WORDS AND FORMS
LESSON I
FIRST PRINCIPLES
«19.» «Subject and Predicate.»
1. Latin, like English, expresses thoughts by means of sentences.
A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought, and in
its simplest form is the statement of a single fact. Thus,
_Galba is a farmer_
«Galba est agricola»
_The sailor fights_
«Nauta pugnat»
In each of these sentences there are two parts:
SUBJECT PREDICATE
_Galba_ _is a farmer_
«Galba»
_The sailor_ _fights_
«Nauta» «pugnat»
2. The subject is that person, place, or thing about which something
is said, and is therefore a _noun_ or some word which can serve the
same purpose.
_a._ Pronouns, as their name implies (_pro_, “instead of,” and
_noun_), often take the place of nouns, usually to save repeating
the same noun, as, _Galba is a farmer; «he» is a sturdy fellow_.
3. The predicate is that which is said about the subject, and consists
of a verb with or without modifiers.
_a._ A verb is a word which asserts something (usually an act)
concerning a person, place, or thing.
«20.» «The Object.» In the two sentences, _The boy hit the ball_ and
_The ball hit the boy_, the same words are used, but the meaning is
different, and depends upon the order of the words. The «doer» of the
act, that about which something is said, is, as we have seen above, the
«subject». «That to which something is done» is the «direct object» of
the verb. _The boy hit the ball_ is therefore analyzed as follows:
SUBJECT PREDICATE
/-----------\
_The boy_ _hit the ball_
(verb) (direct object)
_a._ A verb whose action passes over to the object directly, as in
the sentence above, is called a «transitive verb». A verb which does
not admit of a direct object is called «intransitive», as, _I walk_,
_he comes_.
«21.» «The Copula.» The verb _to be_ in its different forms--_are_,
_is_, _was_, etc.--does not tell us anything about the subject; neither
does it govern an object. It simply connects the subject with the word
or words in the predicate that possess a distinct meaning. Hence it is
called the «copula», that is, _the joiner_ or _link_.
«22.» In the following sentences pronounce the Latin and name the
_nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, predicates, copulas_:
1. «America est patria mea»
_America is fatherland my_
2. «Agricola fīliam amat»
_(The) farmer (his) daughter loves_
3. «Fīlia est Iūlia»
_(His) daughter is Julia_
4. «Iūlia et agricola sunt in īnsulā»
_Julia and (the) farmer are on (the) island_
5. «Iūlia aquam portat»
_Julia water carries_
6. «Rosam in comīs habet»
_(A) rose in (her) hair (she) has_
7. «Iūlia est puella pulchra»
_Julia is (a) girl pretty_
8. «Domina fīliam pulchram habet»
_(The) lady (a) daughter beautiful has_
_a._ The sentences above show that Latin does not express some words
which are necessary in English. First of all, _Latin has no article
«the» or «a»_; thus _«agricola»_ may mean _the farmer, a farmer_,
or simply _farmer_. Then, too, the personal pronouns, _I, you, he,
she_, etc., and the possessive pronouns, _my, your, his, her_, etc.,
are not expressed if the meaning of the sentence is clear without
them.
LESSON II
FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)
«23.» «Inflection.» Words may change their forms to indicate some change
in sense or use, as, _is, are_; _was, were; who, whose, whom; farmer,
farmer’s; woman, women_. This is called «inflection». The inflection of
a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its «declension», that of a verb
its «conjugation».
«24.» «Number.» Latin, like English, has two numbers, singular and
plural. In English we usually form the plural by adding _-s_ or _-es_ to
the singular. So Latin changes the singular to the plural by changing
the ending of the word. Compare
«Naut-a pugnat»
_The sailor fights_
«Naut-ae pugnant»
_The sailors fight_
«25.» RULE. _Nouns that end in «-a» in the singular end in «-ae» in the
plural_.
«26.» Learn the following nouns so that you can give the English for the
Latin or the Latin for the English. Write the plural of each.
«agri´cola», _farmer_ (agriculture)[1]
«aqua», _water_ (aquarium)
«causa», _cause, reason_
«do´mina», _lady of the house, mistress_ (dominate)
«filia», _daughter_ (filial)
«fortū´na», _fortune_
«fuga», _flight_ (fugitive)
«iniū´ria», _wrong, injury_
«lūna», _moon_ (lunar)
«nauta», _sailor_ (nautical)
«puel´la», _girl_
«silva», forest (silvan)
«terra», _land_ (terrace)
[Footnote 1: The words in parentheses are English words related to
the Latin. When the words are practically identical, as «causa»,
_cause_, no comparison is needed.]
«27.» Compare again the sentences
«Nauta pugna-t»
_The sailor fights_
«Nautae pugna-nt»
_The sailors fight_
In the first sentence the verb «pugna-t» is in the third person
singular, in the second sentence «pugna-nt» is in the third person
plural.
«28.» RULE. «Agreement of Verb.» _A finite verb must always be in the
same person and number as its subject._
«29.» RULE. _In the conjugation of the Latin verb the third person
singular active ends in «-t», the third person plural in «-nt». The
endings which show the person and number of the verb are called
«personal endings»._
«30.» Learn the following verbs and write the plural of each. The
personal pronouns _he_, _she_, _it_, etc., which are necessary in the
inflection of the English verb, are not needed in the Latin, because the
personal endings take their place. Of course, if the verb’s subject is
expressed we do not translate the personal ending by a pronoun; thus
«nauta pugnat» is translated _the sailor fights_, not _the sailor he
fights_.
«ama-t» _he (she, it) loves, is loving, does love_ (amity, amiable)
«labō´ra-t» “ “ “ _labors, is laboring, does labor_
«nūntia-t»[2] “ “ “ _announces, is announcing, does announce_
«porta-t» “ “ “ _carries, is carrying, does carry_ (porter)
«pugna-t» “ “ “ _fights, is fighting, does fight_ (pugnacious)
[Footnote 2: The _u_ in «nūntiō» is long by exception.
(Cf. §12.2.)]
«31.» EXERCISES
I. 1. The daughter loves, the daughters love. 2. The sailor is carrying,
the sailors carry. 3. The farmer does labor, the farmers labor. 4. The
girl is announcing, the girls do announce. 5. The ladies are carrying,
the lady carries.
II. 1. Nauta pugnat, nautae pugnant. 2. Puella amat, puellae amant.
3. Agricola portat, agricolae portant. 4. Fīlia labōrat, fīliae
labōrant. 5. Nauta nūntiat, nautae nūntiant. 6. Dominae amant, domina
amat.
[Illustration: DOMINA]
LESSON III
FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)
«32.» «Declension of Nouns.» We learned above (§§19, 20) the difference
between the subject and object, and that in English they may be
distinguished by the order of the words. Sometimes, however, the order
is such that we are left in doubt. For example, the sentence _The lady
her daughter loves_ might mean either that the lady loves her daughter,
or that the daughter loves the lady.
1. If the sentence were in Latin, no doubt could arise, because the
subject and the object are distinguished, not by the order of the
words, but by the endings of the words themselves. Compare the
following sentences:
«Domina fīliam amat»
«Fīliam domina amat»
«Amat fīliam domina»
«Domina amat fīliam»
_The lady loves her daughter_
«Fīlia dominam amat»
«Dominam fīlia amat»
«Amat dominam fīlia»
«Fīlia amat dominam»
_The daughter loves the lady_
_a._ Observe that in each case the subject of the sentence ends in
«-a» and the object in «-am». The _form_ of the noun shows how it is
used in the sentence, and the order of the words has no effect on
the essential meaning.
2. As stated above (§23), this change of ending is called
«declension», and each different ending produces what is called a
«case». When we decline a noun, we give all its different cases, or
changes of endings. In English we have three cases,--nominative,
possessive, and objective; but, in nouns, the nominative and objective
have the same form, and only the possessive case shows a change of
ending, by adding _’s_ or the apostrophe. The interrogative pronoun,
however, has the fuller declension, _who?_ _whose?_ _whom?_
«33.» The following table shows a comparison between English and Latin
declension forms, and should be thoroughly memorized:
ENGLISH CASES LATIN CASES
+---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+
| | Declension | Name of case | Declension of | Name of case |
| | of _who?_ | and use | «domina» | and use |
| | | | and translation | |
+---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+
| | Who? | Nominative-- | «do´min-a» | Nominative-- |
| S | | case of the | _the lady_ | case of the |
| I | | subject | | subject |
| N | | | | |
| G | Whose? | Possessive-- | «domin-ae» | Genitive-- |
| U | | case of the | _the lady’s_ | case of the |
| L | | possessor | _of the lady_ | possessor |
| A | | | | |
| R | Whom? | Objective-- | «domin-am» | Accusative-- |
| | | case of the | _the lady_ | case of the |
| | | object | | direct object |
+---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+
| | Who? | Nominative-- | «domin-ae» | Nominative-- |
| | | case of the | _the ladies_ | case of the |
| P | | subject | | subject |
| L | | | | |
| U | Whose? | Possessive-- | «domin-ā´rum» | Genitive-- |
| R | | case of the | _the ladies’_ | case of the |
| A | | possessor | _of the ladies_ | possessor |
| L | | | | |
| | Whom? | Objective-- | «domin-ās» | Accusative-- |
| | | case of the | _the ladies_ | case of the |
| | | object | | direct object |
+---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+
When the nominative singular of a noun ends in «-a», observe that
_a._ The nominative plural ends in «-ae».
_b._ The genitive singular ends in «-ae» and the genitive plural in
«-ārum».
_c._ The accusative singular ends in «-am» and the accusative plural
in «-ās».
_d._ The genitive singular and the nominative plural have the same
ending.
«34.» EXERCISE
Pronounce the following words and give their general meaning. Then give
the number and case, and the use of each form. Where the same form
stands for more than one case, give all the possible cases and uses.
1. Silva, silvās, silvam. 2. Fugam, fugae, fuga. 3. Terrārum,
terrae, terrās. 4. Aquās, causam, lūnās. 5. Fīliae, fortūnae, lūnae.
6. Iniūriās, agricolārum, aquārum. 7. Iniūriārum, agricolae, puellās.
8. Nautam, agricolās, nautās. 9. Agricolam, puellam, silvārum.
LESSON IV
FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)
[Special Vocabulary]
[See Transcriber’s Note at beginning of text.]
NOUNS
«dea», _goddess_ (deity)
Diā´na, _Diana_
«fera», _a wild beast_ (fierce)
Lātō´na, _Latona_
«sagit´ta», _arrow_
VERBS
«est», _he (she, it) is_; «sunt», _they are_
«necat», _he (she, it) kills, is killing, does kill_
CONJUNCTION[A]
«et», _and_
PRONOUNS
«quis», interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., _who?_
«cuius» (pronounced _co͝oi´yo͝os_, two syllables), interrog. pronoun,
gen. sing., _whose?_
[Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts
of sentences, or sentences.]
«35.» We learned from the table (§33) that the Latin nominative,
genitive, and accusative correspond, in general, to the nominative,
possessive, and objective in English, and that they are used in the same
way. This will be made even clearer by the following sentence:
«Fīlia agricolae nautam amat»,
_the farmer’s daughter_ (or _the daughter of the farmer_)
_loves the sailor_
What is the subject? the direct object? What case is used for the
subject? for the direct object? What word denotes the possessor? In what
case is it?
«36.» RULE. «Nominative Subject.» _The subject of a finite verb is in
the Nominative and answers the question Who? or What?_
«37.» RULE. «Accusative Object.» _The direct object of a transitive verb
is in the Accusative and answers the question Whom? or What?_
«38.» RULE. «Genitive of the Possessor.» _The word denoting the owner or
possessor of something is in the Genitive and answers the question
Whose?_
[Illustration: DIANA SAGITTAS PORTAT ET FERAS NECAT]
«39.» EXERCISES
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.
I. 1. Diāna est dea. 2. Lātōna est dea. 3. Diāna et Lātōna sunt deae.
4. Diāna est dea lūnae. 5. Diāna est fīlia Lātōnae. 6. Lātōna Diānam
amat. 7. Diāna est dea silvārum. 8. Diāna silvam amat. 9. Diāna sagittās
portat. 10. Diāna ferās silvae necat. 11. Ferae terrārum pugnant.
For the order of words imitate the Latin above.
II. 1. The daughter of Latona does love the forests. 2. Latona’s
daughter carries arrows. 3. The farmers’ daughters do labor. 4. The
farmer’s daughter loves the waters of the forest. 5. The sailor is
announcing the girls’ flight. 6. The girls announce the sailors’ wrongs.
7. The farmer’s daughter labors. 8. Diana’s arrows are killing the wild
beasts of the land.
«40.» CONVERSATION
Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. The answers may be
found in the exercises preceding.
1. Quis est Diāna?
2. Cuius fīlia est Diāna?
3. Quis Diānam amat?
4. Quis silvam amat?
5. Quis sagittās portat?
6. Cuius fīliae labōrant?
LESSON V
FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)
[Special Vocabulary]
NOUNS
«corō´na», _wreath, garland, crown_
fā´bula, _story_ (fable)
«pecū´nia», _money_ (pecuniary)
«pugna», _battle_ (pugnacious)
«victō´ria», _victory_
VERBS
«dat», _he (she, it) gives_
nārrat, _he (she, it) tells_ (narrate)
CONJUNCTION[A]
«quia» or «quod», _because_
«cui» (pronounced _co͝oi_, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat.
sing., _to whom?_ _for whom?_
[Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts
of sentences, or sentences.]
«41.» «The Dative Case.» In addition to the relationships between words
expressed by the nominative, genitive (possessive), and accusative
(objective) cases, there are other relationships, to express which in
English we use such words as _from_, _with_, _by_, _to_, _for_, _in_,
_at_.[1]
[Footnote 1: Words like _to_, _for_, _by_, _from_, _in_, etc., which
define the relationship between words, are called «prepositions».]
Latin, too, makes frequent use of such prepositions; but often it
expresses these relations without them by means of case forms which
English does not possess. One of the cases found in the Latin declension
and lacking in English is called the _dative_.
«42.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the dative singular
ends in «-ae» and the dative plural in «-īs».
NOTE. Observe that the _genitive singular_, the _dative singular_, and
the _nominative plural_ all have the same ending, «-ae»; but the uses of
the three cases are entirely different. The general meaning of the
sentence usually makes clear which case is intended.
_a._ Form the dative singular and plural of the following nouns:
«fuga», «causa», «fortūna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola»,
«nauta», «domina».
«43.» «The Dative Relation.» The dative case is used to express the
relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _to_, _towards_,
_for_.
These prepositions are often used in English in expressions of motion,
such as _She went to town_, _He ran towards the horse_, _Columbus sailed
for America_. In such cases the dative is not used in Latin, as _motion
through space_ is foreign to the dative relation. But the dative is used
to denote that _to_ or _towards which_ a benefit, injury, purpose,
feeling, or quality is directed, or that _for which_ something serves or
exists.
_a._ What dative relations do you discover in the following?
The teacher gave a prize to John because he replied so promptly to all
her questions--a good example for the rest of us. It is a pleasure to us
to hear him recite. Latin is easy for him, but it is very hard for me.
Some are fitted for one thing and others for another.
«44.» «The Indirect Object.» Examine the sentence
«Nauta fugam nūntiat»,
_the sailor announces the flight_
Here the verb, «nūntiat», governs the direct object, «fugam», in the
accusative case. If, however, we wish to mention the persons «to whom»
the sailor announces the flight, as, _The sailor announces the flight
«to the farmers»_, the verb will have two objects:
1. Its direct object, _flight_ («fugam»)
2. Its indirect object, _farmers_
According to the preceding section, _to the farmers_ is a relation
covered by the dative case, and we are prepared for the following rule:
«45.» RULE. «Dative Indirect Object.» _The indirect object of a verb is
in the Dative._
_a._ The indirect object usually stands before the direct object.
«46.» We may now complete the translation of the sentence _The sailor
announces the flight to the farmers_, and we have
«Nauta agricolīs fugam nūntiat»
«47.» EXERCISES
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.
_Point out the direct and indirect objects and the genitive of the
possessor._
I. 1. Quis nautīs pecūniam dat? 2. Fīliae agricolae nautīs pecūniam
dant. 3. Quis fortūnam pugnae nūntiat? 4. Galba agricolīs fortunam
pugnae nūntiat. 5. Cui domina fābulam nārrat? 6. Fīliae agricolae domina
fābulam nārrat. 7. Quis Diānae corōnam dat? 8. Puella Diānae corōnam dat
quia Diānam amat. 9. Dea lūnae sagittās portat et ferās silvārum necat.
10. Cuius victōriam Galba nūntiat? 11. Nautae victōriam Galba nūntiat.
Imitate the word order of the preceding exercise.
II. 1. To whom do the girls give a wreath? 2. The girls give a wreath to
Julia, because Julia loves wreaths. 3. The sailors tell the ladies[2] a
story, because the ladies love stories. 4. The farmer gives his
(§22.a) daughter water. 5. Galba announces the cause of the battle
to the sailor. 6. The goddess of the moon loves the waters of the
forest. 7. Whose wreath is Latona carrying? Diana’s.
[Footnote 2: Observe that in English the indirect object often
stands without a preposition _to_ to mark it, especially when it
precedes the direct object.]
LESSON VI
FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)
[Special Vocabulary]
ADJECTIVES
«bona», _good_
«grāta», _pleasing_
«magna», _large, great_
«mala», _bad, wicked_
«parva», _small, little_
«pulchra», _beautiful, pretty_
«sōla», _alone_
NOUNS
ancil´la, _maidservant_
Iūlia, _Julia_
ADVERBS[A]
«cūr», _why_
«nōn», _not_
PRONOUNS
«mea», _my_; «tua», _thy, your_ (possesives)
«quid», interrog. pronoun, nom. and acc. sing., _what?_
«-ne», the question sign, an enclitic (§16) added to the first word,
which, in a question, is usually the verb, as «amat», _he loves_,
but «amat´ne»? _does he love?_ «est», _he is_; «estne»? _is he?_
Of course «-ne» is not used when the sentence contains «quis»,
«cūr», or some other interrogative word.
[Footnote A: An _adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb; as, She sings _sweetly_; she is
_very_ talented; she began to sing _very early_.]
«48.» «The Ablative Case.» Another case, lacking in English but found in
the fuller Latin declension, is the _ab´la-tive._
«49.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the ablative singular
ends in «-ā» and the ablative plural in «-īs».
_a._ Observe that the final -ă of the nominative is short, while the
final -ā of the ablative is long, as,
_Nom._ fīliă
_Abl._ fīliā
_b._ Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural.
_c._ Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns:
«fuga», «causa», «fortūna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola»,
«nauta», «domina».
«50.» «The Ablative Relation.» The ablative case is used to express the
relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _from_, _with_, _by_,
_at_, _in_. It denotes
1. That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of
which it is deprived--generally translated by _from_.
2. That with which something is associated or by means of which it is
done--translated by _with_ or _by_.
3. The place where or the time when something happens--translated by
_in_ or _at_.
_a._ What ablative relations do you discover in the following?
In our class there are twenty boys and girls. Daily at eight
o’clock they come from home with their books, and while they are
at school they read with ease the books written by the Romans.
By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be
overcome.
«51.» «Prepositions.» While, as stated above (§41), many relations
expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case
forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the
accusative or ablative.
«52.» RULE. «Object of a Preposition.» _A noun governed by a preposition
must be in the Accusative or Ablative case._
«53.» Prepositions denoting the ablative relations _from, with, in, on_,
are naturally followed by the ablative case. Among these are
«ā»[1] or «ab», _from, away from_
«dē», _from, down from_
«ē»[1] or «ex», _from, out from, out of_
«cum», _with_
«in», _in, on_
[Footnote 1: «ā» and «ē» are used only before words beginning with
a consonant; «ab» and «ex» are used before either vowels or
consonants.]
1. _Translate into Latin, using prepositions._ In the water, on the
land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from
the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon.
«54.» «Adjectives.» Examine the sentence
«Puella parva bonam deam amat»,
_the little girl loves the good goddess_
In this sentence «parva» (_little_) and «bonam» (_good_) are not nouns,
but are descriptive words expressing quality. Such words are called
_adjectives_,[2] and they are said to belong to the noun which they
describe.
[Footnote 2: _Pick out the adjectives in the following:_ “When I
was a little boy, I remember that one cold winter’s morning I was
accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. ‘My pretty
boy,’ said he, ‘has your father a grindstone?’ ‘Yes, sir,’ said I.
‘You are a fine little fellow,’ said he. ‘Will you let me grind my
ax on it?’”]
You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs. The
ending of «parva» shows that it belongs to «puella», and the ending of
«bonam» that it belongs to «deam». Words that belong together are said
to agree, and the belonging-together is called _agreement_. Observe that
_the adjective and its noun agree in number and case_.
«55.» Examine the sentences
«Puella est parva»,
_the girl is little_
«Puella parva bonam deam amat»,
_the little girl loves the good goddess_
In the first sentence the adjective «parva» is separated from its noun
by the verb and stands in the predicate. It is therefore called a
_predicate adjective_. In the second sentence the adjectives «parva» and
«bonam» are closely attached to the nouns «puella» and «deam»
respectively, and are called _attributive adjectives._
_a._ Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the
following:
Do you think Latin is hard? Hard studies make strong brains. Lazy
students dislike hard studies. We are not lazy.
«56.» DIALOGUE
JULIA AND GALBA
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.
I. Quis, Galba, est Diāna?
G. Diāna, Iūlia, est pulchra dea lūnae et silvārum.
I. Cuius fīlia, Galba, est Diāna?
G. Lātōnae fīlia, Iūlia, est Diāna.
I. Quid Diāna portat?
G. Sagittās Diāna portat.
I. Cūr Diāna sagittās portat?
G. Diāna sagittās portat, Iūlia, quod malās ferās silvae magnae necat.
I. Amatne Lātōna fīliam?
G. Amat, et fīlia Lātōnam amat.
I. Quid fīlia tua parva portat?
G. Corōnās pulchrās fīlia mea parva portat.
I. Cui fīlia tua corōnās pulchrās dat?
G. Diānae corōnās dat.
I. Quis est cum fīliā tuā? Estne sōla?
G. Sōla nōn est; fīlia mea parva est cum ancillā meā.
_a._ When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called
the _voc´ative_ (Latin _vocāre_, “to call”). _In form the vocative
is regularly like the nominative_. In English the name of the person
addressed usually stands first in the sentence. _The Latin vocative
rarely stands first_. Point out five examples of the vocative in
this dialogue.
_b._ Observe that questions answered by _yes_ or _no_ in English
are answered in Latin by repeating the verb. Thus, if you wished to
answer in Latin the question _Is the sailor fighting?_ «Pugnatne
nauta?» you would say «Pugnat», _he is fighting_, or «Nōn pugnat»,
_he is not fighting._
LESSON VII
THE FIRST OR _Ā_-DECLENSION
[Special Vocabulary]
NOUNS
«casa, -ae», f., _cottage_
cēna, -ae, f., _dinner_
«gallī´na, -ae», f., _hen, chicken_
«īn´sula, ae», f., _island_ (pen-insula)
ADVERBS
«de-in´de», _then, in the next place_
«ubi», _where_
PREPOSITION
«ad», _to_, with acc. to express motion toward
PRONOUN
«quem», interrog. pronoun, acc. sing., _whom?_
VERBS
ha´bitat, _he (she, it) lives, is living, does live_ (inhabit)
«laudat», _he (she, it) praises, is praising, does praise_ (laud)
«parat», _he (she, it) prepares, is preparing, does prepare_
«vocat», _he (she, it) calls, is calling, does call; invites,
is inviting, does invite_ (vocation)
«57.» In the preceding lessons we have now gone over all the cases,
singular and plural, of nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a».
All Latin nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a» belong to the
First Declension. It is also called the _Ā_-Declension because of the
prominent part which the vowel «a» plays in the formation of the cases.
We have also learned what relations are expressed by each case. These
results are summarized in the following table:
+--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+
| CASE | NOUN | TRANSLATION | USE AND GENERAL MEANING |
| | | | OF EACH CASE |
+--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+
| | | SINGULAR | |
+--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+
| _Nom._ | do´min-a | _the lady_ | The subject |
| | | | |
| _Gen._ | domin-ae | _of the lady_, | The possessor |
| | | or _the lady’s_ | of something |
| | | | |
| _Dat._ | domin-ae | _to_ or _for | Expressing the relation |
| | | the lady_ | _to_ or _for_, |
| | | | especially the |
| | | | indirect object |
| | | | |
| _Acc._ | domin-am | _the lady_ | The direct object |
| | | | |
| _Abl._ | domin-ā | _from, with, by, | Separation (_from_), |
| | | in, the lady_ | association or means |
| | | | (_with, by_), place |
| | | | where or time when |
| | | | (_in, at_) |
+--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+
| | | PLURAL | |
+--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+
| _Nom._ | domin-ae | _the ladies_ | |
| | | | |
| _Gen._ | domin-ā´rum | _of the ladies_, | |
| | | or _the ladies’_ | |
| | | | |
| _Dat._ | domin-īs | _to_ or _for | The same as |
| | | the ladies_ | the singular |
| | | | |
| _Acc._ | domin-ās | _the ladies_ | |
| | | | |
| _Abl._ | domin-īs | _from, with, by_, | |
| | | _in, the ladies_ | |
+--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+
«58.» «The Base.» That part of a word which remains unchanged in
inflection and to which the terminations are added is called the «base».
Thus, in the declension above, «domin-» is the base and «-a» is the
termination of the nominative singular.
«59.» Write the declension of the following nouns, separating the base
from the termination by a hyphen. Also give them orally.
«pugna», «terra», «lūna», «ancil´la», «corō´na», «īn´sula», «silva»
«60.» «Gender.» In English, names of living beings are either masculine
or feminine, and names of things without life are neuter. This is called
«natural gender». Yet in English there are some names of things to which
we refer as if they were feminine; as, “Have you seen my yacht? _She_ is
a beauty.” And there are some names of living beings to which we refer
as if they were neuter; as, “Is the baby here? No, the nurse has taken
_it_ home.” Some words, then, have a gender quite apart from sex or real
gender, and this is called «grammatical gender».
Latin, like English, has three genders. Names of males are usually
masculine and of females feminine, but _names of things have grammatical
gender and may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter_. Thus we have
in Latin the three words, «lapis», _a stone_; «rūpēs», _a cliff_; and
«saxum», _a rock_. «Lapis» is _masculine_, «rūpēs» _feminine_, and
«saxum» _neuter_. The gender can usually be determined by the ending of
the word, and _must always be learned_, for without knowing the gender
it is impossible to write correct Latin.
«61.» «Gender of First-Declension Nouns.» Nouns of the first declension
are feminine unless they denote males. Thus «silva» is feminine, but
«nauta», _sailor_, and «agricola», _farmer_, are masculine.
«62.» EXERCISES
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.
I. 1. Agricola cum fīliā in casā habitat. 2. Bona fīlia agricolae cēnam
parat. 3. Cēna est grāta agricolae[1] et agricola bonam fīliam laudat.
4. Deinde fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cēnam vocat. 5. Gallīnae fīliam
agricolae amant. 6. Malae fīliae bonās cēnās nōn parant. 7. Fīlia
agricolae est grāta dominae. 8. Domina in īnsulā magnā habitat.
9. Domina bonae puellae parvae pecūniam dat.
II. 1. Where does the farmer live? 2. The farmer lives in the small
cottage. 3. Who lives with the farmer? 4. (His) little daughter lives
with the farmer. 5. (His) daughter is getting («parat») a good dinner
for the farmer. 6. The farmer praises the good dinner. 7. The daughter’s
good dinner is pleasing to the farmer.
[Footnote 1: Note that the relation expressed by the dative case
covers that _to which a feeling is directed._ (Cf. §43.)]
[Illustration]
What Latin words are suggested by this picture?
«63.» CONVERSATION
Answer the questions in Latin.
1. Quis cum agricolā in casā habitat?
2. Quid bona fīlia agricolae parat?
3. Quem agricola laudat?
4. Vocatne fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cēnam?
5. Cuius fīlia est grāta dominae?
6. Cui domina pecūniam dat?
LESSON VIII
FIRST DECLENSION (_Continued_)
[Special Vocabulary]
NOUNS
«Italia, -ae», f., _Italy_
Sicilia, -ae, f., _Sicily_
«tuba, -ae», f., _trumpet_ (tube)
«via, -ae», f., _way, road, street_ (viaduct)
ADJECTIVES
«alta», _high, deep_ (altitude)
«clāra», _clear, bright; famous_
«lāta», _wide_ (latitude)
«longa», _long_ (longitude)
«nova», _new_ (novelty)
«64.» We have for some time now been using adjectives and nouns together
and you have noticed an agreement between them in _case_ and in _number_
(§54). They agree also in _gender_. In the phrase «silva magna», we
have a feminine adjective in «-a» agreeing with a feminine noun in «-a».
«65.» RULE. «Agreement of Adjectives.» _Adjectives agree with their
nouns in gender, number, and case._
«66.» Feminine adjectives in «-a» are declined like feminine nouns in
«-a», and you should learn to decline them together as follows:
NOUN ADJECTIVE
«domina» (base «domin-»), «bona» (base «bon-»),
f., _lady_ _good_
SINGULAR TERMINATIONS
_Nom._ do´mina bona -a
_Gen._ dominae bonae -ae
_Dat._ dominae bonae -ae
_Acc._ dominam bonam -am
_Abl._ dominā bonā -ā
PLURAL
_Nom._ dominae bonae -ae
_Gen._ dominā´rum bonā´rum -ārum
_Dat._ dominīs bonīs -īs
_Acc._ dominās bonās -ās
_Abl._ dominīs bonīs -īs
_a._ In the same way decline together «puella mala», _the bad girl_;
«ancil´la parva», _the little maid_; «fortū´na magna», _great
fortune._
«67.» The words «dea», _goddess_, and «fīlia», _daughter_, take the
ending «-ābus» instead of «-īs» in the _dative and ablative plural._
Note the _dative and ablative plural_ in the following declension:
«dea bona» (bases «de-» «bon-»)
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ dea bona deae bonae
_Gen._ deae bonae deā´rum bonā´rum
_Dat._ deae bonae deā´bus bonīs
_Acc._ deam bonam deās bonās
_Abl._ deā bonā dea´bus bonīs
_a._ In the same way decline together «fīlīa parva».
«68.» «Latin Word Order.» The order of words in English and in Latin
sentences is not the same.
In English we arrange words in a fairly fixed order. Thus, in the
sentence _My daughter is getting dinner for the farmers_, we cannot
alter the order of the words without spoiling the sentence. We can,
however, throw emphasis on different words by speaking them with more
force. Try the effect of reading the sentence by putting special force
on _my, daughter, dinner, farmers_.
In Latin, where the office of the word in the sentence is shown by its
_ending_ (cf. §32.1), and not by its _position_, the order of words is
more free, and position is used to secure the same effect that in
English is secured by emphasis of voice. To a limited extent we can
alter the order of words in English, too, for the same purpose. Compare
the sentences
_I saw a game of football at Chicago last November_ (normal order)
_«Last November» I saw a game of football at Chicago_
_At Chicago, last November, I saw a game of «football»_
1. In a Latin sentence the most emphatic place is the _first_; next in
importance is the _last_; the weakest point is the _middle_. Generally
the _subject_ is the most important word, and is placed _first_;
usually the _verb_ is the next in importance, and is placed _last_.
The other words of the sentence stand between these two in the order
of their importance. Hence the normal order of words--that is, where
no unusual emphasis is expressed--is as follows:
_subject_--_modifiers of the subject_--_indirect object_--
_direct object_--_adverb_--_verb_
Changes from the normal order are frequent, and are due to the desire
for throwing emphasis upon some word or phrase. _Notice the order of
the Latin words when you are translating, and imitate it when you are
turning English into Latin._
2. Possessive pronouns and modifying genitives normally stand after
their nouns. When placed before their nouns they are emphatic, as
«fīlia mea», _my daughter_;
«mea fīlia», _«my» daughter_;
«casa Galbae», _Galba’s cottage_;
«Galbae casa», _«Galba’s» cottage_.
Notice the variety of emphasis produced by writing the following
sentence in different ways:
«Fīlia mea agricolīs cēnam parat» (normal order)
«Mea fīlia agricolīs parat cēnam» («mea» and «cēnam» emphatic)
«Agricolīs fīlia mea cēnam parat» («agricolīs» emphatic)
3. An adjective placed before its noun is more emphatic than when it
follows. When great emphasis is desired, the adjective is separated
from its noun by other words.
«Fīlia mea casam parvam nōn amat» («parvam» not emphatic)
«Fīlia mea parvam casam nōn amat» («parvam» more emphatic)
«Parvam fīlia mea casam nōn amat» («parvam» very emphatic)
4. Interrogative words usually stand first, the same as in English.
5. The copula (as «est», «sunt») is of so little importance that it
frequently does not stand last, but may be placed wherever it sounds
well.
«69.» EXERCISE
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.
_Note the order of the words in these sentences and pick out those that
are emphatic._
1. Longae nōn sunt tuae viae. 2. Suntne tubae novae in meā casā? Nōn
sunt. 3. Quis lātā in silvā habitat? Diāna, lūnae clārae pulchra dea,
lātā in silvā habitat. 4. Nautae altās et lātās amant aquās. 5. Quid
ancilla tua portat? Ancilla mea tubam novam portat. 6. Ubi sunt Lesbia
et Iūlia? In tuā casa est Lesbia et Iūlia est in meā. 7. Estne Italia
lāta terra? Longa est Italia, nōn lāta. 8. Cui Galba agricola fābulam
novam nārrat? Fīliābus dominae clārae fābulam novam nārrat. 9. Clāra
est īnsula Sicilia. 10. Quem laudat Lātōna? Lātōna laudat fīliam.
* * * * *
«First Review of Vocabulary and Grammar, §§502-505»
* * * * *
LESSON IX
THE SECOND OR _O_-DECLENSION
[Special Vocabulary]
NOUNS
«bellum, -ī», n., _war_ (re-bel)
«cōnstantia, -ae», f., _firmness, constancy, steadiness_
dominus, -ī, m., _master, lord_ (dominate)
«equus, -ī», m., _horse_ (equine)
«frūmentum, -ī», n., _grain_
«lēgātus, -ī», m., _lieutenant, ambassador_ (legate)
«Mārcus, -ī», m., _Marcus, Mark_
«mūrus, -ī», m., _wall_ (mural)
«oppidānus, -ī», m., _townsman_
«oppidum, -ī», n., _town_
«pīlum, -ī», n., _spear_ (pile driver)
«servus, -ī», m., _slave, servant_
Sextus, -ī, m., _Sextus_
VERBS
«cūrat», _he (she, it) cares for_, with acc.
«properat», _he (she, it) hastens_
«70.» Latin nouns are divided into five declensions.
The declension to which a noun belongs is shown by the ending of
the genitive singular. This should always be learned along with the
nominative and the gender.
«71.» The nominative singular of nouns of the Second or _O_-Declension
ends in «-us», «-er», «-ir», or «-um». The genitive singular ends in
«-ī».
«72.» «Gender.» Nouns in «-um» are neuter. The others are regularly
masculine.
«73.» «Declension of nouns in -_us_ and -_um_.» Masculines in «-us» and
neuters in «-um» are declined as follows:
«dominus» (base «domin-»), «pīlum» (base «pīl-»),
m., _master_ n., _spear_
TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS
SINGULAR
_Nom._ do´minus[1] -us pīlum -um
_Gen._ dominī -ī pīlī -ī
_Dat._ dominō -ō pīlō -ō
_Acc._ dominum -um pīlum -um
_Abl._ dominō -ō pīlō -ō
_Voc._ domine -e pīlum -um
PLURAL
_Nom._ dominī -ī pīla -a
_Gen._ dominō´rum -ōrum pīlō´rum -ōrum
_Dat._ dominīs -īs pīlīs -īs
_Acc._ dominōs -ōs pīla -a
_Abl._ dominīs -īs pīlīs -īs
[Footnote 1: Compare the declension of «domina» and of «dominus».]
_a._ Observe that the masculines and the neuters have the same
terminations excepting in the nominative singular and the nominative
and accusative plural.
_b._ The vocative singular of words of the second declension in
«-us» ends in «-ĕ», as «domine», _O master_; «serve», _O slave_.
This is the most important exception to the rule in §56.a.
«74.» Write side by side the declension of «domina», «dominus», and
«pīlum». A comparison of the forms will lead to the following rules,
which are of great importance because they apply to all five
declensions:
_a._ The vocative, with a single exception (see §73.b), is like
the nominative. That is, the vocative singular is like the
nominative singular, and the vocative plural is like the nominative
plural.
_b._ The nominative, accusative, and vocative of neuter nouns are
alike, and in the plural end in «-a».
_c._ The accusative singular of masculines and feminines ends in
«-m» and the accusative plural in «-s».
_d._ The dative and ablative plural are always alike.
_e._ Final «-i» and «-o» are always _long_; final «-a» is _short_,
except in the ablative singular of the first declension.
«75.» Observe the sentences
«Lesbia est bona»,
_Lesbia is good_
«Lesbia est ancilla»,
_Lesbia is a maidservant_
We have learned (§55) that «bona», when used, as here, in the predicate
to describe the subject, is called a _predicate adjective_. Similarly a
_noun_, as «ancilla», used in the _predicate_ to define the subject is
called a «predicate noun».
«76.» RULE. «Predicate Noun.» _A predicate noun agrees in case with the
subject of the verb._
[Illustration: PILA]
«77.» DIALOGUE
GALBA AND MARCUS
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.
G. Quis, Mārce, est lēgātus cum pīlō et tubā?
M. Lēgātus, Galba, est Sextus.
G. Ubi Sextus habitat?[2]
M. In oppidō Sextus cum fīliābus habitat.
G. Amantne oppidānī Sextum?
M. Amant oppidānī Sextum et laudant, quod magnā cum cōnstantiā pugnat.
G. Ubi, Mārce, est ancilla tua? Cūr nōn cēnam parat?
M. Ancilla mea, Galba, equō lēgātī aquam et frūmentum dat.
G. Cūr nōn servus Sextī equum dominī cūrat?
M. Sextus et servus ad mūrum oppidī properant. Oppidānī bellum
parant.[3]
[Footnote 2: «habitat» is here translated _does live_. Note the
_three_ possible translations of the Latin present tense:
«habitat»
_he lives_
_he is living_
_he does live_
Always choose the translation which makes the best sense.]
[Footnote 3: Observe that the verb «parō» means not only
_to prepare_ but also _to prepare for_, and governs the
accusative case.]
[Illustration: LEGATUS CUM PILO ET TUBA]
«78.» CONVERSATION
Translate the questions and answer them in Latin.
1. Ubi fīliae Sextī habitant?
2. Quem oppidānī amant et laudant?
3. Quid ancilla equō lēgātī dat?
4. Cuius equum ancilla cūrat?
5. Quis ad mūrum cum Sextō properat?
6. Quid oppidānī parant?
LESSON X
SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_)
[Special Vocabulary]
NOUNS
«amīcus, -ī», m., _friend_ (amicable)
«Germānia, -ae», f., _Germany_
«patria, -ae», f., _fatherland_
«populus, -ī», m., _people_
«Rhēnus, -ī», m., _the Rhine_
«vīcus, -ī», m., _village_
«79.» We have been freely using feminine adjectives, like «bona», in
agreement with feminine nouns of the first declension and declined like
them. _Masculine_ adjectives of this class are declined like «dominus»,
and _neuters_ like pīlum. The adjective and noun, masculine and neuter,
are therefore declined as follows:
MASCULINE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE NEUTER NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
«dominus bonus», _the good master_ «pīlum bonum», _the good spear_
BASES domin- bon- BASES pīl- bon-
TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS
SINGULAR
_Nom._ do´minus bonus -us pīlum bonum -um
_Gen._ dominī bonī -ī pīlī bonī -ī
_Dat._ dominō bonō -ō pīlō bonō -ō
_Acc._ dominum bonum -um pīlum bonum -um
_Abl._ dominō bonō -ō pīlō bonō -ō
_Voc._ domine bone -e pīlum bonum -um
PLURAL
_Nom._ dominī bonī -ī īla bona -a
_Gen._ dominō´rum bonō´rum -ōrum īlō´rum bonō´rum -ōrum
_Dat._ dominīs bonīs -is īlīs bonīs -īs
_Acc._ dominōs bonōs -ōs īla bona -a
_Abl._ dominīs bonīs -īs īlīs bonīs -īs
Decline together «bellum longum», «equus parvus», «servus malus»,
«mūrus altus», «frūmentum novum».
«80.» Observe the sentences
«Lesbia ancilla est bona»,
_Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_
«Fīlia Lesbiae ancillae est bona»,
_the daughter of Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_
«Servus Lesbiam ancillam amat»,
_the slave loves Lesbia, the maidservant_
In these sentences «ancilla», «ancillae», and «ancillam» denote the
class of persons to which _Lesbia_ belongs and explain who she is. Nouns
so related that the second is only another name for the first and
explains it are said to be in apposition, and are always in the same
case.
«81.» RULE. «Apposition.» _An appositive agrees in case with the noun
which it explains._
«82.» EXERCISES
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.
I. 1. Patria servī bonī, vīcus servōrum bonōrum, bone popule. 2. Populus
oppidī magnī, in oppidō magnō, in oppidīs magnīs. 3. Cum pīlīs longīs,
ad pīla longa, ad mūrōs lātōs. 4. Lēgāte male, amīcī legātī malī, cēna
grāta dominō bonō. 5. Frūmentum equōrum parvōrum, domine bone, ad
lēgātōs clārōs. 6. Rhēnus est in Germāniā, patriā meā. 7. Sextus lēgātus
pīlum longum portat. 8. Oppidānī bonī Sextō lēgātō clārā pecūniam dant.
9. Malī servī equum bonum Mārcī dominī necant. 10. Galba agricola et
Iūlia fīlia bona labōrant. 11. Mārcus nauta in īnsulā Siciliā habitat.
II. 1. Wicked slave, who is your friend? Why does he not praise Galba,
your master? 2. My friend is from («ex») a village of Germany, my
fatherland. 3. My friend does not love the people of Italy. 4. Who is
caring for[1] the good horse of Galba, the farmer? 5. Mark, where is
Lesbia, the maidservant? 6. She is hastening[1] to the little cottage[2]
of Julia, the farmer’s daughter.
[Footnote 1: See footnote 1, p. 33. Remember that «cūrat» is
transitive and governs a direct object.]
[Footnote 2: Not the dative. (Cf. §43.)]
LESSON XI
ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS
[Special Vocabulary]
NOUNS
«arma, armōrum», n., plur., _arms_, especially defensive weapons
«fāma, -ae», f., _rumor; reputation, fame_
«galea, -ae», f., _helmet_
«praeda, -ae», f., _booty, spoils_ (predatory)
«tēlum, -ī», n., _weapon of offense, spear_
ADJECTIVES
«dūrus, -a, -um», _hard, rough; unfeeling, cruel; severe, toilsome_
(durable)
«Rōmānus, -a, -um», _Roman_. As a noun, «Rōmānus, -ī», m., _a Roman_
«83.» Adjectives of the first and second declensions are declined in the
three genders as follows:
MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER
SINGULAR
_Nom._ bonus bona bonum
_Gen._ bonī bonae bonī
_Dat._ bonō bonae bonō
_Acc._ bonum bonam bonum
_Abl._ bonō bonā bonō
_Voc._ bone bona bonum
PLURAL
_Nom._ bonī bonae bona
_Gen._ bonōrum bonārum bonōrum
_Dat._ bonīs bonīs bonīs
_Acc._ bonōs bonās bona
_Abl._ bonīs bonīs bonīs
_a._ Write the declension and give it orally _across the page_, thus
giving the three genders for each case.
_b._ Decline «grātus, -a, -um»; «malus, -a, -um»; «altus, -a, -um»;
«parvus, -a, -um».
«84.» Thus far the adjectives have had the same terminations as the
nouns. However, the agreement between the adjective and its noun does
_not_ mean that they must have the same termination. If the adjective
and the noun belong to different declensions, the terminations will, in
many cases, not be the same. For example, «nauta», _sailor_, is
masculine and belongs to the first declension. The masculine form of the
adjective «bonus» is of the second declension. Consequently, _a good
sailor_ is «nauta bonus». So, _the wicked farmer_ is «agricola malus».
Learn the following declensions:
«85.» «nauta bonus» (bases naut- bon-), m., _the good sailor_
SINGULAR
_Nom._ nauta bonus
_Gen._ nautae bonī
_Dat._ nautae bonō
_Acc._ nautam bonum
_Abl._ nautā bonō
_Voc._ nauta bone
PLURAL
_Nom._ nautae bonī
_Gen._ nautārum bonōrum
_Dat._ nautīs bonīs
_Acc._ nautās bonōs
_Abl._ nautīs bonīs
_Voc._ nautae bonī
«86.» EXERCISES
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.
I. 1. Est[1] in vīcō nauta bonus. 2. Sextus est amīcus nautae bonī.
3. Sextus nautae bonō galeam dat. 4. Populus Rōmānus nautam bonum
laudat. 5. Sextus cum nautā bonō praedam portat. 6. Ubi, nauta bone,
sunt arma et tēla lēgātī Rōmānī? 7. Nautae bonī ad bellum properant.
8. Fāma nautārum bonōrum est clāra. 9. Pugnae sunt grātae nautīs bonīs.
10. Oppidānī nautās bonōs cūrant. 11. Cūr, nautae bonī, malī agricolae
ad Rhēnum properant? 12. Malī agricolae cum bonīs nautīs pugnant.
II. 1. The wicked farmer is hastening to the village with (his) booty.
2. The reputation of the wicked farmer is not good. 3. Why does Galba’s
daughter give arms and weapons to the wicked farmer? 4. Lesbia invites
the good sailor to dinner. 5. Why is Lesbia with the good sailor
hastening from the cottage? 6. Sextus, where is my helmet? 7. The good
sailors are hastening to the toilsome battle. 8. The horses of the
wicked farmers are small. 9. The Roman people give money to the good
sailors. 10. Friends care for the good sailors. 11. Whose friends are
fighting with the wicked farmers?
[Footnote 1: «Est», beginning a declarative sentence, _there is._]
[Illustration: GALEAE]
LESSON XII
NOUNS IN _-IUS_ AND _-IUM_
[Special Vocabulary]
NOUNS
«fīlius, fīlī», m., _son_ (filial)
fluvius, fluvī, m., _river_ (fluent)
«gladius, gladī», m., _sword_ (gladiator)
«praesidium, praesi´dī», n., _garrison, guard, protection_
«proelium, proelī», n., _battle_
ADJECTIVES
«fīnitimus, -a, -um», _bordering upon, neighboring, near to_.
As a noun, «fīnitimī, -ōrum», m., plur., _neighbors_
«Germānus, -a, -um», _German_. As a noun, «Germānus, -ī», m.,
_a German_
«multus, -a, -um», _much_; plur., _many_
ADVERB
«saepe», _often_
«87.» Nouns of the second declension in «-ius» and «-ium» end in «-ī» in
the genitive singular, _not_ in «-iī», and the accent rests on the
penult; as, «fīlī» from «fīlius» (_son_), «praesi´dī» from «praesi´dium»
(_garrison_).
«88.» Proper names of persons in «-ius», and «fīlius», end in «-ī» in
the vocative singular, _not_ in «-ĕ», and the accent rests on the
penult; as, «Vergi´lī», _O Vergil_; «fīlī», _O son._
_a._ Observe that in these words the vocative and the genitive are
alike.
«89.» «praesidium» (base praesidi-), «fīlius» (base fīli-),
n., _garrison_ m., _son_
SINGULAR
_Nom._ praesidium fīlius
_Gen._ praesi´dī fīlī
_Dat._ praesidiō fīliō
_Acc._ praesidium fīlium
_Abl._ praesidiō fīliō
_Voc._ praesidium fīlī
The plural is regular. Note that the «-i-» of the base is lost only in
the genitive singular, and in the vocative of words like «fīlius».
Decline together «praesidium parvum»; «fīlius bonus»; «fluvius longus»,
_the long river_; «proelium clārum», _the famous battle._
«90.» EXERCISES
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.
I. 1. Frūmentum bonae terrae, gladī malī, bellī longī. 2. Cōnstantia
magna, praesidia magna, clāre Vergi´lī. 3. Male serve, Ō clārum oppidum,
male fīlī, fīliī malī, fīlī malī. 4. Fluvī longī, fluviī longī,
fluviōrum longōrum, fāma praesi´dī magnī. 5. Cum gladiīs parvīs, cum
deābus clārīs, ad nautās clārōs. 6. Multōrum proeliōrum, praedae magnae,
ad proelia dūra.
GERMĀNIA
II. Germānia, patria Germānōrum, est clāra terra. In Germāniā sunt
fluviī multī. Rhēnus magnus et lātus fluvius Germāniae est. In silvīs
lātīs Germāniae sunt ferae multae. Multi Germāni in oppidīs magnis et
in vīcīs parvīs habitant et multī sunt agricolae bonī. Bella Germānōrum
sunt magna et clāra. Populus Germāniae bellum et proelia amat et saepe
cum finitimīs pugnat. Fluvius Rhēnus est fīnitimus oppidīs[1] multīs et
clārīs.
[Footnote 1: Dative with «fīnitimus». (See §43.)]
LESSON XIII
SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_)
[Special Vocabulary]
NOUNS
«ager, agrī», m., _field_ (acre)
«cōpia, -ae», f., _plenty, abundance_ (copious); plur., _troops,
forces_
«Cornēlius, Cornē´lī», m., _Cornelius_
«lōrī´ca, -ae», f., _coat of mail, corselet_
«praemium, praemī», n., _reward, prize_ (premium)
«puer, puerī», m., _boy_ (puerile)
«Rōma, -ae», f., _Rome_
«scūtum, -ī», n., _shield_ (escutcheon)
«vir, virī», m., _man, hero_ (virile)
ADJECTIVES
«legiōnārius, -a, -um»,[A] _legionary, belonging to the legion_.
As a noun, «legiōnāriī, -ōrum», m., plur., _legionary soldiers_
«līber, lībera, līberum», _free_ (liberty) As a noun. «līberī, -ōrum»,
m., plur., _children_ (lit. _the freeborn_)
«pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum», _pretty, beautiful_
PREPOSITION
«apud», _among_, with acc.
CONJUNCTION
«sed», _but_
[Footnote A: The genitive singular masculine of adjectives in «-ius»
ends in «-iī» and the vocative in «-ie»; not in «-ī», as in nouns.]
«91.» «Declension of Nouns in _-er_ and _-ir_.» In early Latin all the
masculine nouns of the second declension ended in «-os». This «-os»
later became «-us» in words like «servus», and was dropped entirely in
words with bases ending in «-r», like «puer», _boy_; «ager», _field_;
and «vir», _man_. These words are therefore declined as follows:
«92.» «puer», m., _boy_ «ager», m., _field_ «vir», m., _man_
BASE «puer-» BASE «agr-» BASE «vir-»
SINGULAR TERMINATIONS
_Nom._ puer ager vir ----
_Gen._ puerī agrī virī -ī
_Dat._ puerō agrō virō -ō
_Acc._ puerum agrum virum -um
_Abl._ puerō agrō virō -ō
PLURAL
_Nom._ puerī agrī virī -ī
_Gen._ puerōrum agrōrum virōrum -ōrum
_Dat._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs
_Acc._ puerōs agrōs virōs -ōs
_Abl._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs
_a._ The vocative case of these words is like the nominative,
following the general rule (§74.a).
_b._ The declension differs from that of «servus» only in the
nominative and vocative singular.
_c._ Note that in «puer» the «e» remains all the way through, while
in «ager» it is present only in the nominative. In «puer» the «e»
belongs to the base, but in «ager» (base «agr-») it does not, and
was inserted in the nominative to make it easier to pronounce. Most
words in «-er» are declined like «ager». _The genitive shows whether
you are to follow_ «puer» _or_ «ager».
«93.» Masculine adjectives in «-er» of the second declension are
declined like nouns in «-er». A few of them are declined like «puer»,
but most of them like «ager». The feminine and neuter nominatives show
which form to follow, thus,
MASC. FEM. NEUT.
līber lībera līberum (_free_)
is like «puer»
pulcher pulchra pulchrum (_pretty_)
is like «ager»
For the full declension in the three genders, see §469._b._ _c._
«94.» Decline together the words «vir līber», «terra lībera», «frūmentum
līberum», «puer pulcher», «puella pulchra», «oppidum pulchrum»
«95.» ITALIA[1]
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.
Magna est Italiae fāma, patriae Rōmānōrum, et clāra est Rōma, domina
orbis terrārum.[2] Tiberim,[3] fluvium Rōmānum, quis nōn laudat et
pulchrōs fluviō fīnitimōs agrōs? Altōs mūrōs, longa et dūra bella,
clārās victōriās quis nōn laudat? Pulchra est terra Italia. Agrī bonī
agricolīs praemia dant magna, et equī agricolārum cōpiam frūmentī ad
oppida et vīcōs portant. In agrīs populī Rōmānī labōrant multī servī.
Viae Italiae sunt longae et lātae. Fīnitima Italiae est īnsula Sicilia.
[Footnote 1: In this selection note especially the emphasis as shown
by the order of the words.]
[Footnote 2: «orbis terrārum», _of the world_.]
[Footnote 3: «Tiberim», _the Tiber_, accusative case.]
«96.» DIALOGUE
MARCUS AND CORNELIUS
C. Ubi est, Mārce, fīlius tuus? Estne in pulchrā terrā Italiā?
M. Nōn est, Cornēlī, in Italiā. Ad fluvium Rhēnum properat cum cōpiīs
Rōmānīs quia est[4] fāma Novī bellī cum Germānīs. Līber Germāniae
populus Rōmānōs Nōn amat.
C. Estne fīlius tuus copiārum Rōmānārum lēgātus?
M. Lēgātus nōn est, sed est apud legiōnāriōs.
C. Quae[5] arma portat[6]?
M. Scūtum magnum et lōrīcam dūram et galeam pulchram portat.
C. Quae tēla portat?
M. Gladium et pīlum longum portat.
C. Amatne lēgātus fīlium tuum?
M. Amat, et saepe fīliō meō praemia pulchra et praedam multam dat.
C. Ubi est terra Germānōrum?
M. Terra Germānōrum, Cornēlī est fīnitima Rhēnō, fluviō magnō et altō.
[Footnote 4: «est», before its subject, _there is_; so «sunt»,
_there are._]
[Footnote 5: «Quae», _what kind of_, an interrogative adjective
pronoun.]
[Footnote 6: What are the three possible translations of the present
tense?]
[Illustration: LEGIONARIUS]
LESSON XIV
THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS
[Special Vocabulary]
NOUNS
«auxilium, auxi´lī», n., _help, aid_ (auxiliary)
«castrum, -ī», n., _fort_ (castle); plur., _camp_ (lit. _forts_)
«cibus, -ī», m., _food_
«cōnsilium, cōnsi´lī», n., _plan_ (counsel)
«dīligentia, -ae», f.. _diligence, industry_
magister, magistrī, m., _master, teacher_[A]
ADJECTIVES
«aeger, aegra, aegrum», _sick_
«crēber, crēbra, crēbrum», _frequent_
«miser, misera, miserum», _wretched, unfortunate_ (miser)
[Footnote A: Observe that «dominus», as distinguished from
«magister», means _master_ in the sense of _owner_.]
«97.» Observe the sentences
_This is my shield_
_This shield is mine_
In the first sentence _my_ is a possessive adjective; in the second
_mine_ is a possessive pronoun, for it takes the place of a noun, _this
shield is mine_ being equivalent to _this shield is my shield_.
Similarly, in Latin the possessives are sometimes _adjectives_ and
sometimes _pronouns_.
«98.» The possessives _my, mine, your, yours_, etc. are declined like
adjectives of the first and second declensions.
SINGULAR
_1st Pers._ meus, mea, meum _my, mine_
_2d Pers._ tuus, tua, tuum _your, yours_
_3d Pers._ suus, sua, suum _his (own), her (own),
its (own)_
PLURAL
_1st Pers._ noster, nostra, nostrum _our, ours_
_2d Pers._ vester, vestra, vestrum _your, yours_
_3d Pers._ suus, sua, suum _their (own), theirs_
NOTE. «Meus» has the irregular vocative singular masculine «mī», as
«mī fīlī», _O my son_.
_a._ The possessives agree with the name of the _thing possessed_ in
gender, number, and case. Compare the English and Latin in
_Sextus is calling «his» boy_ «Sextus» } «suum puerum vocat»
_Julia is calling «her» boy_ «Iūlia» }
Observe that «suum» agrees with «puerum», and is unaffected by the
gender of Sextus or Julia.
_b._ When _your, yours_, refers to _one_ person, use «tuus»; when to
_more than one_, «vester»; as,
_Lesbia, your wreaths are pretty_
«Corōnae tuae, Lesbia, sunt pulchrae»
_Girls, your wreaths are pretty_
«Corōnae vestrae, puellae, sunt pulchrae»
_c._ «Suus» is a _reflexive_ possessive, that is, it usually stands
in the predicate and regularly refers back to the _subject_. Thus,
«Vir suōs servōs vocat» means _The man calls his (own) slaves._ Here
_his_ («suōs») refers to _man_ («vir»), and could not refer to any
one else.
_d._ Possessives are used much less frequently than in English,
being omitted whenever the meaning is clear without them. (Cf.
§22.a.) This is especially true of «suus, -a, -um», which, when
inserted, is more or less emphatic, like our _his own, her own_,
etc.
«99.» EXERCISES
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.
I. 1. Mārcus amīcō Sextō cōnsilium suum nūntiat 2. Est cōpia frūmentī in
agrīs nostrīs. 3. Amīcī meī bonam cēnam ancillae vestrae laudant 4. Tua
lōrīca, mī fīlī, est dūra. 5. Scūta nostra et tēla, mī amīce, in castrls
Rōmānīs sunt. 6. Suntne virī patriae tuae līberī? Sunt. 7. Ubi, Cornēlī,
est tua galea pulchra? 8. Mea galea, Sexte, est in casā meā. 9. Pīlum
longum est tuum, sed gladius est meus. 10. Iūlia gallīnās suās pulchrās
amat et gallīnae dominam suam amant. 11. Nostra castra sunt vestra.
12. Est cōpia praedae in castrīs vestrīs. 13. Amīcī tuī miserīs et
aegrīs cibum et pecūniam saepe dant.
II. 1. Our teacher praises Mark’s industry. 2. My son Sextus is carrying
his booty to the Roman camp.[1] 3. Your good girls are giving aid to the
sick and wretched.[2] 4. There are [3] frequent battles in our villages.
5. My son, where is the lieutenant’s food? 6. The camp is mine, but the
weapons are yours.
[Footnote 1: Not the dative. Why?]
[Footnote 2: Here the adjectives _sick_ and _wretched_ are used like
nouns.]
[Footnote 3: Where should «sunt» stand? Cf. I. 2 above.]
[Illustration: AGRICOLA ARAT]
LESSON XV
THE ABLATIVE DENOTING _WITH_
[Special Vocabulary]
NOUNS
«carrus, -ī», m., _cart, wagon_
«inopia, -ae», f., _want, lack;_ the opposite of «cōpia»
«studium, studī», n., _zeal, eagerness_ (study)
ADJECTIVES
«armātus, -a, -um», _armed_
«īnfīrmus, -a, -um», _week, feeble_ (infirm)
vali´dus, -a, -um, _strong, sturdy_
VERB
«mātūrat», _he (she, it) hastens._ Cf. properat
ADVERB
«iam», _already, now_
«-que», conjunction, _and_; an enclitic (cf. §16) and always added
to the _second_ of two words to be connected, as «arma tēla´que»,
_arms and weapons_.
«100.» Of the various relations denoted by the ablative case (§50)
there is none more important than that expressed in English by the
preposition _with_. This little word is not so simple as it looks.
It does not always convey the same meaning, nor is it always to be
translated by «cum». This will become clear from the following
sentences:
_a._ Mark is feeble _with_ (_for_ or _because of_) want of food
_b._ Diana kills the beasts _with_ (or _by_) her arrows
_c._ Julia is _with_ Sextus
_d._ The men fight _with_ great steadiness
_a._ In sentence _a_, _with want_ (_of food_) gives the cause of
Mark’s feebleness. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative
without a preposition, and the construction is called the «ablative
of cause»:
«Mārcus est īnfīrmus inopiā cibī»
_b._ In sentence _b_, _with_ (or _by_) _her arrows_ tells «by means
of what» Diana kills the beasts. This idea is expressed in Latin by
the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called
the «ablative of means»:
«Diāna sagittīs suīs ferās necat»
_c._ In sentence _c_ we are told that Julia is not alone, but «in
company with» Sextus. This idea is expressed in Latin by the
ablative with the preposition «cum», and the construction is called
the «ablative of accompaniment»:
«Iūlia est cum Sextō»
_d._ In sentence _d_ we are told how the men fight. The idea is one
of «manner». This is expressed in Latin by the ablative with «cum»,
unless there is a modifying adjective present, in which case «cum»
may be omitted. This construction is called the «ablative of
manner»:
«Virī (cum) cōnstantiā magnā pugnant»
«101.» You are now able to form four important rules for the ablative
denoting _with_:
«102.» RULE. «Ablative of Cause.» _Cause is denoted by the ablative
without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what?_
«103.» RULE. «Ablative of Means.» _Means is denoted by the ablative
without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what?
With what?_
N.B. «Cum» must never be used with the ablative expressing cause or
means.
«104.» RULE. «Ablative of Accompaniment.» _Accompaniment is denoted by
the ablative with «cum». This answers the question With whom?_
«105.» RULE. «Ablative of Manner.» _The ablative with «cum» is used to
denote the manner of an action. «Cum» may be omitted, if an adjective is
used with the ablative. This answers the question How? In what manner?_
«106.» What uses of the ablative do you discover in the following
passage, and what question does each answer?
The soldiers marched to the fort with great speed and broke down the
gate with blows of their muskets. The inhabitants, terrified by the din,
attempted to cross the river with their wives and children, but the
stream was swollen with (_or_ by) the rain. Because of this many were
swept away by the waters and only a few, almost overcome with fatigue,
with great difficulty succeeded in gaining the farther shore.
«107.» EXERCISES
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.
I. _The Romans prepare for War._ Rōmānī, clārus Italiae populus, bellum
parant. Ex agrīs suīs, vicīs, oppidīsque magnō studiō virī validī ad
arma properant. Iam lēgatī cum legiōnariīs ex Italiā ad Rhēnum, fluvium
Germāniae altum et lātum, properant, et servī equīs et carrīs cibum
frūmentumque ad castra Rōmāna portant. Inopiā bonōrum tēlōrum īnfirmī
sunt Germānī, sed Rōmānī armāti galeīs, lōrīcīs, scūtīs, gladiīs,
pīlīsque sunt validī.
II. 1. The sturdy farmers of Italy labor in the fields with great
diligence. 2. Sextus, the lieutenant, and (his) son Mark are fighting
with the Germans. 3. The Roman legionaries are armed with long spears.
4. Where is Lesbia, your maid, Sextus? Lesbia is with my friends in
Galba’s cottage. 5. Many are sick because of bad water and for lack of
food. 6. The Germans, with (their) sons and daughters, are hastening
with horses and wagons.
LESSON XVI
THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES
«108.» There are nine irregular adjectives of the first and second
declensions which have a peculiar termination in the genitive and
dative singular of all genders:
MASC. FEM. NEUT.
_Gen._ -īus -īus -īus
_Dat._ -ī -ī -ī
Otherwise they are declined like «bonus, -a, -um». Learn the list and
the meaning of each:
«alius, alia, aliud», _other, another_ (of several)
«alter, altera, alterum», _the one, the other_ (of two)
«ūnus, -a, -um», _one, alone_; (in the plural) _only_
«ūllus, -a, -um», _any_
«nūllus, -a, -um», _none, no_
«sōlus, -a, -um», _alone_
«tōtus, -a, -um», _all, whole, entire_
«uter, utra, utrum», _which?_ (of two)
«neuter, neutra, neutrum», _neither_ (of two)
«109.» PARADIGMS
SINGULAR
MASC. FEM. NEUT.
_Nom._ nūllus nūlla nūllum
_Gen._ nūllī´us nūllī´us nūllī´us
_Dat._ nūllī nūllī nūllī
_Acc._ nūllum nūllam nūllum
_Abl._ nūllō nūllā nūllō
MASC. FEM. NEUT.
_Nom._ alius alia aliud
_Gen._ alī´us alī´us alī´us
_Dat._ aliī aliī aliī
_Acc._ alium aliam aliud
_Abl._ aliō aliā aliō
THE PLURAL IS REGULAR
_a._ Note the peculiar neuter singular ending in «-d» of «alius».
The genitive «alīus» is rare. Instead of it use «alterīus», the
genitive of «alter».
_b._ These peculiar case endings are found also in the declension of
pronouns (see §114). For this reason these adjectives are sometimes
called the «pronominal adjectives».
«110.» Learn the following idioms:
«alter, -era, -erum» ... «alter, -era, -erum», _the one ... the other_
(of two)
«alius, -a, -ud» ... «alius, -a, -ud», _one ... another _ (of any
number)
«aliī, -ae, -a» ... «aliī, -ae, -a», _some ... others_
EXAMPLES
1. «Alterum oppidum est magnum, alterum parvum», _the one town is
large, the other small_ (of two towns).
2. «Aliud oppidum est validum, aliud īnfīrmum», _one town is strong,
another weak_ (of towns in general).
3. «Aliī gladiōs, aliī scūta portant», _some carry swords, others
shields._
«111.» EXERCISES
I. 1. In utrā casā est Iūlia? Iūlia est in neutrā casā. 2. Nūllī malō
puerō praemium dat magister. 3. Alter puer est nauta, alter agricola.
4. Aliī virī aquam, aliī terram amant. 5. Galba ūnus (_or_ sōlus) cum
studiō labōrat. 6. Estne ūllus carrus in agrō meō? 7. Lesbia est ancilla
alterīus dominī, Tullia alterīus. 8. Lesbia sōla cēnam parat. 9. Cēna
nūllīus alterīus ancillae est bona. 10. Lesbia nūllī aliī virō cēnam
dat.
NOTE. The pronominal adjectives, as you observe, regularly stand before
and not after their nouns.
II. 1. The men of all Germany are preparing for war. 2. Some towns are
great and others are small. 3. One boy likes chickens, another horses.
4. Already the booty of one town is in our fort. 5. Our whole village is
suffering for (i.e. _weak because of_) lack of food. 6. The people are
already hastening to the other town. 7. Among the Romans (there) is no
lack of grain.
LESSON XVII
THE DEMONSTRATIVE _IS, EA, ID_
[Special Vocabulary]
NOUNS
«agrī cultūra, -ae», f., _agriculture_
«Gallia, -ae», f., _Gaul_
«domicilīum, domīci´lī», n., _dwelling place_ (domicile), _abode_
«Gallus, -i», m., _a Gaul_
«lacrima, -ae», f., _tear_
«fēmina, -ae», f., _woman_ (female)
«numerus, -ī», m., _number_ (numeral)
ADJECTIVE
«mātūrus, -a, -um», _ripe, mature_
ADVERB
quō, _whither_
VERBS
arat, _he (she, it) plows_ (arable)
«dēsīderat», _he (she, it) misses, longs for_ (desire), with acc.
CONJUNCTION
«an», _or_, introducing the second half of a double question, as
_Is he a Roman or a Gaul_, «Estne Romanus an Gallus?»
«112.» A demonstrative is a word that points out an object definitely,
as _this, that, these, those_. Sometimes these words are pronouns, as,
_Do you hear these?_ and sometimes adjectives, as, _Do you hear these
men?_ In the former case they are called «demonstrative pronouns», in
the latter «demonstrative adjectives».
«113.» Demonstratives are similarly used in Latin both as _pronouns_ and
as _adjectives_. The one used most is
«is», masculine; «ea», feminine; «id», neuter
SINGULAR: _this, that_; PLURAL: _these, those_
«114.» «Is» is declined as follows. Compare its declension with that of
«alius», §109.
BASE «e-»
SINGULAR PLURAL
MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT.
_Nom._ is ea id eī eae ea
(_or_ iī)
_Gen._ eius eius eius eōrum eārum eōrum
_Dat._ eī eī eī eīs eīs eīs
(_or_ iīs iīs iīs)
_Acc._ eum eam id eōs eās ea
_Abl._ eō eā eō eīs eīs eīs
(_or_ iīs iīs iīs)
Note that the base «e-» changes to «i-» in a few cases. The genitive
singular «eius» is pronounced _eh´yus_. In the plural the forms with two
«i»’s are preferred and the two «i»’s are pronounced as one. Hence,
pronounce «iī» as «ī» and «iīs» as «īs».
«115.» Besides being used as demonstrative pronouns and adjectives the
Latin demonstratives are regularly used for the personal pronoun _he,
she, it_. As a personal pronoun, then, «is» would have the following
meanings:
SINGULAR
_Nom._ «is», _he_; «ea», _she_; «id», _it_
_Gen._ «eius», _of him_ or _his_;
«eius», _of her, her_, or _hers_;
«eius», _of it_ or _its_
_Dat._ «eī», _to_ or _for him_;
«eī», _to_ or _for her_;
«eī», _to_ or _for it_
_Acc._ «eum», _him_; «eam», _her_; «id», _it_
_Abl._ «eō», _with, from_, etc., _him_;
«eā», _with, from_, etc., _her_;
«eō», _with, from_, etc., _it_
PLURAL
_Nom._ «eī» or «iī», «eae», «ea», _they_
_Gen._ «eōrum», «eārum», «eōrum», _of them, their_
_Dat._ «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs»,
_to_ or _for them_
_Acc._ «eōs, eās, ea», _them_
_Abl._ «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs»,
_with, from_, etc., _them_
«116.» «Comparison between _suus_ and _is_.» We learned above (§98.c)
that «suus» is a _reflexive_ possessive. When _his, her_ (poss.), _its,
their_, do not refer to the subject of the sentence, we express _his,
her, its_ by «eius», the genitive singular of «is», «ea», «id»; and
_their_ by the genitive plural, using «eōrum» to refer to a masculine
or neuter antecedent noun and «eārum» to refer to a feminine one.
EXAMPLES
_Galba calls his_ (own) _son_,
«Galba suum fīlium vocat»
_Galba calls his son_ (not his own, but another’s),
«Galba eius fīlium vocat»
_Julia calls her_ (own) _children_,
«Iūlia suōs līberōs vocat»
_Julia calls her children_ (not her own, but another’s),
«Iūlia eius līberōs vocat»
_The men praise their_ (own) _boys_,
«virī suōs puerōs laudant»
_The men praise their boys_ (not their own, but others’),
«virī eōrum puerōs laudant»
«117.» EXERCISES
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.
1. He praises her, him, it, them. 2. This cart, that report, these
teachers, those women, that abode, these abodes. 3. That strong
garrison, among those weak and sick women, that want of firmness,
those frequent plans.
4. The other woman is calling her chickens (_her own_). 5. Another woman
is calling her chickens (_not her own_). 6. The Gaul praises his arms
(_his own_). 7. The Gaul praises his arms (_not his own_). 8. This
farmer often plows their fields. 9. Those wretched slaves long for their
master (_their own_). 10. Those wretched slaves long for their master
(_not their own_). 11. Free men love their own fatherland. 12. They
love its villages and towns.
«118.» DIALOGUE[1]
CORNELIUS AND MARCUS
M. Quis est vir, Cornēlī, cum puerō parvō? Estne Rōmānus et līber?
C. Rōmānus nōn est, Mārce. Is vir est servus et eius domicilium est in
silvīs Galliae.
M. Estne puer fīlius eius servī an alterīus?
C. Neutrīus fīlius est puer. Is est fīlius lēgātī Sextī.
M. Quō puer cum eō servō properat?
C. Is cum servō properat ad lātōs Sextī agrōs.[2] Tōtum frūmentum est
iam mātūrum et magnus servōrum numerus in Italiae[3] agrīs labōrat.
M. Agricolaene sunt Gallī et patriae suae agrōs arant?
C. Nōn agricolae sunt. Bellum amant Gallī, nōn agrī cultūram. Apud eōs
virī pugnant et fēminae auxiliō līberōrum agrōs arant parantque
cibum.
M. Magister noster puerīs puellīsque grātās Gallōrum fābulās saepe
nārrat et laudat eōs saepe.
C. Mala est fortūna eōrum et saepe miserī servī multīs cum lacrimīs
patriam suam dēsīderant.
[Footnote 1: There are a number of departures from the normal order
in this dialogue. Find them, and give the reason.]
[Footnote 2: When a noun is modified by both a genitive and an
adjective, a favorite order of words is _adjective, genitive,
noun_.]
[Footnote 3: A modifying genitive often stands between a preposition
and its object.]
* * * * *
«Second Review, Lessons IX-XVII, §§506-509»
* * * * *
LESSON XVIII
«CONJUGATION»
THE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE TENSES OF «SUM»
[Special Vocabulary]
NOUNS
lūdus, -ī, m.,_school_
«socius, socī», m., _companion, ally_ (social)
ADJECTIVES
«īrātus, -a, -um», _angry, furious_ (irate)
«laetus, -a, -um», _happy, glad_ (social)
ADVERBS
hodiē, _to-day_
«ibi», _there, in that place_
mox, _presently, soon_, of the immediate future
«nunc», _now, the present moment_
«nūper», _lately, recently_, of the immediate past
«119.» The inflection of a verb is called its _conjugation_ (cf. §23).
In English the verb has but few changes in form, the different meanings
being expressed by the use of personal pronouns and auxiliaries, as,
_I am carried, we have carried, they shall have carried_, etc. In Latin,
on the other hand, instead of using personal pronouns and auxiliary
verbs, the form changes with the meaning. In this way the Romans
expressed differences in _tense, mood, voice, person_, and _number_.
«120.» «The Tenses.» The different forms of a verb referring to
different times are called its _tenses_. The chief distinctions of
time are present, past, and future:
1. «The present», that is, _what is happening now_, or
_what usually happens_, is expressed by
THE PRESENT TENSE
2. «The past», that is, _what was happening, used to happen,
happened, has happened_, or _had happened_, is expressed by
THE IMPERFECT, PERFECT, AND PLUPERFECT TENSES
3. «The future», that is, _what is going to happen_, is expressed by
THE FUTURE AND FUTURE PERFECT TENSES
«121.» «The Moods.» Verbs have inflection of _mood_ to indicate the
manner in which they express action. The moods of the Latin verb are the
_indicative, subjunctive, imperative_, and _infinitive_.
_a._ A verb is in the _indicative_ mood when it makes a statement or
asks a question about something assumed as a fact. All the verbs we
have used thus far are in the present indicative.
«122.» «The Persons.» There are three persons, as in English. The first
person is the person speaking (_I sing_); the second person the person
spoken to (_you sing_); the third person the person spoken of (_he
sings_). Instead of using personal pronouns for the different persons in
the two numbers, singular and plural, the Latin verb uses the personal
endings (cf. §22 _a_; 29). We have already learned that «-t» is the
ending of the third person singular in the active voice and «-nt» of the
third person plural. The complete list of personal endings of the active
voice is as follows:
SINGULAR PLURAL
_1st Pers._ _I_ -m or -ō _we_ -mus
_2d Pers._ _thou_ or _you_ -s _you_ -tis
_3d Pers._ _he, she, it_ -t _they_ -nt
«123.» Most verbs form their moods and tenses after a regular plan and
are called _regular_ verbs. Verbs that depart from this plan are called
_irregular_. The verb _to be_ is irregular in Latin as in English. The
present, imperfect, and future tenses of the indicative are inflected as
follows:
PRESENT INDICATIVE
SINGULAR PLURAL
_1st Pers._ su-m, _I am_ su-mus, _we are_
_2d Pers._ e-s, _you[1] are_ es-tis, _you[1] are_
_3d Pers._ es-t, _he, she_, or _it is_ su-nt, _they are_
IMPERFECT INDICATIVE
SINGULAR PLURAL
_1st Pers._ er-a-m, _I was_ er-ā´-mus, _we were_
_2d Pers._ er-ā-s, _you were_ er-ā´-tis, _you were_
_3d Pers._ er-a-t, _he, she_, or _it was_ er-a-nt, _they were_
FUTURE INDICATIVE
SINGULAR PLURAL
_1st Pers._ er-ō, _I shall be_ er´-i-mus, _we shall be_
_2d Pers._ er-i-s, _you will be_ er´-i-tis, _you will be_
_3d Pers._ er-i-t, _he will be_ er-u-nt, _they will be_
_a._ Be careful about vowel quantity and accent in these forms, and
consult §§12.2; 14; 15.
[Footnote 1: Observe that in English _you are_, _you were_, etc. may
be either singular or plural. In Latin the singular and plural forms
are never the same.]
«124.» DIALOGUE
THE BOYS SEXTUS AND MARCUS
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.
S. Ubi es, Mārce? Ubi est Quīntus? Ubi estis, amīcī?
M. Cum Quīntō, Sexte, in silvā sum. Nōn sōlī sumus; sunt in silvā
multī aliī puerī.
S. Nunc laetus es, sed nūper nōn laetus erās. Cūr miser erās?
M. Miser eram quia amīcī meī erant in aliō vicō et eram sōlus. Nunc
sum apud sociōs meōs. Nunc laetī sumus et erimus.
S. Erātisne in lūdo hodiē?
M. Hodiē nōn erāmus in lūdō, quod magister erat aeger.
S. Eritisne mox in lūdō?
M. Amīcī meī ibi erunt, sed ego (_I_) nōn erō.
S. Cūr nōn ibi eris? Magister, saepe irātus, inopiam tuam studī
dīligentiaeque nōn laudat.
M. Nūper aeger eram et nunc īnfīrmus sum.
«125.» EXERCISE
1. You are, you were, you will be, (_sing. and plur._). 2. I am, I was,
I shall be. 3. He is, he was, he will be. 4. We are, we were, we shall
be. 5. They are, they were, they will be.
6. Why were you not in school to-day? I was sick. 7. Lately he was a
sailor, now he is a farmer, soon he will be a teacher. 8. To-day I am
happy, but lately I was wretched. 9. The teachers were happy because of
the boys’ industry.
[Illustration: PUERI ROMANI IN LUDO]
LESSON XIX
THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS
PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_
«126.» There are four conjugations of the regular verbs. These
conjugations are distinguished from each other by the final vowel of the
present conjugation-stem.[1] This vowel is called the _distinguishing
vowel_, and is best seen in the present infinitive.
[Footnote 1: The _stem_ is the body of a word to which the
terminations are attached. It is often identical with the base (cf.
§58). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not
appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional
terminations. This point is further explained in §230.]
Below is given the _present infinitive_ of a verb of each conjugation,
the _present stem_, and the _distinguishing vowel._
DISTINGUISHING
CONJUGATION PRES. INFIN. PRES. STEM VOWEL
I. «amā´re», _to love_ «amā-» «ā»
II. «monē´re», _to advise_ «monē-» «ē»
III. «re´gĕre», _to rule_ «regĕ-» «ĕ»
IV. «audī´re», _to hear_ «audi-» «ī»
_a._ Note that the present stem of each conjugation is found by
dropping «-re», the ending of the present infinitive.
NOTE. The present infinitive of «sum» is «esse», and «es-» is the
present stem.
«127.» From the present stem are formed the _present_, _imperfect_, and
_future_ tenses.
«128.» The inflection of the Present Active Indicative of the first and
of the second conjugation is as follows:
«a´mō, amā´re» (_love_) «mo´neō, monē´re» (_advise_)
PRES. STEM «amā-» PRES. STEM «monē-»
SINGULAR PLURAL PERSONAL ENDINGS
1. a´mō, _I love_ mo´neō, _I advise_ -ō
2. a´mās, _you love_ mo´nēs, _you advise_ -s
3. a´mat, _he (she, it) loves_ mo´net, _he (she, it) advises_ -t
1. amā´mus, _we love_ monē´mus, _we advise_ -mus
2. amā´tis, _you love_ monē´tis, _you advise_ -tis
3. a´mant, _they love_ mo´nent, _they advise_ -nt
1. The present tense is inflected by adding the personal endings to
the present stem, and its first person uses «-o» and not «-m». The
form «amō» is for «amā-ō», the two vowels «ā-ō» contracting to «ō». In
«moneō» there is no contraction. _Nearly all regular verbs ending in
«-eo» belong to the second conjugation._
2. Note that the long final vowel of the stem is shortened before
another vowel («monē-ō» = «mo´nĕō»), and before final «-t» («amăt»,
«monĕt») and «-nt» («amănt», «monĕnt»). Compare §12.2.
«129.» Like «amō» and «moneō» inflect the present active indicative of
the following verbs[2]:
[Footnote 2: The only new verbs in this list are the five of the
second conjugation which are starred. Learn their meanings.]
INDICATIVE PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT
a´rō, _I plow_ arā´re, _to plow_
cū´rō, _I care for_ cūrā´re, _to care for_
*dē´leō, _I destroy_ dēlē´re, _to destroy_
dēsī´derō, _I long for_ dēsīderā´re, _to long for_
dō,[3] _I give_ da´re, _to give_
*ha´beō, _I have_ habē´re, _to have_
ha´bitō, _I live, I dwell_ habitā´re, _to live, to dwell_
*iu´beō, _I order_ iubē´re, _to order_
labō´rō, _I labor_ labōrā´re, _to labor_
lau´dō, _I praise_ laudā´re, _to praise_
mātū´rō, _I hasten_ mātūrā´re, _to hasten_
*mo´veō, _I move_ movē´re, _to move_
nār´rō, _I tell_ nārrā´re, _to tell_
ne´cō, _I kill_ necā´re, _to kill_
nūn´tiō, _I announce_ nūntiā´re, _to announce_
pa´rō, _I prepare_ parā´re, _to prepare_
por´tō, _I carry_ portā´re, _to carry_
pro´perō, _I hasten_ properā´re, _to hasten_
pug´nō, _I fight_ pugnā´re, _to fight_
*vi´deō, _I see_ vidē´re, _to see_
vo´cō, _I call_ vocā´re, _to call_
[Footnote 3: Observe that in «dō, dăre», the «a» is _short_, and
that the present stem is «dă-» and not «dā-». The only forms of «dō»
that have a long are «dās» (pres. indic.), «dā» (pres. imv.), and
«dāns» (pres. part.).]
«130.» «The Translation of the Present.» In English there are three ways
of expressing present action. We may say, for example, _I live, I am
living_, or _I do live_. In Latin the one expression «habitō» covers all
three of these expressions.
«131.» EXERCISES
Give the _voice_, _mood_, _tense_, _person_, and _number_ of each form.
I. 1. Vocāmus, properātis, iubent. 2. Movētis, laudās, vidēs.
3. Dēlētis, habētis, dant. 4. Mātūrās, dēsīderat, vidēmus. 5. Iubet,
movent, necat. 6. Nārrāmus, movēs, vident. 7. Labōrātis, properant,
portās, parant. 8. Dēlet, habētis, iubēmus, dās.
N.B. Observe that the personal ending is of prime importance in
translating a Latin verb form. Give that your first attention.
II. 1. We plow, we are plowing, we do plow. 2. They care for, they are
caring for, they do care for. 3. You give, you are having, you do have
(_sing_.). 4. We destroy, I do long for, they are living. 5. He calls,
they see, we are telling. 6. We do fight, we order, he is moving, he
prepares. 7. They are laboring, we kill, you announce.
LESSON XX
IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_
[Special Vocabulary]
NOUNS
«fōrma, -ae», f., _form, beauty_
«regīna, -ae», f., _queen_ (regal)
«poena, -ae», f., _punishment, penalty_
superbia, -ae, f., _pride, haughtiness_
«potentia, -ae», f., _power_ (potent)
«trīstītīa, -ae», f., _sadness, sorrow_
ADJECTIVES
«septem», indeclinable, _seven_
«superbus, -a, -um», _proud, haughty_ (superb)
CONJUNCTIONS
«nōn sōlum ... sed etiam», _not only ... but also_
«132.» «Tense Signs.» Instead of using auxiliary verbs to express
differences in tense, like _was_, _shall_, _will_, etc., Latin adds to
the verb stem certain elements that have the force of auxiliary verbs.
These are called _tense signs_.
«133.» «Formation and Inflection of the Imperfect.» The tense sign of
the imperfect is «-bā-», which is added to the present stem. The
imperfect consists, therefore, of three parts:
PRESENT STEM TENSE SIGN PERSONAL ENDING
«amā-» «ba-» «m»
_loving_ _was_ _I_
The inflection is as follows:
CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II
PERSONAL
SINGULAR ENDINGS
1. amā´bam, _I was loving_ monē´bam, _I was advising_ -m
2. amā´bās, _you were loving_ monē´bās, _you were advising_ -s
3. amā´bat, _he was loving_ monē´bat, _he was advising_ -t
PLURAL
1. amābā´mus, _we were loving_ monēbā´mus, _we were advising_ -mus
2. amābā´tis, _you were loving_ monēbā´tis, _you were advising_ -tis
3. amā´bant, _they were loving_ monē´bant, _they wereadvising_ -nt
_a._ Note that the «ā» of the tense sign «-bā-» is shortened before
«-nt», and before «m» and «t» when final. (Cf. §12.2.)
In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §129.
«134.» «Meaning of the Imperfect.» The Latin imperfect describes an
act as _going on_ or _progressing in past time_, like the English
past-progressive tense (as, _I was walking_). It is the regular tense
used to describe a past situation or condition of affairs.