal agents of the Armagnac
party, and became the most influential adviser of Charles VII. during
the first years of his reign. But his rapacity gained him enemies, and
when the constable Arthur, earl of Richmond, attained a preponderating
influence over Charles VII. Louvet retired to his captaincy of Avignon.
He still remained a personage of importance in his exile, and played an
influential part even in his last years.
See Vallet de Viriville in the _Nouvelle Biographie générale_, and G.
du Fresne de Beaucourt, _Histoire de Claries VII._ (1881-1891).
(J. V.*)
LOUVET DE COUVRAI, JEAN BAPTISTE (1760-1797), French writer and
politician, was born in Paris on the 12th of June 1760, the son of a
stationer. He became a bookseller's clerk, and first attracted attention
with a not very moral novel called _Les Amours du chevalier de Faublas_
(Paris, 1787-1789). The character of the heroine of this book, Lodoïska,
was taken from the wife of a jeweller in the Palais Royal, with whom he
had formed a _liaison_. She was divorced from her husband in 1792 and
married Louvet in 1793. His second novel, _Émilie de Varmont_, was
intended to prove the utility and necessity of divorce and of the
marriage of priests, questions raised by the Revolution. Indeed all his
works were directed to the ends of the Revolution. He attempted to have
one of his unpublished plays, _L'Anobli conspirateur_, performed at the
Théâtre Français, and records naïvely that one of its managers, M.
d'Orfeuil, listened to the reading of the first three acts "with mortal
impatience," exclaiming at last: "I should need cannon in order to put
that piece on the stage." A "sort of farce" at the expense of the army
of the _émigrés, La Grande Revue des armées noire el blanche_, had,
however, better success: it ran for twenty-five nights.
Louvet was, however, first brought into notice as a politician by his
_Paris justifié_, in reply to a "truly incendiary" pamphlet in which
Mounier, after the removal of the king to Paris in October 1789, had
attacked the capital, "at that time blameless," and argued that the
court should be established elsewhere. This led to Louvet's election to
the Jacobin Club, for which, as he writes bitterly in his Memoirs, the
qualifications were then "a genuine _civisme_ and some talent." A
self-styled _philosophe_ of the true revolutionary type, he now threw
himself ardently into the campaign against "despotism" and "reaction,"
i.e. against the moderate constitutional royalty advocated by Lafayette,
the Abbé Maury and other "Machiavellians." On the 25th of December 1791
he presented at the bar of the Assembly his _Pétition contre les
princes_, which had "a prodigious success in the senate and the empire."
Elected deputy to the Assembly for the department of Loiret, he made his
first speech in January 1792. He attached himself to the Girondists,
whose vague deism, sentimental humanitarianism and ardent republicanism
he fully shared, and from March to November 1792 he published, at
Roland's expense, a bi-weekly _journal-affiche_, of which the title, _La
Sentinelle_, proclaimed its mission to be to "enlighten the people on
all the plots" at a time when, Austria having declared war, the court
was "visibly betraying our armies." On the 10th of August he became
editor of the _Journal des débats_, and in this capacity, as well as in
the Assembly, made himself conspicuous by his attacks on Robespierre,
Marat and the other Montagnards, whom he declares he would have
succeeded in bringing to justice in September but for the poor support
he received from the Girondist leaders. It is more probable, however,
that his ill-balanced invective contributed to their ruin and his own;
for him Robespierre was a "royalist," Marat "the principal agent of
England," the Montagnards Orleanists in masquerade. His courageous
attitude at the trial of Louis XVI., when he supported the "appeal to
the people," only served still further to discredit the Girondists. He
defended them, however, to the last with great courage, if with little
discretion; and after the crisis of the 31st of May 1793 he shared the
perils of the party who fled from Paris (see Girondists). His wife,
"Lodoïska," who had actively cooperated in his propaganda, was also in
danger.
After the fall of Robespierre, he was recalled to the Convention, when
he was instrumental in bringing Carrier and the others responsible for
the _Noyades_ of Nantes to justice. His influence was now considerable;
he was elected a member of the Committee of the Constitution, president
of the Assembly, and member of the Committee of Public Safety, against
the overgrown power of which he had in earlier days protested. His
hatred of the Mountain had not made him reactionary; he was soon
regarded as one of the mainstays of the "Jacobins," and _La Sentinelle_
reappeared, under his auspices, preaching union among republicans. Under
the Directory (1795) he was elected a member of the Council of Five
Hundred, of which he was secretary, and also a member of the Institute.
Meanwhile he had returned to his old trade and set up a bookseller's
shop in the Palais Royal. But, in spite of the fact that he had once
more denounced the Jacobins in _La Sentinelle_, his name had become
identified with all that the combative spirits of the _jeunesse dorée_
most disliked; his shop was attacked by the "young men" with cries of
"_À bas la Loupe, à bas la belle Lodoïska, à bas les gardes du corps de
Louvet!_" he and his wife were insulted in the streets and the theatres:
"_À bas les Louvets et les Louvetants!_" and he was compelled to leave
Paris. The Directory appointed him to the consulship at Palermo, but he
died on the 25th of August 1797 before taking up his post.
In 1795 Louvet published a portion of his Memoirs under the title of
_Quelques notices pour l'histoire et le récit de mes périls depuis le
31 mai 1793_. They were mainly written in the various hiding-places in
which Louvet took refuge, and they give a vivid picture of the
sufferings of the proscribed Girondists. They form an invaluable
document for the study of the psychology of the Revolution; for in
spite of their considerable literary art, they are artless in their
revelation of the mental and moral state of their author, a
characteristic type of the honest, sentimental, somewhat hysterical
and wholly unbalanced minds nurtured on the abstractions of the
_philosophes_. The first complete edition of the _Mémoires de Louvet
de Couvrai_, edited, with preface, notes and tables, by F. A. Aulard,
was published at Paris in 1889.
LOUVIERS, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement
in the department of Eure, 17½ m. S.S.E. of Rouen by road. Pop. (1906)
9449. Louviers is pleasantly situated in a green valley surrounded by
wooded hills, on the Eure, which here divides into several branches. The
old part of the town, built of wood, stands on the left bank of the
river; the more modern portions, in brick and hewn stone, on the right.
There are spacious squares, and the place is surrounded by boulevards.
The Gothic church of Notre-Dame has a south portal which ranks among the
most beautiful works of the kind produced in the 15th century; it
contains fine stained glass of the 15th and 16th centuries and other
works of art. The hôtel-de-ville, a large modern building, contains a
museum and library. The chief industry is cloth and flannel manufacture.
There are wool-spinning and fulling mills, thread factories and
manufactories of spinning and weaving machinery, and enamel ware;
leather-working, dyeing, metal-founding and bell-founding are also
carried on. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a court of
first instance, a tribunal of commerce, a chamber of arts and
manufactures, and a council of trade arbitrators.
Louviers (_Lovera_) was originally a _villa_ of the dukes of Normandy
and in the middle ages belonged to the archbishops of Rouen; its
cloth-making industry first arose in the beginning of the 13th
century. It changed hands once and again during the Hundred Years'
War, and from Charles VII. it received extensive privileges, and the
title of Louviers le Franc for the bravery of its inhabitants in
driving the English from Pont de l'Arche, Verneuil and Harcourt. It
passed through various troubles successively at the period of the
League of the Public Weal under Louis XI., in the religious wars (when
the parlement of Rouen sat for a time at Louviers) and in the wars of
the Fronde.
See G. Petit, _Hist. de Louviers_ (Louviers, 1877).
LOUVOIS, FRANÇOIS MICHEL LE TELLIER, MARQUIS DE (1641-1691), French
statesman, war minister of Louis XIV., was born at Paris on the 18th of
January 1641. His father, Michel le Tellier (q.v.), married him to an
heiress, the marquise de Courtenvaux, and instructed him in the
management of state business. The young man won the king's confidence,
and in 1666 he succeeded his father as war minister. His talents were
perceived by Turenne in the war of Devolution (1667-68), who gave him
instruction in the art of providing armies. After the peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle, Louvois devoted himself to organizing the French army.
The years between 1668 and 1672, says Camille Rousset, "were years of
preparation, when Lionne was labouring with all his might to find
allies, Colbert to find money, and Louvois soldiers for Louis." The work
of Louvois in these years is bound up with the historical development of
the French army and of armies in general (see ARMY). Here need only be
mentioned Louvois's reorganization of the military orders of merit, his
foundation of the Hôtel des Invalides, and the almost forcible enrolment
of the nobility and gentry of France, in which Louvois carried out part
of Louis's measures for curbing the spirit of independence by service in
the army or at court. The success of his measures is to be seen in the
victories of the great war of 1672-78. After the peace of Nijmwegen
Louvois was high in favour, his father had been made chancellor, and the
influence of Colbert was waning. The ten years of peace between 1678 and
1688 were distinguished in French history by the rise of Madame de
Maintenon, the capture of Strassburg and the revocation of the Edict of
Nantes, in all of which Louvois bore a prominent part. The surprise of
Strassburg in 1681 in time of peace was not only planned but executed by
Louvois and Monclar. A saving clause in the revocation of the Edict of
Nantes, which provided for some liberty of conscience, if not of
worship, Louvois sharply annulled with the phrase "Sa majesté veut qu'on
fasse sentir les dernières rigueurs à ceux qui ne voudront pas se faire
de sa religion." He claimed also the credit of inventing the
dragonnades, and mitigated the rigour of the soldiery only in so far as
the licence accorded was prejudicial to discipline. Discipline, indeed,
and complete subjection to the royal authority was the political faith
of Louvois. Colbert died in 1683, and had been replaced by Le Pelletier,
an adherent of Louvois, in the controller-generalship of finances, and
by Louvois himself in his ministry for public buildings, which he took
that he might be the minister able to gratify the king's two favourite
pastimes, war and building. Louvois was able to superintend the
successes of the first years of the war of the League of Augsburg, but
died suddenly of apoplexy after leaving the king's cabinet on July 16,
1691. His sudden death caused a suspicion of poison. Louvois was one of
the greatest of the rare class of great war ministers. French history
can only point to Carnot as his equal. Both had to organize armies out
of old material on a new system, both were admirable contrivers of
campaigns, and both devoted themselves to the material well-being of the
soldiers. In private life and in the means employed for gaining his
ends, Louvois was unscrupulous and shameless.
The principal authority for Louvois's life and times is Camille
Rousset's _Histoire de Louvois_ (Paris, 1872), a great work founded on
the 900 volumes of his despatches at the Depôt de la Guerre. Saint
Simon from his class prejudices is hardly to be trusted, but Madame de
Sévigné throws many side-lights on his times. _Testament politique de
Louvois_ (1695) is spurious.
LOUYS, PIERRE (1870- ), French novelist and poet, was born in Paris
on the 10th of December 1870. When he was nineteen he founded a review,
_La Conque_, which brought him into contact with the leaders of the
Parnassians, and counted Swinburne, Maeterlinck, Mallarmé and others
among its contributors. He won notoriety by his novel _Aphrodite_
(1896), which gave a vivid picture of Alexandrian morals at the
beginning of the Christian era. His _Chansons de Bilitis, roman
lyrique_ (1894), which purported to be a translation from the Greek, is
a glorification of Sapphic love, which in subject-matter is
objectionable in the highest degree; but its delicate decadent prose is
typical of a modern French literary school, and some of the "songs" were
set to music by Debussy and others. Later books are: _La Femme et le
pantin_ (1898); _Les Aventures du roi Pausole_ (1900); _Sanguines_
(1903); _Archipel_ (1906). Louÿs married in 1899 Louise de Heredia,
younger daughter of the poet.
LOVAT, SIMON FRASER, 12TH BARON (c. 1667-1747), Scottish chief and
Jacobite intriguer, was born about 1667 and was the second son of Thomas
Fraser, third son of the 8th Lord Lovat. The barony of Lovat dates from
about 1460, in the person of Hugh Fraser, a descendant of Simon Fraser
(killed at Halidon Hill in 1338) who acquired the tower and fort of
Lovat near Beauly, Inverness-shire, and from whom the clan Fraser was
called "Macshimi" (sons of Simon). Young Simon was educated at King's
College, Aberdeen, and his correspondence afterwards gives proof, not
only of a command of good English and idiomatic French, but of such an
acquaintance with the Latin classics as to leave him never at a loss for
an apt quotation from Virgil or Horace. Whether Lovat ever felt any real
loyalty to the Stuarts or was actuated by self-interest it is difficult
to determine, but that he was a born traitor and deceiver there can be
no doubt. One of his first acts on leaving college was to recruit three
hundred men from his clan to form part of a regiment in the service of
William and Mary, in which he himself was to hold a command,--his object
being to have a body of well-trained soldiers under his influence, whom
at a moment's notice he might carry over to the interest of King James.
Among other outrages in which he was engaged about this time was a rape
and forced marriage committed on the widow of the 10th Lord Lovat with
the view apparently of securing his own succession to the estates; and
it is a curious instance of influence that, after being subjected by him
to horrible ill-usage, she is said to have become seriously attached to
him. A prosecution, however, having been instituted against him by Lady
Lovat's family, Simon retired first to his native strongholds in the
Highlands, and afterwards to France, where he found his way in July 1702
to the court of St Germain. In 1699, on his father's death, he assumed
the title of Lord Lovat. One of his first steps towards gaining
influence in France seems to have been to announce his conversion to the
Catholic faith. He then proceeded to put the project of restoring the
exiled family into a practical shape. Hitherto nothing seems to have
been known among the Jacobite exiles of the efficiency of the
Highlanders as a military force. But Lovat saw that, as they were the
only part of the British population accustomed to the independent use of
arms, they could be at once put in action against the reigning power.
His plan therefore was to land five thousand French troops at Dundee,
where they might reach the north-eastern passes of the Highlands in a
day's march, and be in a position to divert the British troops till the
Highlands should have time to rise. Immediately afterwards five hundred
men were to land on the west coast, seize Fort William or Inverlochy,
and thus prevent the access of any military force from the south to the
central Highlands. The whole scheme indicates Lovat's sagacity as a
military strategist, and his plan was continuously kept in view in all
future attempts of the Jacobites, and finally acted on in the outbreak
of 1745. The advisers of the Pretender seem to have been either slow to
trust their coadjutor or to comprehend his project. At last, however, he
was despatched (1703) on a secret mission to the Highlands to sound
those of the chiefs who were likely to rise, and to ascertain what
forces they could bring into the field. He found, however, that there
was little disposition to join the rebellion, and he then apparently
made up his mind to secure his own safety by revealing all that he knew
to the government of Queen Anne. He persuaded the duke of Queensberry
that his rival, the duke of Atholl, was in the Jacobite plot, and that
if Queensberry supported him he could obtain evidence of this at St
Germain. Queensberry foolishly entered into the intrigue with him
against Atholl, but when Lovat had gone to France with a pass from
Queensberry the affair was betrayed to Atholl by Robert Ferguson, and
resulted in Queensberry's discomfiture. The story is obscure, and is
complicated by partisanship on either side; but Lovat was certainly
playing a double game. His agility, however, was not remunerative. On
returning to Paris suspicions got afloat as to Lovat's proceedings, and
he was imprisoned in the castle of Angoulême. He remained nearly ten
years under supervision, till in November 1714 he made his escape to
England. For some twenty-five years after this he was chiefly occupied
in lawsuits for the recovery of his estates and the re-establishment of
his fortune, in both of which objects he was successful. The intervals
of his leisure were filled up by Jacobite and Anti-Jacobite intrigues,
in which he seems to have alternately, as suited his interests, acted
the traitor to both parties. But he so far obtained the confidence of
the government as to secure the appointments of sheriff of Inverness and
of colonel of an independent company. His disloyal practices, however,
soon led to his being suspected; and he was deprived of both his
appointments. When the rebellion of 1745 broke out, Lovat acted with
characteristic duplicity. He represented to the Jacobites--what was
probably in the main true--that though eager for their success his weak
health and advanced years prevented him from joining the standard of the
prince in person, while to the Lord President Forbes he professed his
cordial attachment to the existing state of things, but lamented that
his son, in spite of all his remonstrances, had joined the Pretender,
and succeeded in taking with him a strong force from the clan of the
Frasers. The truth was that the lad was unwilling to go, but was
compelled by his father. Lovat's false professions of fidelity did not
long deceive the government, and after the battle of Culloden he was
obliged to retreat to the Highlands, after seeing from a distant height
his castle of Dounie burnt by the royal army. Even then, broken down by
disease and old age, carried on a litter and unable to move without
assistance, his mental resources did not fail; and in a conference with
several of the Jacobite leaders he proposed that they should raise a
body of three thousand men, which would be enough to make their
mountains impregnable, and at length force the government to give them
advantageous terms. The project was not carried out, and Lovat, after
enduring incredible hardships in his wanderings, was at last arrested on
an island in Loch Morar. He was conveyed in a litter to London, and
after a trial of five days sentence of death was pronounced on the 19th
of March 1747. His execution took place on the 9th of April. His conduct
to the last was dignified and even cheerful. Just before submitting his
head to the block he repeated the line from Horace--
"Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori."
His son SIMON FRASER, Master of Lovat (1726-1782) (not to be confused
with another Simon Fraser who saw somewhat similar service and was
killed in 1777 at the battle of Saratoga), was a soldier, who at the
beginning of the Seven Years' War raised a corps of Fraser Highlanders
for the English service, and at the outbreak of the American War of
Independence raised another regiment which took a prominent part in it.
He fought under Wolfe in Canada, and also in Portugal, and rose to be a
British major-general. The family estates were restored to him, but the
title was not revived till 1837. On his death without issue, and also of
his successor, his half-brother Archibald Campbell Fraser (1736-1815),
the Lovat estates passed to the Frasers of Strichen, Aberdeenshire. The
16th Baron Lovat (b. 1871) raised a corps of mounted infantry (Lovat's
Scouts) in the Boer war of 1899-1902.
See _Memoirs of Lord Lovat_ (1746 and 1767); J. Hill Burton, _Life of
Simon, Lord Lovat_ (1847); J. Anderson, _Account of the Family of
Frizell or Fraser_ (Edinburgh, 1825); A. Mackenzie, _History of the
Frasers of Lovat_ (Inverness, 1896); Mrs A. T. Thomson, _Memoirs of
the Jacobites_ (1845-6); and W. C. Mackenzie, _Simon Fraser, Lord
Lovat_ (1908).
LOVE-BIRD, a name somewhat indefinitely bestowed, chiefly by dealers and
their customers, on some of the smaller short-tailed parrots, from the
affection which examples of opposite sexes exhibit towards each other.
By many ornithologists the birds thus named, brought almost entirely
from Africa and South America, have been retained in a single genus,
_Psittacula_, though those belonging to the former country were by
others separated as _Agapornis_. This separation, however, was neither
generally approved nor easily justified, until Garrod (_Proc. Zool.
Society_, 1874, p. 593) assigned good anatomical ground, afforded by the
structure of the carotid artery, for regarding the two groups as
distinct, and thus removed the puzzle presented by the geographical
distribution of the species of _Psittacula_ in a large sense, though
Huxley (_op. cit._ 1868, p. 319) had suggested one way of meeting the
difficulty. As the genus is now restricted, only one of the six species
of _Psittacula_ enumerated in the _Nomenclator Avium_ of Sclater and
Salvin is known to be found outside the Neotropical Region, the
exception being the Mexican _P. cyanopygia_, and not one of the seven
recognized by the same authors as forming the nearly allied genus
_Urochroma_. On the other hand, of _Agapornis_, from which the so-called
genus _Poliopsitta_ can scarcely be separated, five if not six species
are known, all belonging to the Ethiopian Region, and all but one, _A.
cana_ (which is indigenous to Madagascar, and thence has been widely
disseminated), are natives of Africa. In this group probably comes also
_Psittinus_, with a single species from the Malayan Subregion. One of
the birds most commonly called love-birds, but with no near relationship
to any of the above, being a long-tailed though very small parrot, is
the budgerigar (_Melopsittacus undulatus_) now more familiar in Europe
than most native birds, as it is used to "tell fortunes" in the streets,
and is bred by hundreds in aviaries. Its native country is Australia.
(A. N.)
LOVEDALE, a mission station in the Victoria East division of the Cape
province, South Africa. It lies 1720 ft. above the sea on the banks of
the Tyumie (Chumie) tributary of the Keiskama river, some 2 m. N. of
Alice, a town 88 m. N.W. by rail of East London. The station was founded
in 1824 by the Glasgow Missionary Society and was named after Dr John
Love, one of the leading members of, and at the time secretary to, the
society. The site first chosen was in the Ncera valley. But in 1834 the
mission buildings were destroyed by the Kaffirs. On rebuilding, the
station was removed somewhat farther north to the banks of the Tyumie.
In 1846 the work at Lovedale was again interrupted, this time by the War
of the Axe (see CAPE COLONY: _History_). On this occasion the buildings
were converted into a fort and garrisoned by regular troops. Once more,
in 1850, the Kaffirs threatened Lovedale and made an attack on the
neighbouring Fort Hare,[1] built during the previous war.
Until 1841 the missionaries had devoted themselves almost entirely to
evangelistic work; in that year the Lovedale Missionary Institute was
founded by the Rev. W. Govan, who, save for brief intervals, continued
at its head until 1870. He was then succeeded by the Rev. James Stewart
(1831-1905), who had joined the mission in 1867, having previously
(1861-1863), and partly in company with David Livingstone, explored the
Zambezi regions. To Stewart, who remained at the head of the institute
till his death, is due the existing organization at Lovedale. The
institute, in addition to its purely church work--in which no sectarian
tests are allowed--provides for the education of natives of both sexes
in nearly all branches of learning (Stewart discontinued the teaching of
Greek and Latin, adopting English as the classic); it also takes
European scholars, no colour distinction being allowed in any department
of the work. The institute gives technical training in many subjects and
maintains various industries, including such diverse enterprises as
farming and printing-works. It also maintains a hospital. The school
buildings rival in accommodation and completeness those of the schools
in large English cities. The sum paid in fees by scholars (of whom fully
nine-tenths were Kaffirs) in the period 1841-1908 was £84,000. The
educational and industrial methods initiated at Lovedale have been
widely adopted by other missionary bodies. Lovedale is now a branch o£
the work of the United Free Church of Scotland.
See R. Young, _African Wastes Reclaimed and Illustrated in the Story
of the Lovedale Mission_ (London, 1902); J. Stewart, _Lovedale, Past
and Present_ (London, 1884), and _Dawn in the Dark Continent_ (London,
1903); J. Wells, _Stewart of Lovedale_ (London, 1908).