Act III. of 1873. Under that system the highest rank of native Judge was

PRINCIPAL SUDDER AMEEN; the 2nd rank, SUDDER AMEEN; the 3rd, MOONSIFF. In

the new classification there are in Bengal Subordinate Judges of the 1st,

2nd and 3rd grade, and Munsiffs (see MOONSIFF) of 4 grades; in Bombay,

Subordinate Judges of the 1st class in 3 grades, and 2nd class in 4 grades;

and in Madras Subordinate Judges in 3 grades, and Munsiffs in 4 grades.

D. SUDDER STATION. The chief station of a district, viz. that where the

Collector, Judge, and other chief civil officials reside, and where their

Courts are.

c. 1340.—"The ṢADR-_Jihān_ ('Chief of the Word') _i.e._ the

ḲAḌĪ-_al-Kuḍāt_ ('Judge of Judges') (CAZEE) ... possesses ten townships,

producing a revenue of about 60,000 TANKAS. He is also called

ṢADR-AL-_Islām_."—_Shihābuddīn Dimishkī_, in _Notes et Exts._ xiii. 185.

SUFEENA, s. Hind. _safīna_. This is the native corr. of _subpoena_. It is

shaped, but not much distorted, by the existence in Hind. of the Ar. word

_safīna_ for 'a blank-book, a note-book.'

SUGAR, s. This familiar word is of Skt. origin. _Sarkara_ originally

signifies 'grit or gravel,' thence crystallised sugar, and through a

Prakrit form _sakkara_ gave the Pers. _shakkar_, the Greek σάκχαρ and

σάκχαρον, and the late Latin _saccharum_. The Ar. is _sukkar_, or with the

article _as-sukkar_, and it is probable that our modern forms, It.

_zucchero_ and _succhero_, Fr. _sucre_, Germ. _Zucker_, Eng. _sugar_, came

as well as the Sp. _azucar_, and Port. _assucar_, from the Arabic direct,

and not through Latin or Greek. The Russian is _sakhar_; Polish _zukier_;

Hung. _zukur_. In fact the ancient knowledge of the product was slight and

vague, and it was by the Arabs that the cultivation of the sugar-cane was

introduced into Egypt, Sicily, and Andalusia. It is possible indeed, and

not improbable, that palm-sugar (see JAGGERY) is a much older product than

that of the cane. [This is disputed by Watt (_Econ. Dict._ vi. pt. i. p.

31), who is inclined to fix the home of the cane in E. India.] The original

habitat of the cane is not known; there is only a slight and doubtful

statement of Loureiro, who, in speaking of Cochin-China, uses the words

"habitat et colitur," which may imply its existence in a wild state, as

well as under cultivation, in that country. De Candolle assigns its

earliest production to the country extending from Cochin-China to Bengal.

Though, as we have said, the knowledge which the ancients had of sugar was

very dim, we are disposed greatly to question the thesis, which has been so

confidently maintained by Salmasius and later writers, that the original

_saccharon_ of Greek and Roman writers was not sugar but the siliceous

concretion sometimes deposited in bamboos, and used in medieval medicine

under the name TABASHEER (q.v.) (where see a quotation from Royle, taking

the same view). It is just possible that Pliny in the passage quoted below

may have jumbled up two different things, but we see no sufficient evidence

even of this. In White's Latin Dict. we read that by the word _saccharon_

is meant (not sugar but) "a sweet juice distilling from the joints of the

bamboo." This is nonsense. There is no such sweet juice distilled from the

joints of the bamboo; nor is the substance _tabashīr_ at all sweet. On the

contrary it is slightly bitter and physicky in taste, with no approach to

sweetness. It is a hydrate of silica. It could never have been called

"honey" (see Dioscorides and Pliny below); and the name of _bamboo-sugar_

appears to have been given it by the Arabs merely because of some

resemblance of its concretions to lumps of sugar. [The same view is taken

in the _Encycl. Brit._ 9th ed. xxii. 625, quoting _Not. et Extr._, xxv.

267.] All the erroneous notices of σάκχαρον seem to be easily accounted for

by lack of knowledge; and they are exactly paralleled by the loose and

inaccurate stories about the origin of camphor, of lac, and what-not, that

may be found within the boards of this book.

In the absence or scarcity of sugar, honey was the type of sweetness, and

hence the name of _honey_ applied to sugar in several of these early

extracts. This phraseology continued down to the Middle Ages, at least in

its application to uncrystallised products of the sugar-cane, and analogous

substances. In the quotation from Pegolotti we apprehend that his three

kinds of honey indicate honey, treacle, and a syrup or treacle made from

the sweet pods of the carob-tree.

Sugar does not seem to have been in early Chinese use. The old Chinese

books often mention _shi-mi_ or 'stone-honey' as a product of India and

Persia. In the reign of Taitsung (627-650) a man was sent to Gangetic India

to learn the art of sugar-making; and Marco Polo below mentions the

introduction from Egypt of the further art of refining it. In India now,

_Chīnī_ (CHEENY) (Chinese) is applied to the whiter kinds of common sugar;

_Miṣrī_ (MISREE) or Egyptian, to sugar-candy; loaf-sugar is called _ḳand_.

c. A.D. 60.—

"Quâque ferens rapidum diviso gurgite fontem

Vastis Indus aquis mixtum non sentit Hydaspen:

Quique bibunt tenerâ dulcis ab arundine succos...."

_Lucan_, iii. 235.

" "Aiunt inveniri apud Indos mel in arundinum foliis, quod aut nos

illius cœli, aut ipsius arundinis humor dulcis et pinguis

gignat."—_Seneca, Epist._ lxxxiv.

c. A.D. 65.—"It is called σάκχαρον, and is a kind of honey which

solidifies in India, and in Arabia Felix; and is found upon canes, in its

substance resembling salt, and crunched by the teeth as salt is. Mixed

with water and drunk, it is good for the belly and stomach, and for

affections of the bladder and kidneys."—_Dioscorides, Mat. Med._ ii. c.

104.

c. A.D. 70.—"SACCHARON et Arabia fert, sed laudatius India. Est autem mel

in harundinibus collectum, cummium modo candidum, dentibus fragile,

amplissimum nucis abellanae magnitudine, ad medicinae tantum

usum."—_Plin. Hist. Nat._ xii. 8.

c. 170.—"But all these articles are hotter than is desirable, and so they

aggravate fevers, much as wine would. But _oxymeli_ alone does not

aggravate fever, whilst it is an active purgative.... Not undeservedly, I

think, that SACCHARUM may also be counted among things of this

quality...."—_Galen, Methodus Medendi_, viii.

c. 636.—"In Indicis stagnis nasci arundines calamique dicuntur, ex quorum

radicibus expressum suavissimum succum bibunt. Vnde et Varro ait:

Indica non magno in arbore crescit arundo;

Illius et lentis premitur radicibus humor,

Dulcia qui nequeant succo concedere mella."

_Isidori Hispalensis Originum_, Lib. xvii. cap. vii.

c. 1220.—"Sunt insuper in Terra (Sancta) _canamellae_ de quibus ZUCCHARA

ex compressione eliquatur."—_Jacobi Vitriaci, Hist. Jherosolym_, cap.

lxxxv.

1298.—"Bangala est une provence vers midi.... Il font grant merchandie,

car il ont espi e galanga e gingiber e SUCCARE et de maintes autres

chieres espices."—_Marco Polo_, Geog. Text, ch. cxxvi.

1298.—"Je voz di que en ceste provences" (Quinsai or Chekiang) "naist et

se fait plus SUCAR que ne fait en tout le autre monde, et ce est encore

grandissime vente."—_Ibid._ ch. cliii.

1298.—"And before this city" (a place near Fu-chau) "came under the Great

Can these people knew not how to make fine SUGAR (_zucchero_); they only

used to boil and skim the juice, which, when cold, left a black paste.

But after they came under the Great Can some men of Babylonia" (_i.e._ of

Cairo) "who happened to be at the Court proceeded to this city and taught

the people to refine SUGAR with the ashes of certain trees."—_Idem,_ in

_Ramusio_, ii. 49.

c. 1343.—"In Cyprus the following articles are sold by the hundred-weight

(_cantara di peso_) and at a price in besants: Round pepper, sugar in

powder (_polvere di_ ZUCCHERO) ... sugars in loaves (ZUCCHERI _in pani_),

bees' honey, sugar-cane honey, and carob-honey (_mele d'ape_, _mele di

cannameli_, _mele di carrube_)...."—_Pegolotti_, 64.

" "Loaf sugars are of several sorts, viz. ZUCCHERO _muchhera_,

_caffettino_, and _bambillonia_; and _musciatto_, and _dommaschino_; and

the _mucchera_ is the best sugar there is; for it is more thoroughly

boiled, and its paste is whiter, and more solid, than any other sugar; it

is in the form of the _bambillonia_ sugar like this Δ; and of this

_mucchara_ kind but little comes to the west, because nearly the whole is

kept for the mouth and for the use of the Soldan himself.

"ZUCCHERO _caffettino_ is the next best after the _muccara_ ...

"ZUCCHERO _Bambillonia_ is the best next after the best _caffettino_.

"ZUCCHERO _musciatto_ is the best after that of _Bambillonia_.

* * * * *

"ZUCCHERO _chandi_, the bigger the pieces are, and the whiter, and the

brighter, so much is it the better and finer, and there should not be too

much small stuff.

"Powdered sugars are of many kinds, as of Cyprus, of Rhodes, of the

Cranco of Monreale, and of Alexandria; and they are all made originally

in entire loaves; but as they are not so thoroughly done, as the other

sugars that keep their loaf shape ... the loaves tumble to pieces, and

return to powder, and so it is called powdered sugar ..." (and a great

deal more).—_Ibid._ 362-365. We cannot interpret most of the names in the

preceding extract. _Bambillonia_ is 'Sugar of Babylon,' _i.e._ of Cairo,

and _Dommaschino_ of Damascus. _Mucchera_ (see CANDY (SUGAR), the second

quotation), _Caffettino_, and _Musciatto_, no doubt all represent Arabic

terms used in the trade at Alexandria, but we cannot identify them.

c. 1345.—"J'ai vu vendre dans le Bengale ... un _rithl_ (ROTTLE) de sucre

(AL-SUKKAR), poids de Dihly, pour quatre drachmes."—_Ibn Batuta_, iv.

211.

1516.—"Moreover they make in this city (Bengala, _i.e._ probably

Chittagong) much and good white cane SUGAR (AÇUQUERE _branco de canas_),

but they do not know how to consolidate it and make loaves of it, so they

wrap up the powder in certain wrappers of raw hide, very well stitched

up; and make great loads of it, which are despatched for sale to many

parts, for it is a great traffic."—_Barbosa_, Lisbon ed. 362.

[1630.—"Let us have a word or two of the prices of SUGER and SUGER

CANDY."—_Forrest, Bombay Letters_, i. 5.]

1807.—"Chacun sait que par effet des regards de Farid, des monceaux de

terre se changeaient en sucre. Tel est le motif du surnom de SCHAKAR

_ganj_, 'tresor de sucre' qui lui a été donné."—_Arāish-i-Maḥfil_, quoted

by _Garcin de Tassy, Rel. Mus._ 95. (This is the saint, Farīd-uddīn

Shakarganj (d. A.D. 1268) whose shrine is at _Pāk Pattan_ in the Punjab.)

[See _Crooke, Popular Religion_, &c. i. 214 _seqq._]

1810.—"Although the sugar cane is supposed by many to be indigenous in

India, yet it has only been within the last 50 years that it has been

cultivated to any great extent.... Strange to say, the only sugar-candy

used until that time" (20 years before the date of the book) "was

received from China; latterly, however, many gentlemen have speculated

deeply in the manufacture. We now see sugar-candy of the first quality

manufactured in various places of Bengal, and I believe that it is at

least admitted that the raw sugars from that quarter are eminently

good."—_Williamson, V.M._ ii. 133.

SULTAN, s. Ar. _sulṭān_, 'a Prince, a Monarch.' But this concrete sense is,

in Arabic, post-classical only. The classical sense is abstract 'dominion.'

The corresponding words in Hebrew and Aramaic have, as usual, _sh_ or _s_.

Thus _sholṭān_ in Daniel (_e.g._ vi. 26—"in the whole dominion of my

kingdom") is exactly the same word. The concrete word, corresponding to

_sulṭān_ in its post-classical sense, is _shallīṭ_, which is applied to

Joseph in Gen. xlii. 6—"governor." So Saladin (Yūsuf Salāh-ad-dīn) was not

the first Joseph who was _sultan_ of Egypt. ["In Arabia it is a not

uncommon proper name; and as a title it is taken by a host of petty

kinglets. The Abbaside Caliphs (as Al-Wásik ...) formerly created these

Sultans as their regents. Al Tá'i bi'llah (A.D. 974) invested the famous

Sabuktagin with the office ... Sabuktagin's son, the famous Mahmúd of the

Ghaznavite dynasty in 1002, was the first to adopt 'Sultán' as an

independent title some 200 years after the death of Harún-al-Rashíd"

(_Burton, Arab. Nights_, i. 188.)]

c. 950.—"Ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς Βασιλείας Μιχαὴλ τοῦ ὑιοῦ Θεοφίλου ἀνῆλθεν ἀπὸ

Ἀφρικῆς στόλος λϛʹ κομπαρίων, ἔχων κεφαλὴν τὸν τε Σολδανὸν καὶ τὸν Σάμαν

καὶ τὸν Καλφοῦς, καὶ ἐχειρώσαντο διαφόρους πόλεις τῆς

Δαλματίας."—_Constant. Porphyrog., De Thematibus_, ii. Thēma xi.

c. 1075 (written c. 1130).—"... οἳ καὶ καθελόντες Πέρσας τε καὶ

Σαρακηνοὺς αὐτοὶ κύριοι τῆς Περσίδος γεγόνασι σουλτάνον τὸν

Στραγγολίπιδα[249] ὀνομάσαντες, ὅπερ σημαίνει παρ' αὐτοῖς Βασιλεὺς καὶ

παντοκράτωρ."—_Nicephorus Bryennius, Comment._ i. 9.

c. 1124.—"De divitiis SOLDANI mira referunt, et de incognitis speciebus

quas in oriente viderunt. SOLDANUS dicitur quasi _solus dominus_, quia

cunctis praeest Orientis principibus."—_Ordericus Vitalis, Hist. Eccles._

Lib. xi. In Paris ed. of _Le Prevost_, 1852, iv. 256-7.

1165.—"Both parties faithfully adhered to this arrangement, until it was

interrupted by the interference of Sanjar-Shah ben Shah, who governs all

Persia, and holds supreme power over 45 of its Kings. This prince is

called in Arabic SULTAN ul-Fars-al-Khabir (supreme commander of

Persia)."—_R. Benjamin_, in _Wright_, 105-106.

c. 1200.—"Endementres que ces choses coroient einsi en Antioche, li

message qui par Aussiens estoient alé au SOUDAN de Perse por demander

aide s'en retournoient."—_Guillaume de Tyr_, Old Fr. Tr. i. 174.

1298.—"Et quaint il furent là venus, adonc Bondocdaire qe SOLDAN estoit

de Babelonie vent en Armenie con grande host, et fait grand domajes por

la contrée."—_Marco Polo_, Geog. Text, ch. xiii.

1307.—"Post quam vero Turchi occupaverunt terrã illã et habitaverũt

ibidem, elegerũt dominũ super eos, et illum vocaverunt SOLDÃ quod idem

est quod rex in idiomate Latinorũ."—_Haitoni Armeni de Tartaris Liber_,

cap. xiii. in _Novus Orbis_.

1309.—"En icelle grant paour de mort où nous estiens, vindrent à nous

jusques à treize ou quatorze dou consoil dou SOUDAN, trop richement

appareillé de dras d'or et de soie, et nous firent demander (par un frere

de l'Ospital qui savoit sarrazinois), de par le SOUDAN, se nous vorriens

estre delivre, et nous deimes que oil, et ce pooient il bien

savoir."—_Joinville, Credo_. Joinville often has SOUDANC, and sometimes

SAUDANC.

1498.—"Em este lugar e ilha a que chamão Moncobiquy estava hum senhor a

que elles chamavam COLYYTAM que era como visorrey."—_Roteiro de V. da

Gama_, 26.

c. 1586.—

"Now Tamburlaine the mighty SOLDAN comes,

And leads with him the great Arabian King."

_Marlowe, Tamb. the Great_, iv. 3.

[1596.—

"... this scimitar

That slew the Sophy and a Persian prince

That won three fields of SULTAN Solyman."

_Merchant of Venice_, II. i. 26.]

SUMATRA.

A. n.p. This name has been applied to the great island since about A.D.

1400. There can be no reasonable doubt that it was taken from the very

similar name of one of the maritime principalities upon the north coast of

the island, which seems to have originated in the 13th century. The seat of

this principality, a town called _Samudra_, was certainly not far from

PASEI, the _Pacem_ of the early Portuguese writers, the _Passir_ of some

modern charts, and probably lay near the inner end of the Bay of Telo

Samawe (see notes to _Marco Polo_, 2nd ed. ii. 276 _seqq._). This view is

corroborated by a letter from C. W. J. Wenniker (_Bijdragen tot de

Taal-Land-en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indie_, ser. iv. vol. 6. (1882),

p. 298) from which we learn that in 1881 an official of Netherlands India,

who was visiting Pasei, not far from that place, and on the left bank of

the river (we presume the river which is shown in maps as entering the Bay

of Telo Samawe near Pasei) came upon a _kampong_, or village, called

Samudra. We cannot doubt that this is an indication of the site of the old

capital.

The first mention of the name is probably to be recognised in SAMARA, the

name given in the text of Marco Polo to one of the kingdoms of this coast,

intervening between _Basma_, or Pacem, and Dagroian or Dragoian, which last

seems to correspond with Pedir. This must have been the position of

Samudra, and it is probable that _d_ has disappeared accidentally from

Polo's _Samara_. Malay legends give trivial stories to account for the

etymology of the name, and others have been suggested; but in all

probability it was the Skt. _Samudra_, the 'sea.' [See _Miscellaneous

Papers relating to Indo-China_, 2nd ser. ii. 50; Leyden, _Malay Annals_,

65.] At the very time of the alleged foundation of the town a kingdom was

flourishing at Dwāra Samudra in S. India (see DOOR SUMMUND).

The first authentic occurrence of the name is probably in the Chinese

annals, which mention, among the Indian kingdoms which were prevailed on to

send tribute to Kublai Khan, that of _Sumutala_. The chief of this State is

called in the Chinese record _Tu-han-pa-ti_ (_Pauthier, Marc Pol_, 605),

which seems to exactly represent the Malay words TUAN-_Pati_, 'Lord Ruler.'

We learn next from Ibn Batuta that at the time of his visit (about the

middle of the 14th century) the State of _Sumuṭra_, as he calls it, had

become important and powerful in the Archipelago; and no doubt it was about

that time or soon after, that the name began to be applied by foreigners to

the whole of the great island, just as _Lamori_ had been applied to the

same island some centuries earlier, from _Lāmbrī_, which was then the State

and port habitually visited by ships from India. We see that the name was

so applied early in the following century by Nicolo Conti, who was in those

seas apparently c. 1420-30, and who calls the island _Shamuthera_. Fra

Mauro, who derived much information from Conti, in his famous World-Map,

calls the island _Isola Siamotra_ or _Taprobane_. The confusion with

_Taprobane_ lasted long.

When the Portuguese first reached those regions Pedir was the leading State

upon the coast, and certainly no State _known_ as Samudra or Sumatra then

continued to exist. Whether the _city_ continued to exist, even in decay,

is obscure. The _Āīn_, quoted below, refers to the "port of Sumatra," but

this may have been based on old information. Valentijn seems to recognise

the existence of a place called _Samudra_ or _Samotdara_, though it is not

entered in his map. A famous mystic theologian who flourished under the

great King of Achīn, Iskandar Muda, and died in 1630, bore the name of

Shamsuddīn Shamatrānī, which seems to point to a place called Shamatra as

his birthplace. And a distinct mention of "the island of Samatra" as named

from "a city of this northern part" occurs in the _soi-disant_ "Voyage

which Juan Serano made when he fled from Malacca" in 1512, published by

Lord Stanley of Alderley at the end of his translation of Barbosa. This

man, on leaving Pedir and going down the coast, says: "I drew towards the

south and south-east direction, and reached to another country and city

which is called Samatra," and so on. Now this indicates the position in

which the city of Sumatra must really have been, if it continued to exist.

But, though this passage is not, all the rest of the narrative seems to be

mere plunder from Varthema. Unless, indeed, the plunder was the other way;

for there is reason to believe that Varthema never went east of Malabar.

There is, however, a like intimation in a curious letter respecting the

Portuguese discoveries, written from Lisbon in 1515, by a German, Valentino

Moravia (the same probably who published a Portuguese version of Marco

Polo, at Lisbon, in 1502) and who shows an extremely accurate conception of

Indian geography. He says: "The greatest island is that called by Marco

Polo the Venetian Java Minor, and at present it is called SUMOTRA from a

port of the said island" (see in _De Gubernatis, Viagg. Ital._ 391).

It is probable that before the Portuguese epoch the adjoining States of

Pasei and Sumatra had become united. Mr. G. Phillips, of the Consular

Service in China, was good enough to send to one of the present writers,

when engaged on Marco Polo, a copy of an old Chinese chart showing the

northern coast of the island, and this showed the town of Sumatra

(_Sumantala_). It seemed to be placed in the Gulf of Pasei, and very near

where Pasei itself still exists. An extract of a Chinese account "of about

A.D. 1413" accompanied the map. This was fundamentally the same as that

quoted below from Groeneveldt. There was a village at the mouth of the

river called _Talu-mangkin_ (qu. Telu-Samawe?). A curious passage also will

be found below, extracted by the late M. Pauthier from the great Chinese

_Imperial Geography_, which alludes to the disappearance of Sumatra from

knowledge.

We are quite unable to understand the doubts that have been thrown upon the

derivation of the name, given to the island by foreigners, from that of the

kingdom of which we have been speaking (see the letter quoted above from

the _Bijdragen_).

1298.—"So you must know that when you leave the Kingdom of Basma

(_Pacem_) you come to another Kingdom called SAMARA on the same

Island."—_Marco Polo_, Bk. iii. ch. 10.

c. 1300.—"Beyond it (_Lāmūrī_, or _Lāmbrī_, near Achīn) lies the country

of SŪMŪTRA, and beyond that Darband Niās, which is a dependency of

Java."—_Rashīduddīn_, in _Elliot_, i. 71.

c. 1323.—"In this same island, towards the south, is another Kingdom by

name SUMOLTRA, in which is a singular generation of people."—_Odoric_, in

_Cathay_, &c., i. 277.

c. 1346.—"... after a voyage of 25 days we arrived at the island of Jāwa"

(_i.e._ the Java Minor of Marco Polo, or Sumatra). "... We thus made our

entrance into the capital, that is to say into the city of SUMUTHRA. It

is large and handsome, and is encompassed with a wall and towers of

timber."—_Ibn Batuta_, iv. 228-230.

1416.—"SUMATRA [Su-men-ta-la]. This country is situated on the great road

of western trade. When a ship leaves Malacca for the west, and goes with

a fair eastern wind for five days and nights, it first comes to a village

on the sea-coast called _Ta-lu-man_; and anchoring here and going

south-east for about 10 _li_ (3 miles) one arrives at the said place.

"This country has no walled city. There is a large brook running out into

the sea, with two tides every day; the waves at the mouth of it are very

high, and ships continually founder there...."—Chinese work, quoted by

_Groeneveldt_, p. 85.

c. 1430.—"He afterwards went to a fine city of the island Taprobana,

which island is called by the natives SCIAMUTHERA."—_Conti_, in _India in

XVth. Cent._, 9.

1459.—"Isola SIAMOTRA."—_Fra Mauro._

1498.—"... CAMATARRA is of the Christians; it is distant from Calicut a

voyage of 30 days with a good wind."—_Roteiro_, 109.

1510.—"Wherefore we took a junk and went towards SUMATRA to a city called

Pider."—_Varthema_, 228.

1522.—"... We left the island of Timor, and entered upon the great sea

called Lant Chidol, and taking a west-south-west course, we left to the

right and the north, for fear of the Portuguese, the island of ZUMATRA,

anciently called Taprobana; also Pegu, Bengala, Urizza, Chelim (see

KLING) where are the Malabars, subjects of the King of

NARSINGA."—_Pigafetta_, Hak. Soc. 159.

1572.—

"Dizem, que desta terra, co' as possantes

Ondas o mar intrando, dividio

A nobre ilha SAMATRA, que já d'antes

Juntas ambas a gente antigua vio:

Chersoneso foi dita, e das prestantes

Veas d'ouro, que a terra produzio,

Aurea por epithéto lhe ajuntaram

Alguns que fosse Ophir imaginarám."

_Camões_, x. 124.

By Burton:

"From this Peninsula, they say, the sea

parted with puissant waves, and entering tore

SAMATRA'S noble island, wont to be

joined to the Main as seen by men of yore.

'Twas callèd Chersonese, and such degree

it gained by earth that yielded golden ore,

they gave a golden epithet to the ground:

Some be who fancy Ophir here was found."

c. 1590.—"The _zabád_ (_i.e._ civet) which is brought from the harbour

town of _Sumatra_, from the territory of Áchín, goes by the name of

_Sumatra zabád_ (chūn az bandar-i SĀMATRĀĪ az muẓāfat-i Achīn awurdand,

SĀMATRĀĪ goyand)."—_Āīn, Blochmann_, i. 79, (orig. i. 93). [And see a

reference to Lámri in _Āīn_, ed. _Jarrett_, iii. 48.]

1612.—"It is related that Raja _Shaher-ul-Nawi_ (see SARNAU) was a

sovereign of great power, and on hearing that SAMADRA was a fine and

flourishing land he said to his warriors—which of you will take the Rajah

of Samadra?"—_Sijara Malayu_, in _J. Ind. Archip._ v. 316.

c. **.—"SOU-MEN-T'ALA est située au sud-ouest de _Tchen-tching_ (la

Cochin _Chine_) ... jusqu'à la fin du règne de _Tching-tsou_ (in 1425),

ce roi ne cessa d'envoyer son tribut à la cour. Pendant les années

_wen-hi_ (1573-1615) ce royaume se partagea en deux, dont le nouveau se

nomma _A-tchí_.... Par la suite on n'en entendit plus parler."—_Grande

Geog. Impériale_, quoted by _Pauthier_, _Marc Pol_, 567.

B.—

SUMATRA, s. Sudden squalls, precisely such as are described by Lockyer and

the others below, and which are common in the narrow sea between the Malay

Peninsula and the island of Sumatra, are called by this name.

1616.—"... it befel that the galliot of Miguel de Macedo was lost on the

Ilha Grande of Malaca (?), where he had come to anchor, when a SAMATRA

arose that drove him on the island, the vessel going to pieces, though

the crew and most part of what she carried were saved."—_Bocarro,

Decada_, 626.

1711.—"Frequent squalls ... these are often accompanied with Thunder and

Lightning, and continue very fierce for Half an Hour, more or less. Our

English Sailors call them SUMATRAS, because they always meet with them on

the Coasts of this Island."—_Lockyer_, 56.

1726.—"At Malacca the streights are not above 4 Leagues broad; for though

the opposite shore on SUMATRA is very low, yet it may easily be seen on a

clear Day, which is the Reason that the Sea is always as smooth as a

Mill-pond, except it is ruffled with Squalls of Wind, which seldom come

without Lightning, Thunder, and Rain, and though they come with great

Violence, yet they are soon over, not often exceeding an Hour."—_A.

Hamilton_, ii. 79, [ed. 1744].

1843.—"SUMATRAS, or squalls from the S. Westward, are often experienced

in the S.W. Monsoon.... SUMATRAS generally come off the land during the

first part of the night, and are sometimes sudden and severe, accompanied

with loud thunder, lightning, and rain."—_Horsburgh_, ed. 1843, ii. 215.

[SUMJAO, v. This is properly the imp. of the H. verb _samjhānā_, 'to cause

to know, warn, correct,' usually with the implication of physical coercion.

Other examples of a similar formation will be found under PUCKEROW.

[1826.—"... in this case they apply themselves to SUMJAO, the

defendant."—_Pandurang Hari_, ed. 1873, ii. 170.]

[SUMPITAN, s. The Malay blowing-tube, by means of which arrows, often

poisoned, are discharged. The weapon is discussed under SARBATANE. The word

is Malay _sumpītan_, properly 'a narrow thing,' from _sumpit_, 'narrow,

strait.' There is an elaborate account of it, with illustrations, in _Ling

Roth, Natives of Sarawak and Br. N. Borneo_, ii. 184 _seqq._ Also see

_Scott, Malayan Words_, 104 _seqq._

[c. 1630.—"SEMPITANS." See under UPAS.

[1841.—"In advancing, the SUMPITAN is carried at the mouth and elevated,

and they will discharge at least five arrows to one compared with a

musket."—_Brooke_, in _Narrative of Events in Borneo and Celebes_, i.

261.

[1883.—"Their (the Samangs') weapon is the SUMPITAN, a blow-gun, from

which poisoned arrows are expelled."—_Miss Bird, The Golden Chersonese_,

16.]

SUNDA, n.p. The western and most mountainous part of the island of Java, in

which a language different from the proper Javanese is spoken, and the

people have many differences of manners, indicating distinction of race. In

the 16th century, Java and Sunda being often distinguished, a common

impression grew up that they were separate islands; and they are so

represented in some maps of the 16th century, just as some medieval maps,

including that of Fra Mauro (1459), show a like separation between England

and Scotland. The name Sunda is more properly indeed that of the people

than of their country. The Dutch call them _Sundanese_ (Soendanezen). The

Sunda country is considered to extend from the extreme western point of the

island to Cheribon, _i.e._ embracing about one-third of the whole island of

Java. Hinduism appears to have prevailed in the Sunda country, and held its

ground longer than in "Java," a name which the proper Javanese restrict to

their own part of the island. From this country the sea between Sumatra and

Java got from Europeans the name of the Straits of Sunda. Geographers have

also called the great chain of islands from Sumatra to Timor "the Sunda

Islands."

[Mr. Whiteway adds: "There was another Sunda near Goa, but above the Ghāts,

where an offspring of the Vijāyanagara family ruled. It was founded at the

end of the 16th century, and in the 18th the Portuguese had much to do with

it, till Tippoo Sultān absorbed it, and the ruler became a Portuguese

pensioner."]

1516.—"And having passed Samatara towards Java there is the island of

SUNDA, in which there is much good pepper, and it has a king over it, who

they say desires to serve the King of Portugal. They ship thence many

slaves to China."—_Barbosa_, 196.

1526.—"Duarte Coelho in a ship, along with the galeot and a foist, went

into the port of ÇUNDA, which is at the end of the island of Çamatra, on

a separate large island, in which grows a great quantity of excellent

pepper, and of which there is a great traffic from this port to China,

this being in fact the most important merchandize exported thence. The

country is very abundant in provisions, and rich in groves of trees, and

has excellent water, and is peopled with Moors who have a Moorish king

over them."—_Correa_, iii. 92.

1553.—"Of the land of Jaüa we make two islands, one before the other,

lying west and east as if both on one parallel.... But the Jaos

themselves do not reckon two islands of Jaoa, but one only, of the length

that has been stated ... about a third in length of this island towards

the west constitutes SUNDA, of which we have now to speak. The natives of

that part consider their country to be an island divided from Jaüa by a

river, little known to our navigators, called by them Chiamo or Chenano,

which cuts off right from the sea,[250] all that third part of the land

in such a way that when these natives define the limits of Jaüa they say

that on the west it is bounded by the Island of SUNDA, and separated from

it by this river Chiamo, and on the east by the island of Bale, and that

on the north they have the island of Madura, and on the south the

unexplored sea ..." &c.—_Barros_, IV. i. 12.

1554.—"The information we have of this port of Calapa, which is the same

as ÇUMDA, and of another port called _Bocaa_, these two being 15 leagues

one from the other, and both under one King, is to the effect that the

supply of pepper one year with another will be xxx thousand

quintals,[251] that is to say, xx thousand in one year, and x thousand

the next year; also that it is very good pepper, as good as that of

Malauar, and it is purchased with cloths of Cambaya, Bengalla, and

Choromandel."—_A. Nunez_, in _Subsidios_, 42.

1566.—"SONDA, vn Isola de' Mori appresso la costa della Giava."—_Ces.

Federici_, in _Ramusio_, iii. 391_v_.

c. 1570.—

"Os SUNDAS e Malaios con pimenta,

Con massa, e noz ricos Bandanezes,

Com roupa e droga Cambaia a opulenta,

E com cravo os longinquos Maluguezes."

_Ant. de Abreu, Desc. de Malaca._

1598.—Linschoten does not recognize the two islands. To him Sunda is only

a place in Java:—

"... there is a straight or narrow passage betweene _Sumatra_ and _Iaua_,

called the straight of SUNDA, of a place so called, lying not far from

thence within the Ile of _Iaua_.... The principall hauen in the Iland is

SUNDA Calapa,[252] whereof the straight beareth the name; in this place

of SŨDA there is much Pepper."—p. 34.

SUNDERBUNDS, n.p. The well-known name of the tract of intersecting creeks

and channels, swampy islands, and jungles, which constitutes that part of

the Ganges Delta nearest the sea. The limits of the region so-called are

the mouth of the Hoogly on the west, and that of the Megna (_i.e._ of the

combined great Ganges and Brahmaputra) on the east, a width of about 220

miles. The name appears not to have been traced in old native documents of

any kind, and hence its real form and etymology remain uncertain.

_Sundara-vana_, 'beautiful forest'; _Sundarī-vana_, or _-ban_, 'forest of

the _Sundarī_ tree'; _Chandra-ban_, and _Chandra-band_, 'moon-forest' or

'moon-embankment'; _Chanda-bhanda_, the name of an old tribe of

salt-makers;[253] _Chandra dīp-ban_ from a large zemindary called

Chandra-dīp in the Bakerganj district at the eastern extremity of the

Sunderbunds; these are all suggestions that have been made. Whatever be the

true etymology, we doubt if it is to be sought in _sundara_ or _sundarī_.

[As to the derivation from the _Sundarī_ tree which is perhaps most usually

accepted, Mr. Beveridge (_Man. of Bakarganj_, 24, 167, 32) remarks that

this tree is by no means common in many parts of the Bakarganj Sunderbunds;

he suggests that the word means 'beautiful wood' and was possibly given by

the Brahmans.] The name has never (except in one quotation below) been in

English mouths, or in English popular orthography, _Soonderbunds_, but

_Sunderbunds_, which implies (in correct transliteration) an original

_sandra_ or _chandra_, not _sundara_. And going back to what we conjecture

may be an early occurrence of the name in two Dutch writers, we find this

confirmed. These two writers, it will be seen, both speak of a famous

SANDERY, or _Santry_, Forest in Lower Bengal, and we should be more

positive in our identification were it not that in Van der Broucke's map

(1660) which was published in Valentijn's _East Indies_ (1726) this Sandery

Forest is shown on the _west_ side of the Hoogly R., in fact about due west

of the site of Calcutta, and a little above a place marked as _Basanderi_,

located near the exit into the Hoogly of what represents the old Saraswati

R., which enters the former at Sānkrāl, not far below the Botanical

Gardens, and 5 or 6 miles below Fort William. This has led Mr. Blochmann to

identify the _Sanderi Bosch_ with the old Mahall _Basandhari_ which appears

in the _Āīn_ as belonging to the Sirkār of Sulīmānābād (_Gladwin's Ayeen_,

ii. 207, _orig._ i. 407; _Jarrett_, ii. 140; _Blochm._ in _J.A.S.B._ xlii.

pt. i. p. 232), and which formed one of the original "xxiv.

Pergunnas."[254] Undoubtedly this is the _Basanderi_ of V. den Broucke's

map; but it seems possible that some confusion between _Basanderi_ and

Bosch Sandery (which would be _Sandarban_ in the vernacular) may have led

the map-maker to misplace the latter. We should gather from Schulz[255]

that he passed the Forest of Sandry about a Dutch mile below Sankral, which

he mentions. But his statement is so nearly identical with that in

Valentijn that we apprehend they have no _separate_ value. Valentijn, in an

earlier page, like Bernier, describes the Sunderbunds as the resort of the

Arakan pirates, but does not give a name (p. 169).

1661.—"We got under sail again" (just after meeting the Arakan pirates)

"in the morning early, and went past the FOREST OF SANTRY, so styled

because (as has been credibly related) Alexander the Great with his

mighty army was hindered by the strong rush of the ebb and flood at this

place, from advancing further, and therefore had to turn back to

Macedonia."—_Walter Schulz_, 155.

c. 1666.—"And thence it is" (from piratical raids of the Mugs, &c.) "that

at present there are seen in the mouth of the _Ganges_, so many fine

Isles quite deserted, which were formerly well peopled, and where no

other Inhabitants are found but wild Beasts, and especially

Tygers."—_Bernier_, E.T. 54; [ed. _Constable_, 442].

1726.—"This (Bengal) is the land wherein they will have it that Alexander

the Great, called by the Moors, whether Hindostanders or Persians,

_Sulthaan Iskender_, and in their historians _Iskender Doulcarnain_, was

... they can show you the exact place where King Porus held his court.

The natives will prate much of this matter; for example, that in front of

the SANDERIE-WOOD (_Sanderie Bosch_, which we show in the map, and which

they call properly after him _Iskenderie_) he was stopped by the great

and rushing streams."—_Valentijn_, v. 179.

1728.—"But your petitioners did not arrive off SUNDERBUND WOOD till four

in the evening, where they rowed backward and forward for six days; with

which labour and want of provisions three of the people died."—_Petition

of Sheik Mahmud Ameen and others_, to Govr. of Ft. St. Geo., in

_Wheeler_, iii. 41.

1764.—"On the 11th Bhaudan, whilst the Boats were at Kerma in

SOONDERBUND, a little before daybreak, Captain Ross arose and ordered the

MANJEE to put off with the BUDGEROW...."—_Native Letter regarding Murder

of Captain John Ross by a Native Crew._ In _Long_, 383. This instance is

an exception to the general remark made above that the English popular

orthography has always been _Sunder_, and not _Soonder-bunds_.

1786.—"If the Jelinghy be navigable we shall soon be in Calcutta; if not,

we must pass a second time through the SUNDARBANS."—Letter of _Sir W.

Jones_, in _Life_, ii. 83.

" "A portion of the SUNDERBUNDS ... for the most part overflowed by

the tide, as indicated by the original Hindoo name of CHUNDERBUND,

signifying mounds, or offspring of the moon."—_James Grant_, in App. to

_Fifth Report_, p. 260. In a note Mr. Grant notices the derivation from

"Soondery wood," and "Soonder-ban," 'beautiful wood,' and proceeds: "But

we adhere to our own etymology rather ... above all, because the richest

and greatest part of the SUNDERBUNDS is still comprized in the ancient

Zemindarry pergunnah of _Chunder deep_, or lunar territory."

1792.—"Many of these lands, what is called the SUNDRA BUNDS, and others

at the mouth of the Ganges, if we may believe the history of Bengal, was

formerly well inhabited."—_Forrest, V. to Mergui_, Pref. p. 5.

1793.—"That part of the delta bordering on the sea, is composed of a

labyrinth of rivers and creeks, ... this tract known by the name of the

Woods, or SUNDERBUNDS, is in extent equal to the principality of

Wales."—_Rennell, Mem. of Map of Hind._, 3rd ed., p. 359.

1853.—"The scenery, too, exceeded his expectations; the terrible forest

solitude of the SUNDERBUNDS was full of interest to an European

imagination."—_Oakfield_, i. 38.

[SUNGAR, s. Pers. _sanga_, _sang_, 'a stone.' A rude stone breastwork, such

as is commonly erected for defence by the Afrīdīs and other tribes on the

Indian N.W. frontier. The word has now come into general military use, and

has been adopted in the S. African war.

[1857.—"... breastworks of wood and stone (_murcha_ and SANGA

respectively)...."—_Bellew, Journal of Mission_, 127.

[1900.—"Conspicuous SUNGARS are constructed to draw the enemy's

fire."—_Pioneer Mail_, March 16.]

The same word seems to be used in the Hills in the sense of a rude wooden

bridge supported by stone piers, used for crossing a torrent.

[1833.—"Across a deep ravine ... his Lordship erected a neat SANGAH, or

mountain bridge of pines."—_Mundy, Pen and Pencil Sketches_, ed. 1858, p.

117.

[1871.—"A SUNGHA bridge is formed as follows: on either side the river

piers of rubble masonry, laced with cross-beams of timber, are built up;

and into these are inserted stout poles, one above the other in

successively projecting tiers, the interstices between the latter being

filled up with cross-beams," &c.—_Harcourt, Himalayan Districts of

Kooloo_, p. 67 _seq._]

SUNGTARA, s. Pers. _sangtara_. The name of a kind of orange, probably from

_Cintra_. See under ORANGE a quotation regarding the fruit of Cintra, from

Abulfeda.

c. 1526.—"The SENGTEREH ... is another fruit.... In colour and appearance

it is like the citron (_Tāranj_), but the skin of the fruit is

smooth."—_Baber_, 328.

c. 1590.—"Sirkar Silhet is very mountainous.... Here grows a delicious

fruit called SOONTARA (_sūntara_) in colour like an orange, but of an

oblong form."—_Ayeen_, by _Gladwin_, ii. 10; [_Jarrett_ (ii. 124) writes

SÚNTARAH].

1793.—"The people of this country have infinitely more reason to be proud

of their oranges, which appear to me to be very superior to those of

Silhet, and probably indeed are not surpassed by any in the world. They

are here called _Santôla_, which I take to be a corruption of SENGTERRAH,

the name by which a similar species of orange is known in the Upper

Provinces of India."—_Kirkpatrick's Nepaul_, 129.

1835.—"The most delicious oranges have been procured here. The rind is

fine and thin, the flavour excellent; the natives call them

'CINTRA.'"—_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, ii. 99.

SUNN, s. Beng. and Hind. _san_, from Skt. _śaṇa_; the fibre of the

_Crotalaria juncea_, L. (N.O. _Leguminosae_); often called Bengal, or

Country, hemp. It is of course in no way kindred to true hemp, except in

its economic use. In the following passage from the _Āīn_ the reference is

to the _Hibiscus canabinus_ (see _Watt, Econ. Dict._ ii. 597).

[c. 1590.—"Hemp grows in clusters like a nosegay.... One species bears a

flower like the cotton-shrub, and this is called in Hindostan,

SUN-_paut_. It makes a very soft rope."—_Ayeen_, by _Gladwin_, ii. 89; in

_Blochmann_ (i. 87) _Pat_SAN.]

1838.—"SUNN ... a plant the bark of which is used as hemp, and is usually

sown around cotton fields."—_Playfair, Taleef-i-Shereef_, 96.

[SUNNEE, SOONNEE, s. Ar. _sunnī_, which is really a Pers. form and stands

for that which is expressed by the Ar. _Ahlu's-Sunnah_, 'the people of the

Path,' a 'Traditionist.' The term applied to the large Mahommedan sect who

acknowledge the first four Khalīfahs to have been the rightful descendants

of the Prophet, and are thus opposed to the SHEEAHS. The latter are much

less numerous than the former, the proportion being, according to Mr.

Wilfrid Blunt's estimate, 15 millions Shiahs to 145 millions of Sunnis.

[c. 1590.—"The Mahommedans (of Kashmīr) are partly SUNNIES, and others of

the sects of Aly and Noorbukhshy; and they are frequently engaged in wars

with each other."—_Ayeen_, by _Gladwin_, ii. 125; ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 352.

[1623.—"The other two ... are SONNI, as the Turks and Moghol."—_P. della

Valle_, Hak. Soc. i. 152.

[1812.—"A fellow told me with the gravest face, that a lion of their own

country would never hurt a SHEYAH ... but would always devour a

SUNNI."—_Morier, Journey through Persia_, 62.]

SUNNUD, s. Hind. from Ar. _sanad_. A diploma, patent, or deed of grant by

the government of office, privilege, or right. The corresponding Skt.—H. is

_śāsana_.

[c. 1590.—"A paper authenticated by proper signatures is called a

SUNNUD...."—_Ayeen_, by _Gladwin_, i. 214; ed. _Blochmann_, i. 259.]

1758.—"They likewise brought SUNNUDS, or the commission for the

nabobship."—_Orme_, _Hist._, ed. 1803, ii. 284.

1759.—"That your Petitioners, being the Bramins, &c. ... were permitted

by SUNNUD from the President and Council to collect daily alms from each

shop or doocan (DOOCAUN) of this place, at 5 cowries per diem."—In

_Long_, 184.

1776.—"If the path to and from a House ... be in the Territories of

another Person, that Person, who always hath passed to and fro, shall

continue to do so, the other Person aforesaid, though he hath a Right of

Property in the Ground, and hath an attested SUNNUD thereof, shall not

have Authority to cause him any Let or Molestation."—_Halhed, Code_,

100-101.

1799.—"I enclose you SUNNUDS for pension for the KILLADAR of

Chittledroog."—_Wellington_, i. 45.

1800.—"I wished to have traced the nature of landed property in Soondah

... by a chain of SUNNUDS up to the 8th century."—_Sir T. Munro_, in

_Life_, i. 249.

1809.—"This SUNNUD is the foundation of all the rights and privileges

annexed to a Jageer (JAGHEER)."—_Harrington's Analysis_, ii. 410.

SUNYÁSEE, s. Skt. _sannyāsī_, lit. 'one who resigns, or abandons,' _scil._

'wordly affairs'; a Hindu religious mendicant. The name of Sunnyásee was

applied familiarly in Bengal, c. 1760-75, to a body of banditti claiming to

belong to a religious fraternity, who, in the interval between the decay of

the imperial authority and the regular establishment of our own, had their

head-quarters in the forest-tracts at the foot of the Himālaya. From these

they used to issue periodically in large bodies, plundering and levying

exactions far and wide, and returning to their asylum in the jungle when

threatened with pursuit. In the days of Nawāb Mīr Kāsim 'Ali (1760-64) they

were bold enough to plunder the city of Dacca; and in 1766 the great

geographer James Rennell, in an encounter with a large body of them in the

territory of Koch (see COOCH) Bihār, was nearly cut to pieces. Rennell

himself, five years later, was employed to carry out a project which he had

formed for the suppression of these bands, and did so apparently with what

was considered at the time to be success, though we find the depredators

still spoken of by W. Hastings as active, two or three years later.

[c. 200 A.D.—"Having thus performed religious acts in a forest during the

third portion of his life, let him become a SANNYASI for the fourth

portion of it, abandoning all sensual affection."—_Manu_, vi. 33.

[c. 1590.—"The fourth period is SANNYÁSA, which is an extraordinary state

of austerity that nothing can surpass.... Such a person His Majesty calls

SANNYÁSÍ."—_Āīn_, ed. _Jarrett_, iii. 278.]

1616.—"Sunt autem SANASSES apud illos Brachmanes quidam, sanctimoniae

opinione habentes, ab hominum scilicet consortio semoti in solitudine

degentes et nonnunquã totũ nudi corpus in publicũ prodeuntes."—_Jarric,

Thes._ i. 663.

1626.—"Some (an vnlearned kind) are called SANNASES."—_Purchas,

Pilgrimage_, 549.

1651.—"The SANYASYS are people who set the world and worldly joys, as

they say, on one side. These are indeed more precise and strict in their

lives than the foregoing."—_Rogerius_, 21.

1674.—"SANIADE, or SANIASI, is a dignity greater than that of

Kings."—_Faria y Sousa, Asia Port._ ii. 711.

1726.—"The SAN-YASÉS are men who, forsaking the world and all its fruits,

betake themselves to a very strict and retired manner of

life."—_Valentijn, Choro._ 75.

1766.—"The SANASHY Faquirs (part of the same Tribe which plundered Dacca

in Cossim Ally's Time[256]) were in arms to the number of 7 or 800 at the

Time I was surveying Báár (a small Province near Boutan), and had taken

and plundered the Capital of that name within a few Coss of my route....

I came up with Morrison immediately after he had defeated the SANASHYS in

a pitched Battle.... Our Escorte, which were a few Horse, rode off, and

the Enemy with drawn Sabres immediately surrounded us. Morrison escaped

unhurt, Richards, my Brother officer, received only a slight Wound, and

fought his Way off; my Armenian Assistant was killed, and the Sepoy

Adjutant much wounded.... I was put in a Palankeen, and Morrison made an

attack on the Enemy and cut most of them to Pieces. I was now in a most

shocking Condition indeed, being deprived of the Use of both my Arms, ...

a cut of a Sable (_sic_) had cut through my right Shoulder Bone, and laid

me open for nearly a Foot down the Back, cutting thro' and wounding some

of my Ribs. I had besides a Cut on the left Elbow wh^{ch} took off the

Muscular part of the breadth of a Hand, a Stab in the Arm, and a large

Cut on the head...."—MS. Letter from _James Rennell_, dd. August 30, in

possession of his grandson _Major Rodd_.

1767.—"A body of 5000 SINNASSES have lately entered the Sircar Sarong

country; the Phousdar sent two companies of Sepoys after them, under the

command of a serjeant ... the SINNASSES stood their ground, and after the

Sepoys had fired away their ammunition, fell on them, killed and wounded

near 80, and put the rest to flight...."—Letter to _President at Ft.

William_, from _Thomas Rumbold, Chief at Patna_, dd. April 20, in _Long_,

p. 526.

1773.—"You will hear of great disturbances committed by the SINASSIES, or

wandering Fackeers, who annually infest the provinces about this time of

the year, in pilgrimage to Juggernaut, going in bodies of 1000 and

sometimes even 10,000 men."—Letter of _Warren Hastings_, dd. February 2,

in _Gleig_, i. 282.

" "At this time we have five battalions of Sepoys in pursuit of

them."—Do. do., March 31, in _Gleig_, i. 294.

1774.—"The history of these people is curious.... They ... rove

continually from place to place, recruiting their numbers with the

healthiest children they can steal.... Thus they are the stoutest and

most active men in India.... Such are the SENASSIES, the gypsies of

Hindostan."—Do. do., dd. August 25, in _Gleig_, 303-4. See the same vol.,

also pp. 284, 296-7-8, 395.

1826.—"Being looked upon with an evil eye by many persons in society, I

pretended to bewail my brother's loss, and gave out my intention of

becoming a SUNYASSE, and retiring from the world."—_Pandurang Hari_, 394;

[ed. 1873, ii. 267; also i. 189].

SUPÁRA, n.p. The name of a very ancient port and city of Western India; in

Skt. _Sūrpāraka_,[257] popularly Supāra. It was near Wasāi (_Baçaim_ of the

Portuguese—see (1) BASSEIN)—which was for many centuries the chief city of

the Konkan, where the name still survives as that of a well-to-do town of

1700 inhabitants, the channel by which vessels in former days reached it

from the sea being now dry. The city is mentioned in the _Mahābhārata_ as a

very holy place, and in other old Sanskrit works, as well as in cave

inscriptions at Kārlī and Nāsik, going back to the 1st and 2nd centuries of

the Christian era. Excavations affording interesting Buddhist relics, were

made in 1882 by Mr. (now Sir) J. M. Campbell (see his interesting notice in

_Bombay Gazetteer_, xiv. 314-342; xvi. 125) and Pundit Indrajī Bhagwānlāl.

The name of Supāra is one of those which have been plausibly connected,

through _Sophir_, the Coptic name of India, with the _Ophir_ of Scripture.

Some Arab writers call it the Sofāla of India.

c. A.D. 80-90.—"Τοπικὰ δὲ ἐμπόρια κατὰ τὸ ἐξῆς κείμενα ἀπὸ Βαρυγάζων,

Σούππαρα, καὶ Καλλιένα πόλις ..."—_Periplus_, § 52, ed. _Fabricii_.

c. 150.—

"Ἀριακῆς Σαδινῶν

Σουπάρα ...

Γοάριος ποταμοῦ ἐκβολαι ...

Δοῦγγα ...

Βήνδα ποταμοῦ ἐκβολαί ...

Σίμυλλα ἐμπόριον καὶ ἄκρα...."

_Ptolemy_, VII. i. f. § 6.

c. 460.—"The King compelling Wijayo and his retinue, 700 in number, to

have the half of their heads shaved, and having embarked them in a

vessel, sent them adrift on the ocean.... Wijayo himself landed at the

port of SUPPÂRAKA...."—_The Mahawanso_, by _Turnour_, p. 46.

c. 500.—"Σουφείρ, χώρα, ἐν ᾗ οἱ πολύτιμοι λίθοι, καὶ ὁ χρυσός, ἐν

Ἰνδίᾳ."—_Hesychius_, s.v.

c. 951.—"Cities of Hind ... Kambáya, SUBÁRÁ, Sindán."—_Istakhri_, in

_Elliot_, i. 27.

A.D. 1095.—"The Mahâmândalîka, the illustrious Anantadêva, the Emperor of

the Koṅkan (CONCAN), has released the toll mentioned in this copper-grant

given by the Sîlâras, in respect of every cart belonging to two persons

... which may come into any of the ports, Sri Sthânaka (TANA), as well as

Nâgapur, SURPÂRAKA, Chemuli (CHAUL) and others, included within the

Koṅkan Fourteen Hundred...."—_Copper-Plate Grant_, in _Ind. Antiq._ ix.

38.

c. 1150.—"SÚBÁRA is situated 1½ mile from the sea. It is a populous busy

town, and is considered one of the entrepôts of India."—_Edrisi_, in

_Elliot_, i. 85.

1321.—"There are three places where the Friars might reap a great

harvest, and where they could live in common. One of these is SUPERA,

where two friars might be stationed; and a second is in the district of

Parocco (BROACH), where two or three might abide; and the third is

Columbus (QUILON)."—Letter of _Fr. Jordanus_, in _Cathay_, &c., 227.

c. 1330.—"SUFÂLAH Indica. Birunio nominatur SÛFÂRAH.... De eo nihil

commemorandum inveni."—_Abulfeda_, in _Gildemeister_, 189.

1538.—"Rent of the _caçabe_ (CUSBAH), of ÇUPARA ... 14,122 _fedeas_."—_S.

Bothelho, Tombo_, 175.

1803.—Extract from a letter dated Camp SOOPARA, March 26, 1803.

"We have just been paying a formal visit to his highness the peishwa,"

&c.—In _Asiatic Annual Reg._ for 1803, _Chron._ p. 99.

1846.—"SOPARA is a large place in the Agasee mahal, and contains a

considerable Mussulman population, as well as Christian and Hindoo ...

there is a good deal of trade; and grain, salt, and garden produce are

exported to Guzerat and Bombay."—_Desultory Notes_, by _John Vaupell,

Esq._, in _Trans. Bo. Geog. Soc._ vii. 140.

SUPREME COURT. The designation of the English Court established at Fort

William by the Regulation Act of 1773 (13 Geo. III. c. 63), and afterwards

at the other two Presidencies. Its extent of jurisdiction was the subject

of acrimonious controversies in the early years of its existence;

controversies which were closed by 21 Geo. III. c. 70, which explained and

defined the jurisdiction of the Court. The use of the name came to an end

in 1862 with the establishment of the 'High Court,' the bench of which is

occupied by barrister judges, judges from the Civil Service, and judges

promoted from the native bar.

The Charter of Charles II., of 1661, gave the Company certain powers to

administer the laws of England, and that of 1683 to establish Courts of

Judicature. That of Geo. I. (1726) gave power to establish at each

Presidency Mayor's Courts for civil suits, with appeal to the Governor and

Council, and from these, in cases involving more than 1000 PAGODAS, to the

King in Council. The same charter constituted the Governor and Council of

each Presidency a Court for trial of all offences except high treason.

Courts of Requests were established by charter of Geo. II., 1753. The

Mayor's Court at Madras and Bombay survived till 1797, when (by 37 Geo.

III. ch. 142) a Recorder's Court was instituted at each. This was

superseded at Madras by a Supreme Court in 1801, and at Bombay in 1823.

SURA, s. TODDY (q.v.), _i.e._ the fermented sap of several kinds of palm,

such as coco, palmyra, and wild-date. It is the Skt. _sura_, 'vinous

liquor,' which has passed into most of the vernaculars. In the first

quotation we certainly have the word, though combined with other elements

of uncertain identity, applied by Cosmas to the milk of the coco-nut,

perhaps making some confusion between that and the fermented sap. It will

be seen that Linschoten applies _sura_ in the same way. Bluteau, curiously,

calls this a _Caffre_ word. It has in fact been introduced from India into

Africa by the Portuguese (see _Ann. Marit._ iv. 293).

c. 545.—"The Argell" (_i.e._ _Nargil_, or NARGEELA, or coco-nut) "is at

first full of very sweet water, which the Indians drink, using it instead

of wine. This drink is called _Rhonco_-SURA,[258] and is exceedingly

pleasant."—_Cosmas_, in _Cathay_, &c., clxxvi.

[1554.—"CURA." See under ARRACK.]

1563.—"They grow two qualities of palm-tree, one kind for the fruit, and

the other to give ÇURA."—_Garcia_, f. 67.

1578.—"SURA, which is, as it were, _vino mosto_."—_Acosta_, 100.

1598.—"... in that sort the pot in short space is full of water, which

they call SURA, and is very pleasant to drinke, like sweet whay, and

somewhat better."—_Linschoten_, 101; [Hak. Soc. ii. 48].

1609-10.—"... A goodly country and fertile ... abounding with Date Trees,

whence they draw a liquor, called _Tarree_ (TODDY) or SURE...."—_W.

Finch_, in _Purchas_, i. 436.

1643.—"Là ie fis boire mes mariniers de telle sorte que peu s'en falut

qu'ils ne renuersassent notre almadie ou batteau: Ce breuvage estoit du

SURA, qui est du vin fait de palmes."—_Mocquet, Voyages_, 252.

c. 1650.—"Nor could they drink either Wine, or SURY, or Strong Water, by

reason of the great Imposts which he laid upon them."—_Tavernier_, E.T.

ii. 86; [ed. _Ball_, i. 343].

1653.—"Les Portugais appelent ce _tari_ ou vin des Indes, SOURE ... de

cette liqueur le singe, et la grande chauue-souris ... sont extremement

amateurs, aussi bien que les Indiens Mansulmans (_sic_), Parsis, et

quelque tribus d'Indou...."—_De la Boullaye-le-Gouz_, ed. 1657, 263.

SURAT, n.p. In English use the name of this city is accented _Surátt_; but

the name is in native writing and parlance generally _Sŭrăt_. In the _Āīn_,

however (see below), it is written _Sūrat_; also in _Ṣādiḳ Isfahānī_ (p.

106). Surat was taken by Akbar in 1573, having till then remained a part of

the falling Mahommedan kingdom of Guzerat. An English factory was first

established in 1608-9, which was for more than half a century the chief

settlement of the English Company in Continental India. The transfer of the

Chiefs to Bombay took place in 1687.

We do not know the origin of the name. Various legends on the subject are

given in Mr. (now Sir J.) Campbell's _Bombay Gazetteer_ (vol. ii.), but

none of them have any probability. The ancient Indian _Saurāshṭra_ was the

name of the Peninsula of Guzerat or Kattywar, or at least of the maritime

part of it. This latter name and country is represented by the differently

spelt and pronounced _Sōrath_ (see SŪRATH). Sir Henry Elliot and his editor

have repeatedly stated the opinion that the names are identical. Thus: "The

names 'Surat' and 'Sūrath' are identical, both being derived from the

Sankrit _Suráshtra_; but as they belong to different places a distinction

in spelling has been maintained. 'Surat' is the city; 'Súrath' is a _pránt_

or district of Kattiwar, of which Junágarh is the chief town" (_Elliot_, v.

350; see also 197). Also: "The Sanskrit _Suráshtra_ and _Gurjjara_ survive

in the modern names _Surat_ and _Guzerat_, and however the territories

embraced by the old terms have varied, it is hard to conceive that Surat

was not in Suráshtra nor Guzerat in Gurjjara. All evidence goes to prove

that the old and modern names applied to the same places. Thus Ptolemy's

_Surastrene_ comprises Surat...." (_Dowson_ (?) _ibid._ i. 359). This last

statement seems distinctly erroneous. Surat is in Ptolemy's Λάρικη, not in

Συραστρηνή, which represents, like Saurāshtra, the peninsula. It must

remain doubtful whether there was any connection between the names, or the

resemblance was accidental. It is possible that continental Surat may have

originally had some name implying its being the place of passage to

_Saurāshtra_ or Sorath.

Surat is not a place of any antiquity. There are some traces of the

existence of the name ascribed to the 14th century, in passages of

uncertain value in certain native writers. But it only came to notice as a

place of any importance about the very end of the 15th century, when a rich

Hindu trader, Gopi by name, is stated to have established himself on the

spot, and founded the town. The way, however, in which it is spoken of by

Barbosa previous to 1516 shows that the rise of its prosperity must have

been rapid.

[_Surat_ in English slang is equivalent to the French _Rafiot_, in the

sense of 'no great shakes,' an adulterated article of inferior quality

(_Barrére_, s.v. _Rafiot_). This perhaps was accounted for by the fact that

"until lately the character of Indian cotton in the Liverpool market stood

very low, and the name '_Surats_,' the description under which the cotton

of this province is still included, was a byword and a general term of

contempt" (_Berar Gazetteer_, 226 _seq._).]

1510.—"Don Afonso" (de Noronha, nephew of Alboquerque) "in the storm not

knowing whither they went, entered the Gulf of Cambay, and struck upon a

shoal in front of ÇURRATE. Trying to save themselves by swimming or on

planks many perished, and among them Don Afonso."—_Correa_, ii. 29.

1516.—"Having passed beyond the river of Reynel, on the other side there

is a city which they call ÇURATE, peopled by Moors, and close upon the

river; they deal there in many kinds of wares, and carry on a great

trade; for many ships of Malabar and other parts sail thither, and sell

what they bring, and return loaded with what they choose...."—_Barbosa_,

Lisbon ed. 280.

1525.—"The corjaa (CORGE) of cotton cloths of ÇURYATE, of 14 yards each,

is worth ... 250 _fedeas_."—_Lembrança_, 45.

1528.—"Heytor da Silveira put to sea again, scouring the Gulf, and making

war everywhere with fire and sword, by sea and land; and he made an

onslaught on ÇURRATE and Reynel, great cities on the sea-coast, and

sacked them, and burnt part of them, for all the people fled, they being

traders and without a garrison...."—_Correa_, iii. 277.

1553.—"Thence he proceeded to the bar of the river Tapty, above which

stood two cities the most notable on that gulf. The first they call

SURAT, 3 leagues from the mouth, and the other Reiner, on the opposite

side of the river and half a league from the bank.... The latter was the

most sumptuous in buildings and civilisation, inhabited by warlike

people, all of them Moors inured to maritime war, and it was from this

city that most of the foists and ships of the King of Cambay's fleet were

furnished. SURAT again was inhabited by an unwarlike people whom they

call Banyans, folk given to mechanic crafts, chiefly to the business of

weaving cotton cloths."—_Barros_, IV. iv. 8.

1554.—"So saying they quitted their rowing-benches, got ashore, and

started for SURRAT."—_Sidi 'Ali_, p. 83.

1573.—"Next day the Emperor went to inspect the fortress.... During his

inspection some large mortars and guns attracted his attention. Those

mortars bore the name of Sulaimání, from the name of Sulaimán Sultán of

Turkey. When he made his attempt to conquer the ports of Gujarát, he sent

these ... with a large army by sea. As the Turks ... were obliged to

return, they left these mortars.... The mortars remained upon the

sea-shore, until Khudáwand Khán built the fort of SURAT, when he placed

them in the fort. The one which he left in the country of SÚRATH was

taken to the fort of Junágarh by the ruler of that

country."—_Ṭabaḳāt-i-Akbarī_, in _Elliot_, v. 350.

c. 1590.—"SŪRAT is among famous ports. The river Taptī runs hard by, and

at seven coss distance joins the salt sea. Rānīr on the other side of the

river is now a port dependent on SŪRAT, but was formerly a big city. The

ports of Khandevī and Balsār are also annexed to SŪRAT. Fruit, and

especially the ANANĀS, is abundant.... The sectaries of Zardasht,

emigrant from Fārs, have made their dwelling here; they revere the Zhand

and Pazhand and erect their _dakhmas_ (or places for exposing the

dead).... Through the carelessness of the agents of Government and the

commandants of the troops (_sipah-salārān_, SIPAH SELAR), a considerable

tract of this Sirkār is at present in the hands of the Frank, _e.g._

Daman, Sanjān (ST. JOHN'S), Tārāpūr, Māhim, and Basai (see (1) BASSEIN),

that are both cities and forts."—_Āin_, orig. i. 488; [ed. _Jarrett_, ii.

243].

[1615.—"To the Right Honourable Sir Thomas Roe ... these in

ZURATT."—_Foster, Letters_, iii. 196.]

1638.—"Within a League of the Road we entred into the River upon which

SURAT is seated, and which hath on both sides a very fertile soil, and

many fair gardens, with pleasant Country-houses, which being all white, a

colour which it seems the _Indians_ are much in love with, afford a noble

prospect amidst the greenness whereby they are encompassed. But the

River, which is the _Tapte_ ... is so shallow at the mouth of it, that

Barks of 70 or 80 Tun can hardly come into it."—_Mandelslo_, p. 12.

1690.—"SURATT is reckon'd the most fam'd Emporium of the _Indian_ Empire,

where all Commodities are vendible.... And the River is very commodious

for the Importation of Foreign Goods, which are brought up to the City in

Hoys and Yachts, and Country Boats."—_Ovington_, 218.

1779.—"There is some report that he (Gen. Goddard) is gone to

_Bender_-SOURET ... but the truth of this God knows."—_Seir Mutaq._ iii.

328.

SURATH, more properly SŌRATH, and SŌRETH, n.p. This name is the legitimate

modern form and representative of the ancient Indian _Saurāshṭra_ and Greek

_Syrastrēnē_, names which applied to what we now call the Kattywar

Peninsula, but especially to the fertile plains on the sea-coast.

["Suráshṭra, the land of the Sus, afterwards Sanskritized into Sauráshṭra

the Goodly Land, preserves its name in SORATH the southern part of

Káthiáváḍa. The name appears as _Suráshṭra_ in the _Mahábhárata_ and

Pánini's _Gaṇapátha_, in Rudradáman's (A.D. 150) and Skandagupta's (A.D.

456) Girnár inscriptions, and in several Valabhi copper-plates. Its Prákrit

form appears as _Suraṭha_ in the Násik inscription of Gotamiputra (A.D.

150) and in later Prákrit as _Suraṭhṭha_ in the _Tirthakalpa_ of

Jinapra-bhásuri of the 13th or 14th century. Its earliest foreign mention

is perhaps Strabo's _Saraostus_ and Pliny's _Oratura_" (_Bombay Gazetteer_,

i. pt. i. 6)]. The remarkable discovery of one of the great inscriptions of

Aśoka (B.C. 250) on a rock at Girnār, near Junāgarh in Saurāshtra, shows

that the dominion of that great sovereign, whose capital was at Pataliputra

(Παλιμβόθρα) or PATNA, extended to this distant shore. The application of

the modern form Sūrath or Sōrath has varied in extent. It is now the name

of one of the four _prānts_ or districts into which the peninsula is

divided for political purposes, each of these _prānts_ containing a number

of small States, and being partly managed, partly controlled by a Political

Assistant. Sorath occupies the south-western portion, embracing an area of

5,220 sq. miles.

c. A.D. 80-90.—"Ταύτης τὰ μὲν μεσόγεια τῇ Σκυθίᾳ συνορίζοντα Ἀβιρία

καλεῖται, τὰ δὲ παραθαλάσσια Συραστρήνη."—_Periplus_, § 41.

c. 150.—

"Συραστρηνῆς, * * *

Βαρδάξημα πόλις ...

Συράστρα κώμη ...

Μονόγλωσσον ἐμπόριον...."

_Ptolemy_, VII. i. 2-3.

" "Πάλιν ἡ μὲν παρὰ τὸ λοιπὸν μέρος του Ἰνδοῦ πασα καλεῖται κοινῶς

μὲν ... Ἰνδοσκυθία

* * * * * *

καὶ ἡ περὶ τὸν Κάνθι κόλπον ... Συραστρηνή."—_Ibid._ 55.

c. 545.—"Εἰσὶν οὐν τὰ λαμπρὰ ἐμπόρια τῆς Ἰνδικῆς ταῦτα, Σινδοῦ, Ὀῤῥοθα,

Καλλιάνα, Σιβὼρ, ἡ Μαλὲ, πέντε ἐμπόρια ἔχουσα βάλλοντα τὸ

πέπερι."—_Cosmas_, lib. xi. These names may be interpreted as SIND,

SORATH, CALYAN, CHOUL (?), MALABAR.

c. 640.—"En quittant le royaume de _Fa-la-pi_ (Vallabhi), il fit 500 _li_

à l'ouest, et arriva au royaume de _Sou-la-tch'a_ (SOURÂCHTRA).... Comme

ce royaume se trouve sur le chemin de la mer occidentale, tous les

habitans profitent des avantages qu'offre la mer; ils se livrent au

négoce, et à un commerce d'échange."—_Hiouen-Thsang_, in _Pèl. Bouddh._,

iii. 164-165.

1516.—"Passing this city and following the sea-coast, you come to another

place which has also a good port, and is called ÇURATI MANGALOR,[259] and

here, as at the other, put in many vessels of Malabar for horses, grain,

cloths, and cottons, and for vegetables and other goods prized in India,

and they bring hither coco-nuts, Jagara (JAGGERY), which is sugar that

they make drink of, emery, wax, cardamoms, and every other kind of spice,

a trade in which great gain is made in a short time."—_Barbosa_, in

_Ramusio_, i. f. 296.

1573.—See quotation of this date under preceding article, in which both

the names SURAT and SŪRATH, occur.

1584.—"After his second defeat Muzaffar Gujarátí retreated by way of

Champánír, Bírpúr, and Jhaláwar, to the country of SÚRATH, and rested at

the town of Gondal, 12 _kos_ from the fort of Junágarh.... He gave a lac

of _Mahmúdís_ and a jewelled dagger to Amín Khán Ghorí, ruler of SÚRATH,

and so won his support."—_Ṭabaḳāt-i-Akbarí_, in _Elliot_, v. 437-438.

c. 1590.—"Sircar _Surat_ (SŪRATH) was formerly an independent territory;

the chief was of the Ghelolo tribe, and commanded 50,000 cavalry, and

100,000 infantry. Its length from the port of Ghogeh (GOGO) to the port

of Aramroy (_Arāmrāī_) measures 125 _cose_; and the breadth from Sindehar

(_Sirdhār_), to the port of DIU, is a distance of 72 _cose_."—_Ayeen_, by

_Gladwin_, ii. 73; [ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 243].

1616.—"7 SORET, the chief city, is called _Janagar_; it is but a little

Province, yet very rich; it lyes upon Guzarat; it hath the Ocean to the

South."—_Terry_, ed. 1665, p. 354.

SURKUNDA, s. Hind. _sarkanḍā_, [Skt. _śara_, 'reed-grass,' _kāṇḍa_, 'joint,

section']. The name of a very tall reed-grass, _Saccharum Sara_, Roxb.,

perhaps also applied to _Saccharum procerum_, Roxb. These grasses are often

tall enough in the riverine plains of Eastern Bengal greatly to overtop a

tall man standing in a howda on the back of a tall elephant. It is from the

upper part of the flower-bearing stalk of _surkunda_ that SIRKY (q.v.) is

derived. A most intelligent visitor to India was led into a curious mistake

about the name of this grass by some official, who ought to have known

better. We quote the passage. ——'s story about the main branch of a river

channel probably rests on no better foundation.

1875.—"As I drove yesterday with ——, I asked him if he knew the

scientific name of the tall grass which I heard called tiger-grass at

Ahmedabad, and which is very abundant here (about Lahore). I think it is

a _saccharum_, but am not quite sure. 'No,' he said, 'but the people in

the neighbourhood call it SIKUNDER'S GRASS, as they still call the main

branch of a river 'Sikander's channel.' Strange, is it not?—how that

great individuality looms through history."—_Grant Duff, Notes of an

Indian Journey_, 105.

SURPOOSE, s. Pers. _sar-posh_, 'head-cover,' [which again becomes corrupted

into our _Tarboosh_ (_tarbūsh_), and '_Tarbrush_' of the wandering Briton].

A cover, as of a basin, dish, hooka-bowl, &c.

1829.—"Tugging away at your hookah, find no smoke; a thief having

purloined your silver CHELAM (see CHILLUM) and SURPOOSE."—_Mem. of John

Shipp_, ii. 159.

SURRAPURDA, s. Pers. _sarā-parda_. A canvas screen surrounding royal tents

or the like (see CANAUT).

1404.—"And round this pavilion stood an enclosure, as it were, of a town

or castle made of silk of many colours, inlaid in many ways, with

battlements at the top, and with cords to strain it outside and inside,

and with poles inside to hold it up.... And there was a gateway of great

height forming an arch, with doors within and without made in the same

fashion as the wall ... and above the gateway a square tower with

battlements: however fine the said wall was with its many devices and

artifices, the said gateway, arch and tower, was of much more exquisite

work still. And this enclosure they call ZALAPARDA."—_Clavijo_, s. cxvi.

c. 1590.—"The SARÁPARDAH was made in former times of coarse canvass, but

his Majesty has now caused it to be made of carpeting, and thereby

improved its appearance and usefulness."—_Āīn_, i. 54.

[1839.—"The camp contained numerous enclosures of SERRAPURDAHS or canvass

skreens...."—_Elphinstone, Caubul_, 2nd ed. i. 101.]

SURRINJAUM, s. Pers. _saranjām_, lit. 'beginning-ending.' Used in India for

'apparatus,' 'goods and chattels,' and the like. But in the Mahratta

provinces it has a special application to grants of land, or rather

assignments of revenue, for special objects, such as keeping up a

contingent of troops for service; to civil officers for the maintenance of

their state; or for charitable purposes.

[1823.—"It was by accident I discovered the deed for this tenure (for the

support of troops), which is termed SERINJAM. The Pundit of Dhar shewed

some alarm; at which I smiled, and told him that his master had now the

best tenure in India...."—_Malcolm, Central India_, 2nd ed. i. 103.]

[1877.—"Government ... did not accede to the recommendation of the

political agent immediately to confiscate his SARINGAM, or

territories."—_Mrs. Guthrie_, _My Year in an Indian Fort_, i. 166.]

SURRINJAUMEE, GRAM, s. Hind. _grām-saranjāmī_; Skt. _grāma_, 'a village,'

and _saranjām_ (see SURRINJAUM); explained in the quotation.

1767.—"GRAM-SERENJAMMEE, or peons and pykes stationed in every village of

the province to assist the farmers in the collections, and to watch the

villages and the crops on the ground, who are also responsible for all

thefts within the village they belong to ... (Rs.) 1,54,521 :

14."—_Revenue Accounts of Burdwan._ In _Long_, 507.

SURROW, SEROW, &c., s. Hind. _sarāo_. A big, odd, awkward-looking antelope

in the Himālaya, 'something in appearance between a jackass and a _Tahir_'

(TEHR or Him. wild goat).—_Col. Markham_ in _Jerdon_. It is _Nemorhoedus

bubalina_, Jerdon; [_N. bubalinus_, Blanford (_Mammalia_, 513)].

SURWAUN, s. Hind. from Pers. _sārwān_, _sārbān_, from _sār_ in the sense of

camel, a camel-man.

[1828.—"... camels roaring and blubbering, and resisting every effort,

soothing or forcible, of their SERWANS to induce them to embark."—_Mundy,

Pen and Pencil Sketches_, ed. 1858, p. 185.]

1844.—"... armed SURWANS, or camel-drivers."—_G. O._ of _Sir C. Napier_,

93.

SUTLEDGE, n.p. The most easterly of the Five Rivers of the Punjab, the

great tributaries of the Indus. Hind. _Satlaj_, with certain variations in

spelling and pronunciation. It is in Skt. _Satadru_, 'flowing in a hundred

channels,' _Sutudru_, _Sutudri_, _Sitadru_, &c., and is the Σαράδρος,

Ζαράδρος, or Σαδάδρης of Ptolemy, the Sydrus (or _Hesudrus_) of Pliny (vi.

21).

c. 1020.—"The Sultán ... crossed in safety the Síhún (Indus), Jelam,

Chandráha, Ubrá (Ráví), Bah (Bíyáh), and SATALDUR...."—_Al-'Utbí_, in

_Elliot_, ii. 41.

c. 1030.—"They all combine with the SATLADER below Múltán, at a place

called Panjnad, or 'the junction of the five rivers.'"—_Al-Birūnī_, in

_Elliot_, i. 48. The same writer says: "(The name) should be written

SHATALUDR. It is the name of a province in Hind. But I have ascertained

from well-informed people that it should be _Sataludr_, not _Shataldudr_"

(_sic_).—_Ibid._ p. 52.

c. 1310.—"After crossing the Panjáb, or five rivers, namely, Sind, Jelam,

the river of Loháwar, SATLÚT, and Bíyah...."—_Wassāf_, in _Elliot_, iii.

36.

c. 1380.—"The Sultán (Fíroz Sháh) ... conducted two streams into the city

from two rivers, one from the river Jumna, the other from the

SUTLEJ."—_Táríkh-i-Fíroz-Sháhí_, in _Elliot_, iii. 300.

c. 1450.—"In the year 756 H. (1355 A.D.) the Sultán proceeded to

Díbálpúr, and conducted a stream from the river SATLADAR, for a distance

of 40 _kos_ as far as Jhajar."—_Táríkh-i-Mubárak Sháhí_, in _Elliot_, iv.

8.

c. 1582.—"Letters came from Lahore with the intelligence that Ibrahím

Husain Mirzá had crossed the SATLADA, and was marching upon

Dipálpúr."—_Ṭabaḳāt-i-Akbarí_, in _Elliot_, v. 358.

c. 1590.—"_Sūbah Dihlī._ In the 3rd climate. The length (of this Sūbah)

from Palwal to Lodhīāna, which is on the bank of the river SATLAJ, is 165

_Kuroh_."—_Āīn_, orig. i. 513; [ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 278].

1793.—"Near Moultan they unite again, and bear the name of SETLEGE, until

both the substance and name are lost in the Indus."—_Rennell, Memoir_,

102.

In the following passage the great French geographer has missed the Sutlej:

1753.—"Les cartes qui ont précédé celles que j'ai composées de l'Arie, ou

de l'Inde ... ne marquoient aucune rivière entre l'Hyphasis, ou Hypasis,

dernier des fleuves qui se rendent dans l'Indus, et le Gemné, qui est le

_Jomanes_ de l'Antiquité.... Mais la marche de Timur a indiqué dans cette

intervalle deux rivières, celle de _Kehker_ et celle de _Panipat_. Dans

un ancien itineraire de l'Inde, que Pline nous a conservé, on trouve

entre l'_Hyphasis_ et le _Jomanes_ une rivière sous le nom d'HESIDRUS à

égale distance d'Hyphasis et de Jomanes, et qu'on a tout lieu de prendre

pour _Kehker_."—_D'Anville_, p. 47.

SUTTEE, s. The rite of widow-burning; _i.e._ the burning of the living

widow along with the corpse of her husband, as practised by people of

certain castes among the Hindus, and eminently by the Rājpūts.

The word is properly Skt. _satī_, 'a good woman,' 'a true wife,' and thence

specially applied, in modern vernaculars of Sanskrit parentage, to the wife

who was considered to accomplish the supreme act of fidelity by sacrificing

herself on the funeral pile of her husband. The application of this

substantive to the suicidal act, instead of the person, is European. The

proper Skt. term for the act is _saha-gamana_, or 'keeping company,'

[_saha-maraṇa_, 'dying together'].[260] A very long series of quotations in

illustration of the practice, from classical times downwards, might be

given. We shall present a selection.

We should remark that the word (_satī_ or _suttee_) does not occur, so far

as we know, in any European work older than the 17th century. And then it

only occurs in a disguised form (see quotation from P. Della Valle). The

term _masti_ which he uses is probably _mahā-satī_, which occurs in Skt.

Dictionaries ('a wife of great virtue'). Della Valle is usually eminent in

the correctness of his transcriptions of Oriental words. This conjecture of

the interpretation of _masti_ is confirmed, and the traveller himself

justified, by an entry in Mr. Whitworth's Dictionary of a word

_Masti-kalla_ used in Canara for a monument commemorating a _sati_. _Kalla_

is stone and _masti_ = _mahā-satī_. We have not found the term exactly in

any European document older than Sir C. Malet's letter of 1787, and Sir W.

Jones's of the same year (see below).

_Suttee_ is a Brahmanical rite, and there is a Sanskrit ritual in existence

(see _Classified Index to the Tanjore MSS._, p. 135_a_). It was introduced

into Southern India with the Brahman civilisation, and was prevalent there

chiefly in the Brahmanical Kingdom of Vijayanagar, and among the Mahrattas.

In Malabar, the most primitive part of S. India, the rite is forbidden

(_Anāchāranirṇaya_, v. 26). The cases mentioned by Teixeira below, and in

the _Lettres Édifiantes_, occurred at Tanjore and Madura. A (Mahratta)

Brahman at Tanjore told one of the present writers that he had to perform

commemorative funeral rites for his grandfather and grandmother on the same

day, and this indicated that his grandmother had been a _satī_.

The practice has prevailed in various regions besides India. Thus it seems

to have been an early custom among the heathen Russians, or at least among

nations on the Volga called Russians by Maṣ'ūdī and Ibn Fozlān. Herodotus

(Bk. v. ch. 5) describes it among certain tribes of Thracians. It was in

vogue in Tonga and the Fiji Islands. It has prevailed in the island of Bali

within our own time, though there accompanying Hindu rites, and perhaps of

Hindu origin,—certainly modified by Hindu influence. A full account of

Suttee as practised in those Malay Islands will be found in Zollinger's

account of the Religion of Sassak in _J. Ind. Arch._ ii. 166; also see

Friedrich's _Bali_ as in note preceding. [A large number of references to

_Suttee_ are collected in Frazer, _Pausanias_, iii. 198 _seqq._]

In Diodorus we have a long account of the rivalry as to which of the two

wives of Kēteus, a leader of the Indian contingent in the army of Eumenes,

should perform SUTTEE. One is rejected as with child. The history of the

other terminates thus:

B.C. 317.—"Finally, having taken leave of those of the household, she was

set upon the pyre by her own brother, and was regarded with wonder by the

crowd that had run together to the spectacle, and heroically ended her

life; the whole force with their arms thrice marching round the pyre

before it was kindled. But she, laying herself beside her husband, and

even at the violence of the flame giving utterance to no unbecoming cry,

stirred pity indeed in others of the spectators, and in some excess of

eulogy; not but what there were some of the Greeks present who reprobated

such rites as barbarous and cruel...."—_Diod. Sic. Biblioth._ xix. 33-34.

c. B.C. 30.—

"Felix Eois lex funeris una maritis

Quos Aurora suis rubra colorat equis;

Namque ubi mortifero jacta est fax ultima lecto

Uxorum fusis stat pia turba comis;

Et certamen habet leti, quae viva sequatur

Conjugium; pudor est non licuisse mori.

Ardent victrices; et flammae pectora praebent,

Imponuntque suis ora perusta viris."

_Propertius_,[261] Lib. iii. xiii. 15-22.

c. B.C. 20.—"He (Aristobulus) says that he had heard from some persons of

wives burning themselves voluntarily with their deceased husbands, and

that those women who refused to submit to this custom were

disgraced."—_Strabo_, xv. 62 (E.T. by _Hamilton and Falconer_, iii. 112).

A.D. c. 390.—"Indi, ut omnes fere barbari uxores plurimas habent. Apud

eos lex est, ut uxor carissima cum defuncto marito cremetur. Hae igitur

contendunt inter se de amore viri, et ambitio summa certantium est, ac

testimonium castitatis, dignam morte decerni. Itaque victrix in habitu

ornatuque pristino juxta cadaver accubat, amplexans illud et deosculans

et suppositos ignes prudentiae laude contemnens."—_St. Jerome, Advers.

Jovinianum_, in ed. _Vallars_, ii. 311.

c. 851.—"All the Indians burn their dead. Serendib is the furthest out of

the islands dependent upon India. Sometimes when they burn the body of a

King, his wives cast themselves on the pile, and burn with him; but it is

at their choice to abstain."—_Reinaud, Relation_, &c. i. 50.

c. 1200.—"Hearing the Raja was dead, the Parmâri became a SATÍ:—dying she

said—The son of the Jadavanî will rule the country, may my blessing be on

him!"—_Chand Bardai_, in _Ind. Ant._ i. 227. We cannot be sure that

_satí_ is in the original, as this is a _condensed_ version by Mr.

Beames.

1298.—"Many of the women also, when their husbands die and are placed on

the pile to be burnt, do burn themselves along with the bodies."—_Marco

Polo_, Bk. iii. ch. 17.

c. 1322.—"The idolaters of this realm have one detestable custom (that I

must mention). For when any man dies they burn him; and if he leave a

wife they burn her alive with him, saying that she ought to go and keep

her husband company in the other world. But if the woman have sons by her

husband she may abide with them, an she will."—_Odoric_, in _Cathay_,

&c., i. 79.

" Also in Zampa or CHAMPA: "When a married man dies in this country

his body is burned, and his living wife along with it. For they say that

she should go to keep company with her husband in the other world

also."—_Ibid._ 97.

c. 1328.—"In this India, on the death of a noble, or of any people of

substance, their bodies are burned; and eke their wives follow them alive

to the fire, and for the sake of worldly glory, and for the love of their

husbands, and for eternal life, burn along with them, with as much joy as

if they were going to be wedded. And those who do this have the higher

repute for virtue and perfection among the rest."—_Fr. Jordanus_, 20.

c. 1343.—"The burning of the wife after the death of her husband is an

act among the Indians recommended, but not obligatory. If a widow burns

herself, the members of the family get the glory thereof, and the fame of

fidelity in fulfilling their duties. She who does not give herself up to

the flames puts on coarse raiment and abides with her kindred, wretched

and despised for having failed in duty. But she is not compelled to burn

herself." (There follows an interesting account of instances witnessed by

the traveller.)—_Ibn Batuta_, ii. 138.

c. 1430.—"In Mediâ vero Indiâ, mortui comburuntur, cumque his, ut

plurimum vivae uxores ... una pluresve, prout fuit matrimonii conventio.

Prior ex lege uritur, etiam quae unica est. Sumuntur autem et aliae

uxores quaedam eo pacto, ut morte funus suâ exornent, isque haud parvus

apud eos honos ducitur ... submisso igne uxor ornatiori cultu inter tubas

tibicinasque et cantus, et ipsa psallentis more alacris rogum magno

comitatu circuit. Adstat interea et sacerdos ... hortando suadens. Cum

circumierit illa saepius ignem prope suggestum consistit, vestesque

exuens, loto de more prius corpore, tum sindonem albam induta, ad

exhortationem dicentis in ignem prosilit."—_N. Conti_, in _Poggius de

Var. Fort._ iv.

c. 1520.—"There are in this Kingdom (the Deccan) many heathen, natives of

the country, whose custom it is that when they die they are burnt, and

their wives along with them; and if these will not do it they remain in

disgrace with all their kindred. And as it happens oft times that they

are unwilling to do it, their Bramin kinsfolk persuade them thereto, and

this in order that such a fine custom should not be broken and fall into

oblivion."—_Sommario de' Genti_, in _Ramusio_, i. f. 329.

" "In this country of CAMBOJA ... when the King dies, the lords

voluntarily burn themselves, and so do the King's wives at the same time,

and so also do other women on the death of their husbands."—_Ibid._ f.

336.

1522.—"They told us that in Java Major it was the custom, when one of the

chief men died, to burn his body; and then his principal wife, adorned

with garlands of flowers, has herself carried in a chair by four men ...

comforting her relations, who are afflicted because she is going to burn

herself with the corpse of her husband ... saying to them, 'I am going

this evening to sup with my dear husband and to sleep with him this

night.'... After again consoling them (she) casts herself into the fire

and is burned. If she did not do this she would not be looked upon as an

honourable woman, nor as a faithful wife."—_Pigafetta_, E.T. by _Lord

Stanley of A._, 154.

c. 1566.—Cesare Federici notices the rite as peculiar to the Kingdom of

"_Bezeneger_" (see BISNAGAR): "vidi cose stranie e bestiali di quella

gentilitâ; vsano primamente abbrusciare i corpi morti cosi d'huomini come

di donne nobili; e si l'huomo è maritato, la moglie è obligata ad

abbrusciarsi viva col corpo del marito."—_Orig._ ed. p. 36. This

traveller gives a good account of a Suttee.

1583.—"In the interior of Hindústán it is the custom when a husband dies,

for his widow willingly and cheerfully to cast herself into the flames

(of the funeral pile), although she may not have lived happily with him.

Occasionally love of life holds her back, and then her husband's

relations assemble, light the pile, and place her upon it, thinking that

they thereby preserve the honour and character of the family. But since

the country had come under the rule of his gracious Majesty [Akbar],

inspectors had been appointed in every city and district, who were to

watch carefully over these two cases, to discriminate between them, and

to prevent any woman being forcibly burnt."—_Abu'l Faẓl, Akbar Námah_, in

_Elliot_, vi. 69.

1583.—"Among other sights I saw one I may note as wonderful. When I

landed (at Negapatam) from the vessel, I saw a pit full of kindled

charcoal; and at that moment a young and beautiful woman was brought by

her people on a litter, with a great company of other women, friends of

hers, with great festivity, she holding a mirror in her left hand, and a

lemon in her right hand...."—and so forth.—_G. Balbi_, f. 82v. 83.

1586.—"The custom of the countrey (Java) is, that whensoever the King

doeth die, they take the body so dead and burne it, and preserve the

ashes of him, and within five dayes next after, the wiues of the said

King so dead, according to the custome and vse of their countrey, every

one of them goe together to a place appointed, and the chiefe of the

women which was nearest to him in accompt, hath a ball in her hand, and

throweth it from her, and the place where the ball resteth, thither they

goe all, and turne their faces to the Eastward, and every one with a

dagger in their hand (which dagger they call a crise (see CREASE), and is

as sharpe as a rasor), stab themselues in their owne blood, and fall

a-groueling on their faces, and so ende their dayes."—_T. Candish_, in

_Hakl._ iv. 338. This passage refers to Blambangan at the east end of

Java, which till a late date was subject to Bali, in which such practices

have continued to our day. It seems probable that the Hindu rite here

came in contact with the old Polynesian practices of a like kind, which

prevailed _e.g._ in Fiji, quite recently. The narrative referred to below

under 1633, where the victims were the slaves of a deceased queen, points

to the latter origin. W. Humboldt thus alludes to similar passages in old

Javanese literature: "Thus we may reckon as one of the finest episodes in

the _Brata Yuda_, the story how SATYA WATI, when she had sought out her

slain husband among the wide-spread heap of corpses on the battlefield,

stabs herself by his side with a dagger."—_Kawi-Sprache_, i. 89 (and see

the whole section, pp. 87-95).

[c. 1590.—"When he (the Rajah of Asham) dies, his principal attendants of

both sexes voluntarily bury themselves alive in his grave."—_Āīn_, ed.

_Jarrett_, ii. 118.]

1598.—The usual account is given by _Linschoten_, ch. xxxvi., with a

plate; [Hak. Soc. i. 249].

[c. 1610.—See an account in _Pyrard de Laval_, Hak. Soc. i. 394.]

1611.—"When I was in India, on the death of the Naique (see NAIK) of

Maduré, a country situated between that of Malauar and that of

Choromandel, 400 wives of his burned themselves along with

him."—_Teixeira_, i. 9.

c. 1620.—"The author ... when in the territory of the Karnátik ...

arrived in company with his father at the city of Southern Mathura

(Madura), where, after a few days, the ruler died and went to hell. The

chief had 700 wives, and they all threw themselves at the same time into

the fire."—_Muhammad Sharíf Hanafí_, in _Elliot_, vii. 139.

1623.—"When I asked further if force was ever used in these cases, they

told me that usually it was not so, but only at times among persons of

quality, when some one had left a young and handsome widow, and there was

a risk either of her desiring to marry again (which they consider a great

scandal) or of a worse mishap,—in such a case the relations of her

husband, if they were very strict, would compel her, even against her

will, to burn ... a barbarous and cruel law indeed! But in short, as

regarded Giaccamà, no one exercised either compulsion or persuasion; and

she did the thing of her own free choice; both her kindred and herself

exulting in it, as in an act magnanimous (which in sooth it was) and held

in high honour among them. And when I asked about the ornaments and

flowers that she wore, they told me this was customary as a sign of the

joyousness of the MASTÌ (_Mastì_ is what they call a woman who gives

herself up to be burnt upon the death of her husband)."—_P. della Valle_,

ii. 671; [Hak. Soc. ii. 275, and see ii. 266 _seq._]

1633.—"The same day, about noon, the queen's body was burnt without the

city, with two and twenty of her female slaves; and we consider ourselves

bound to render an exact account of the barbarous ceremonies practised in

this place on such occasions as we were witness to...."—_Narrative of a

Dutch Mission to Bali_, quoted by _Crawfurd, H. of Ind. Arch._, ii.

244-253, from _Prevost_. It is very interesting, but too long for

extract.

c. 1650.—"They say that when a woman becomes a SATTEE, that is burns

herself with the deceased, the Almighty pardons all the sins committed by

the wife and husband and that they remain a long time in paradise; nay if

the husband were in the infernal regions, the wife by this means draws

him from thence and takes him to paradise.... Moreover the SATTEE, in a

future birth, returns not to the female sex ... but she who becomes not a

SATTEE, and passes her life in widowhood, is never emancipated from the

female state.... It is however criminal to force a woman into the fire,

and equally to prevent her who voluntarily devotes herself."—_Dabistān_,

ii. 75-76.

c. 1650-60.—Tavernier gives a full account of the different manners of

_Suttee_, which he had witnessed often, and in various parts of India,

but does not use the word. We extract the following:

c. 1648.—"... there fell of a sudden so violent a Shower, that the

Priests, willing to get out of the Rain, thrust the Woman all along into

the Fire. But the Shower was so vehement, and endured so long, that the

Fire was quench'd, and the Woman was not burn'd. About midnight she

arose, and went and knock'd at one of her Kinsmen's Houses, where Father

_Zenon_ and many _Hollanders_ saw her, looking so gastly and grimly, that

it was enough to have scar'd them; however the pain she endur'd did not

so far terrifie her, but that three days after, accompany'd by her

Kindred, she went and was burn'd according to her first

intention."—_Tavernier_, E.T. ii. 84; [ed. _Ball_, i. 219].

Again:

"In most places upon the Coast of Coromandel, the Women are not burnt

with their deceas'd Husbands, but they are buried alive with them in

holes, which the Bramins make a foot deeper than the tallness of the man

and woman. Usually they chuse a Sandy place; so that when the man and

woman are both let down together, all the Company with Baskets of Sand

fill up the hole above half a foot higher than the surface of the ground,

after which they jump and dance upon it, till they believe the woman to

be stifl'd."—_Ibid._ 171; [ed. _Ball_, ii. 216].

c. 1667.—Bernier also has several highly interesting pages on this

subject, in his "Letter written to M. Chapelan, sent from Chiras in

Persia." We extract a few sentences: "Concerning the Women that have

actually burn'd themselves, I have so often been present at such dreadful

spectacles, that at length I could endure no more to see it, and I retain

still some horrour when I think on't.... The Pile of Wood was presently

all on fire, because store of Oyl and Butter had been thrown upon it, and

I saw at the time through the Flames that the Fire took hold of the

Cloaths of the Woman.... All this I saw, but observ'd not that the Woman

was at all disturb'd; yea it was said, that she had been heard to

pronounce with great force these two words, _Five_, _Two_, to signifie,

according to the Opinion of those who hold the Souls Transmigration, that

this was the 5th time she had burnt herself with the same Husband, and

that there remain'd but _two_ times for perfection; as if she had at that

time this Remembrance, or some Prophetical Spirit."—E.T. p. 99; [ed.

_Constable_, 306 _seqq._].

1677.—Suttee, described by A. Bassing, in _Valentijn_ v. (_Ceylon_) 300.

1713.—"Ce fut cette année de 1710, que mourut le Prince de Marava, âgé de

plus de quatre-vingt-ans; ses femmes, en nombre de quarante sept, se

brûlèrent avec le corps du Prince...." (details follow).—_Père Martin_

(of the Madura Mission), in _Lett. Edif._ ed. 1781, tom. xii., pp. 123

_seqq._

1727.—"I have seen several burned several Ways.... I heard a Story of a

Lady that had received Addresses from a Gentleman who afterwards deserted

her, and her Relations died shortly after the Marriage ... and as the

Fire was well kindled ... she espied her former Admirer, and beckned him

to come to her. When he came she took him in her Arms, as if she had a

Mind to embrace him; but being stronger than he, she carried him into the

Flames in her Arms, where they were both consumed, with the Corpse of her

Husband."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 278; [ed. 1744, i. 280].

" "The Country about (Calcutta) being overspread with _Paganisms_,

the Custom of Wives burning themselves with their deceased Husbands, is

also practised here. Before the _Mogul's_ War, Mr. _Channock_ went one

time with his Ordinary Guard of Soldiers, to see a young Widow act that

tragical Catastrophe, but he was so smitten with the Widow's Beauty, that

he sent his Guards to take her by Force from her Executioners, and

conducted her to his own Lodgings. They lived lovingly many Years, and

had several Children; at length she died, after he had settled in

_Calcutta_, but instead of converting her to _Christianity_, she made him

a Proselyte to _Paganism_, and the only part of _Christianity_ that was

remarkable in him, was burying her decently, and he built a Tomb over

her, where all his Life after her Death, he kept the anniversary Day of

her Death by sacrificing a Cock on her Tomb, after the _Pagan_

Manner."—_Ibid._ [ed. 1744], ii. 6-7. [With this compare the curious

lines described as an Epitaph on "Joseph Townsend, Pilot of the Ganges"

(5 ser. _Notes & Queries_, i. 466 _seq._).]

1774.—"Here (in Bali) not only women often kill themselves, or burn with

their deceased husbands, but men also burn in honour of their deceased

masters."—_Forrest, V. to N. Guinea_, 170.

1787.—"Soon after I and my conductor had quitted the house, we were

informed the SUTTEE (for that is the name given to the person who so

devotes herself) had passed...."—_Sir C. Malet_, in _Parly. Papers of

1821_, p. 1 ("Hindoo Widows").

" "My Father, said he (Pundit Rhadacaunt), died at the age of one

hundred years, and my mother, who was eighty years old, became a SATI,

and burned herself to expiate sins."—Letter of _Sir W. Jones_, in _Life_,

ii. 120.

1792.—"In the course of my endeavours I found the poor SUTTEE had no

relations at Poonah."—Letter from _Sir C. Malet_, in _Forbes, Or. Mem._

ii. 394; [2nd ed. ii. 28, and see i. 178, in which the previous passage

is quoted].

1808.—"These proceedings (Hindu marriage ceremonies in Guzerat) take

place in the presence of a Brahmin.... And farther, now the young woman

vows that her affections shall be fixed upon her Lord alone, not only in

all this life, but will follow in death, or to the next, that she will

die, that she may burn with him, through as many transmigrations as shall

secure their joint immortal bliss. Seven successions of SUTTEES (a woman

seven times born and burning, thus, as often) secure to the loving couple

a seat among the gods."—_R. Drummond._

1809.—

"O sight of misery!

You cannot hear her cries ... their sound

In that wild dissonance is drowned; ...

But in her face you see

The supplication and the agony ...

See in her swelling throat the desperate strength

That with vain effort struggles yet for life;

Her arms contracted now in fruitless strife,

Now wildly at full length,

Towards the crowd in vain for pity spread, ...

They force her on, they bind her to the dead."

_Kehama_, i. 12.

In all the poem and its copious notes, the word SUTTEE does not occur.

[1815.—"In reference to this mark of strong attachment (of Sati for

Siva), a Hindoo widow burning with her husband on the funeral pile is

called SUTEE."—_Ward, Hindoos_, 2nd ed. ii. 25.]

1828.—"After having bathed in the river, the widow lighted a brand,

walked round the pile, set it on fire, and then mounted cheerfully: the

flame caught and blazed up instantly; she sat down, placing the head of

the corpse on her lap, and repeated several times the usual form, 'Ram,

Ram, SUTTEE; Ram, Ram, SUTTEE.'"—_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 91-92.

1829.—"_Regulation XVII._

"A REGULATION for declaring the practice of SUTTEE, or of burning or

burying alive the widows of Hindoos, illegal, and punishable by the

Criminal Courts."—Passed by the _G.-G. in C._, Dec. 4.

1839.—"Have you yet heard in England of the horrors that took place at

the funeral of that wretched old Runjeet Singh? _Four_ wives, and _seven_

slave-girls were burnt with him; not a word of remonstrance from the

British Government."—_Letters from Madras_, 278.

1843.—"It is lamentable to think how long after our power was firmly

established in Bengal, we, grossly neglecting the first and plainest duty

of the civil magistrate, suffered the practices of infanticide and SUTTEE

to continue unchecked."—_Macaulay's Speech on Gates of Somnauth._

1856.—"The pile of the SUTEE is unusually large; heavy cart-wheels are

placed upon it, to which her limbs are bound, or sometimes a canopy of

massive logs is raised above it, to crush her by its fall.... It is a

fatal omen to hear the SUTEE'S groan; therefore as the fire springs up

from the pile, there rises simultaneously with it a deafening shout of

'Victory to Umbâ! Victory to Ranchor!' and the horn and the hard rattling

drum sound their loudest, until the sacrifice is consumed."—_Râs Mâlâ_,

ii. 435; [ed. 1878, p. 691].

[1870.—A case in this year is recorded by Chevers, _Ind. Med. Jurispr._

665.]

1871.—"Our bridal finery of dress and feast too often proves to be no

better than the Hindu woman's 'bravery,' when she comes to perform

SUTTEE."—_Cornhill Mag._ vol. xxiv. 675.

1872.—"La coutume du suicide de la SATÎ n'en est pas moins fort ancienne,

puisque déjà les Grecs d'Alexandre la trouvèrent en usage chez un peuple

au moins du Penjâb. Le premier témoignage brahmanique qu'on en trouve est

celui de la _Brihaddevatâ_ qui, peut-être, remonte tout aussi haut. A

l'origine elle parait avoir été propre à l'aristocratie

militaire."—_Barth, Les Religions de l'Inde_, 39.

SWALLOW, SWALLOE, s. The old trade-name of the sea-slug, or TRIPANG (q.v.).

It is a corruption of the Bugi (Makassar) name of the creature, _suwālā_

(see _Crawfurd's Malay Dict._; [Scott, _Malayan Words_, 107]).

1783.—"I have been told by several Buggesses that they sail in their

Paduakans to the northern parts of New Holland ... to gather SWALLOW

(Biche de Mer), which they sell to the annual China junk at

Macassar."—_Forrest, V. to Mergui_, 83.

SWALLY, SWALLY ROADS, SWALLY MARINE, SWALLY HOLE, n.p. _Suwālī_, the once

familiar name of the roadstead north of the mouth of the Tapti, where ships

for Surat usually anchored, and discharged or took in cargo. It was perhaps

Ar. _sawāḥil_, 'the shores' (?). [Others suggest Skt. _Śivālaya_, 'abode of

Siva.']

[1615.—"The Osiander proving so leaky through the worm through the

foulness of the sea-water at SUALLY."—_Foster, Letters_, iv. 22. Also see

_Birdwood, Report on Old Recs._ 209.]

1623.—"At the beach there was no kind of vehicle to be found; so the

Captain went on foot to a town about a mile distant called SOHALI.... The

Franks have houses there for the goods which they continually despatch

for embarkation."—_P. della Valle_, ii. 503.

1675.—"As also passing by ... eight ships riding at _Surat_ River's

Mouth, we then came to SWALLY MARINE, where were flying the Colours of

the Three Nations, _English_, _French_, and _Dutch_ ... who here land and

ship off all Goods, without molestation."—_Fryer_, 82.

1677.—"The 22d of February 167-6/7 from SWALLY HOLE the Ship was

despatched alone."—_Ibid._ 217.

1690.—"In a little time we happily arriv'd at SUALYBAR, and the Tide

serving, came to an Anchor very near the _Shoar_."—_Ovington_, 163.

1727.—"One Season the _English_ had eight good large Ships riding at

SWALLY ... the Place where all Goods were unloaded from the Shipping, and

all Goods for Exportation were there shipp'd off."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 166;

[ed. 1744].

1841.—"These are sometimes called the inner and the outer sands of

SWALLOW, and are both dry at low water."—_Horsburgh's India Directory_,

ed. 1841, i. 474.

SWAMY, SAMMY, s. This word is a corruption of Skt. _suāmin_, 'Lord.' It is

especially used in S. India, in two senses: (A) a Hindu idol, especially

applied to those of Śiva or Subramanyam; especially, as SAMMY, in the

dialect of the British soldier. This comes from the usual Tamil

pronunciation _sāmi_. (B) The Skt. word is used by Hindus as a term of

respectful address, especially to Brahmans.

A.—

1755.—"Towards the upper end there is a dark repository, where they keep

their SWAMME, that is their chief god."—_Ives_, 70.

1794.—"The gold might for us as well have been worshipped in the shape of

a SAWMY at Juggernaut."—_The Indian Observer_, p. 167.

1838.—"The Government lately presented a shawl to a Hindu idol, and the

Government officer ... was ordered to superintend the delivery of it ...

so he went with the shawl in his TONJON, and told the Bramins that they

might come and take it, for that he would not touch it with his fingers

to present it to a _Swamy_."—_Letters from Madras_, 183.

B.—

1516.—"These people are commonly called JOGUES (see JOGEE), and in their

own speech they are called ZOAME, which means Servant of God."—_Barbosa_,

99.

1615.—"Tunc ad suos conversus: Eia Brachmanes, inquit, quid vobis

videtur? Illi mirabundi nihil praeter SUAMI, SUAMI, id est Domine,

Domine, retulerunt."—_Jarric, Thes._, i. 664.

SWAMY-HOUSE, SAMMY-HOUSE, s. An idol-temple, or pagoda. The _Sammy-house_

of the Delhi ridge in 1857 will not soon be forgotten.

1760.—"The French cavalry were advancing before their infantry; and it

was the intention of Colliaud that his own should wait until they came in

a line with the flank-fire of the field-pieces of the

SWAMY-HOUSE."—_Orme_, iii. 443.

1829.—"Here too was a little detached SWAMEE-HOUSE (or chapel) with a

lamp burning before a little idol."—_Mem. of Col. Mountain_, 99.

1857.—"We met Wilby at the advanced post, the 'SAMMY HOUSE,' within 600

yards of the Bastion. It was a curious place for three brothers to meet

in. The view was charming. Delhi is as green as an emerald just now, and

the Jumma Musjid and Palace are beautiful objects, though held by

infidels."—_Letters written during the Siege of Delhi_, by _Hervey

Greathed_, p. 112.

[SWAMY JEWELRY, s. A kind of gold and silver jewelry, made chiefly at

Trichinopoly, in European shapes covered with grotesque mythological

figures.

[1880.—"In the characteristic SWAMI work of the Madras Presidency the

ornamentation consists of figures of the Puranic gods in high relief,

either beaten out from the surface, or affixed to it, whether by

soldering, or wedging, or screwing them on."—_Birdwood, Industr. Arts_,

152.]

SWAMY-PAGODA, s. A coin formerly current at Madras; probably so called from

the figure of an idol on it. Milburn gives 100 _Swamy Pagodas_ = 110 Star

Pagodas. A "_three_ SWĀMI pagoda" was a name given to a gold coin bearing

on the obverse the effigy of Chenna Keswam SWĀMI (a title of Krishna) and

on the reverse Lakshmi and Rukmini (_C.P.B._).

SWATCH, s. This is a marine term which probably has various applications

beyond Indian limits. But the only two instances of its application are

both Indian, viz. "the SWATCH of No Ground," or elliptically "The SWATCH,"

marked in all the charts just off the Ganges Delta, and a space bearing the

same name, and probably produced by analogous tidal action, off the Indus

Delta. [The word is not to be found in Smyth, _Sailor's Wordbook_.]

1726.—In Valentijn's first map of Bengal, though no name is applied there

is a space marked "no ground with 60 raam (fathoms?) of line."

1863.—(Ganges). "There is still one other phenomenon.... This is the

existence of a great depression, or hole, in the middle of the Bay of

Bengal, known in the charts as the 'SWATCH of No Ground.'"—_Fergusson, on

Recent Changes in the Delta of the Ganges, Qy. Jour. Geol. Soc._, Aug.

1863.

1877.—(Indus). "This is the famous SWATCH of no ground where the lead

falls at once into 200 fathoms."—_Burton, Sind Revisited_, 21.

[1878.—"He (Capt. Lloyd, in 1840) describes the remarkable phenomenon at

the head of the Bay of Bengal, similar to that reported by Captain Selby

off the mouths of the Indus, called 'the SWATCH of no ground.' It is a

deep chasm, open to seaward and very steep on the north-west face, with

no soundings at 250 fathoms."—_Markham, Mem. of Indian Surveys_, 27.]

[SWEET APPLE, s. An Anglo-Indian corruption of _sītāphal_, 'the fruit of

Sītā,' the Musk Melon, Fr. _Potiron_. _Cucurbita moschata_ (see

CUSTARD-APPLE).]

SWEET OLEANDER, s. This is in fact the common oleander, _Nerium odorum_,

Ait.

1880.—"Nothing is more charming than, even in the upland valleys of the

Mahratta country, to come out of a wood of all outlandish trees and

flowers suddenly on the dry winter bed of some mountain stream, grown

along the banks, or on the little islets of verdure in mid (shingle)

stream, with clumps of mixed tamarisk and lovely blooming

OLEANDER."—_Birdwood, MS._ 9.

SWEET POTATO, s. The root of _Batatas edulis_, Choisy (_Convolvulus

Batatas_, L.), N.O. _Convolvulaceae_; a very palatable vegetable, grown in

most parts of India. Though extensively cultivated in America, and in the

W. Indies, it has been alleged in various books (_e.g._ in _Eng. Cyclop._

Nat. Hist. Section, and in _Drury's Useful Plants of India_), that the

plant is a native of the Malay islands. The _Eng. Cyc._ even states that

_batatas_ is the Malay name. But the whole allegation is probably founded

in error. The Malay names of the plant, as given by Crawfurd, are

_Kaledek_, _Ubi Jawa_, and _Ubi Kastila_, the last two names meaning 'Java

yam,' and 'Spanish yam,' and indicating the foreign origin of the

vegetable. In India, at least in the Bengal Presidency, natives commonly

call it _shakar-ḳand_, P.—Ar., literally 'sugar-candy,' a name equally

suggesting that it is not indigenous among them. And in fact when we turn

to Oviedo, we find the following distinct statement:

"BATATAS are a staple food of the Indians, both in the Island of

Spagnuola and in the others ... and a ripe BATATA properly dressed is

just as good as a marchpane twist of sugar and almonds, and better

indeed.... When _Batatas_ are well ripened, they are often carried to

Spain, _i.e._, if the voyage be a quiet one; for if there be delay they

get spoilt at sea. I myself have carried them from this city of S.

Domingo to the city of Avila in Spain, and although they did not arrive

as good as they should be, yet they were thought a great deal of, and

reckoned a singular and precious kind of fruit."—In _Ramusio_, iii. f.

134.

It must be observed however that several distinct varieties are cultivated

by the Pacific islanders even as far west as New Zealand. And Dr.

Bretschneider is satisfied that the plant is described in Chinese books of

the 3rd or 4th century, under the name of _Kan-chu_ (the first syllable =

'sweet'). See _B. on Chin. Botan. Words_, p. 13. This is the only good

argument we have seen for Asiatic origin. The whole matter is carefully

dealt with by M. Alph. De Candolle (_Origine des Plantes cultivées_, pp.

43-45), concluding with the judgment: "Les motifs sont beaucoup plus forts,

ce me semble, en faveur de l'origine americaine."

The "Sanskrit name" _Ruktaloo_, alleged by Mr. Piddington, is worthless.

_Ālū_ is properly an esculent _Arum_, but in modern use is the name of the

common potato, and is sometimes used for the sweet potato. _Raktālū_, more

commonly _rat-ālū_, is in Bengal the usual name of the _Yam_, no doubt

given first to a highly-coloured kind, such as _Dioscorea purpurea_, for

_rakt-_ or _rat-ālū_ means simply 'red potato'; a name which might also be

well applied to the _batatas_, as it is indeed, according to Forbes Watson,

in the Deccan. There can be little doubt that this vegetable, or fruit as

Oviedo calls it, having become known in Europe many years before the

_potato_, the latter robbed it of its name, as has happened in the case of

BRAZIL-wood (q.v.). The _batata_ is clearly the 'potato' of the fourth and

others of the following quotations. [See _Watt, Econ. Dict._ iii. 117

_seqq._]

1519.—"At this place (in Brazil) we had refreshment of victuals, like

fowls and meat of calves, also a variety of fruits, called BATATE, pigne

(pine-apples), sweet, of singular goodness...."—_Pigafetta_, E.T. by

_Lord Stanley of A._, p. 43.

1540.—"The root which among the Indians of Spagnuola Island is called

BATATA, the negroes of St. Thomè (_C. Verde_ group) called _Igname_, and

they plant it as the chief staple of their maintenance; it is of a black

colour, _i.e._ the outer skin is so, but inside it is white, and as big

as a large turnip, with many branchlets; it has the taste of a chestnut,

but much better."—_Voyage to the I. of San Tomè under the Equinoctial,

Ramusio_, i. 117_v_.

c. 1550.—"They have two other sorts of roots, one called BATATA.... They

generate windiness, and are commonly cooked in the embers. Some say they

taste like almond cakes, or sugared chestnuts; but in my opinion

chestnuts, even without sugar, are better."—_Girol. Benzoni_, Hak. Soc.

86.

1588.—"Wee met with sixtee or seventee sayles of Canoes full of Sauages,

who came off to Sea vnto vs, and brought with them in their Boates,

Plantans, Cocos, POTATO-rootes, and fresh fish."—_Voyage of Master Thomas

Candish, Purchas_, i. 66.

1600.—"The BATTATAS are somewhat redder of colour, and in forme almost

like _Iniamas_ (see YAM), and taste like Earth-nuts."—In _Purchas_, ii.

957.

1615.—"I took a garden this day, and planted it with POTTATOS brought

from the Liquea, a thing not yet planted in Japan. I must pay a _tay_, or

5 shillings sterling, per annum for the garden."—_Cocks's Diary_, i. 11.

1645.—"... PATTATE; c'est vne racine comme naueaux, mais plus longue et

de couleur rouge et jaune: cela est de tres-bon goust, mais si l'on en

mange souuent, elle degouste fort, et est assez venteuse."—_Mocquet,

Voyages_, 83.

1764.—

"There let POTATOS mantle o'er the ground,

Sweet as the cane-juice is the root they bear."—_Grainger_, Bk. iv.

SYCE, s. Hind. from Ar. _sāïs_. A groom. It is the word in universal use in

the Bengal Presidency. In the South HORSE-KEEPER is more common, and in

Bombay a vernacular form of the latter, viz. _ghoṛāwālā_ (see GORAWALLAH).

The Ar. verb, of which _sāïs_ is the participle, seems to be a loan-word

from Syriac, _sausī_, 'to coax.'

[1759.—In list of servants' wages: "SYCE, Rs. 2."—In _Long_, 182.]

1779.—"The BEARER and SCISE, when they returned, came to the place where

I was, and laid hold of Mr. Ducarell. I took hold of Mr. Shee and carried

him up. The bearer and SCISE took Mr. Ducarell out. Mr. Keeble was

standing on his own house looking, and asked, 'What is the matter?' The

bearer and SCISE said to Mr. Keeble, 'These gentlemen came into the house

when my master was out.'"—_Evidence on Trial of_ Grand _v._ Francis, in

_Echoes of Old Calcutta_, 230.

1810.—"The SYCE, or groom, attends but one horse."—_Williamson, V.M._ i.

254.

c. 1858?—

"Tandis que les ÇAIS veillent les chiens rodeurs."

_Leconte de Lisle._

SYCEE, s. In China applied to pure silver bullion in ingots, or SHOES

(q.v.). The origin of the name is said to be _si_ (pron. at Canton _sai_

and _sei_) = _sz'_, _i.e._ 'fine silk'; and we are told by Mr. Giles that

it is so called because, if pure, it may be drawn out into fine threads.

[Linschoten (1598) speaks of: "Peeces of cut silver, in which sort they pay

and receive all their money" (Hak. Soc. i. 132).]

1711.—"Formerly they used to sell for SISEE, or Silver full fine; but of

late the Method is alter'd."—_Lockyer_, 135.

SYRAS, CYRUS. See under CYRUS.

SYRIAM, n.p. A place on the Pegu R., near its confluence with the Rangoon

R., six miles E. of Rangoon, and very famous in the Portuguese dealings

with Pegu. The Burmese form is _Than-lyeng_, but probably the Talaing name

was nearer that which foreigners give it. [See _Burma Gazetteer_, ii. 672.

Mr. St. John (_J. R. As. Soc._, 1894, p. 151) suggests the Mwn word

_sarang_ or _siring_, 'a swinging cradle.'] Syriam was the site of an

English factory in the 17th century, of the history of which little is

known. See the quotation from Dalrymple below.

1587.—"To CIRION a Port of Pegu come ships from Mecca with woollen Cloth,

Scarlets, Velvets, Opium, and such like."—_R. Fitch_, in _Hakl._ ii. 393.

1600.—"I went thither with Philip Brito, and in fifteene dayes arrived at

SIRIAN the chiefe Port in Pegu. It is a lamentable spectacle to see the

bankes of the Riuers set with infinite fruit-bearing trees, now

ouerwhelmed with ruines of gilded Temples, and noble edifices; the wayes

and fields full of skulls and bones of wretched Peguans, killed or

famished, and cast into the River in such numbers that the multitude of

carkasses prohibiteth the way and passage of ships."—The Jesuit _Andrew

Boves_, in _Purchas_, ii. 1748.

c. 1606.—"Philip de Brito issued an order that a custom-house should be

planted at SERIAN (_Serião_), at which duties should be paid by all the

vessels of this State which went to trade with the kingdom of Pegu, and

with the ports of Martavan, Tavay, Tenasserim, and Juncalon.... Now

certain merchants and shipowners from the Coast of Coromandel refused

obedience, and this led Philip de Brito to send a squadron of 6 ships and

galliots with an imposing and excellent force of soldiers on board, that

they might cruise on the coast of Tenasserim, and compel all the vessels

that they met to come and pay duty at the fortress of SERIAN."—_Bocarro_,

135.

1695.—"9th. That the _Old house_ and _Ground_ at SYRIAN, formerly

belonging to the _English Company_, may still be continued to them, and

that they may have liberty of building _dwelling-houses_, and

_warehouses_, for the securing their _Goods_, as shall be necessary, and

that more _Ground_ be given them, if what they formerly had be not

sufficient."—Petition presented to the K. of Burma at Ava, by _Ed.

Fleetwood_; in _Dalrymple, O.R._ ii. 374.

1726.—ZIERJANG (Syriam) in _Valentijn, Choro._, &c., 127.

1727.—"About 60 Miles to the Eastward of China Backaar (see

CHINA-BUCKEER) is the Bar of SYRIAN, the only port now open for Trade in

all the _Pegu_ Dominions.... It was many Years in Possession of the

_Portugueze_, till by their Insolence and Pride they were obliged to quit

it."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 31-32; [ed. 1744].

SYUD, s. Ar. _saiyid_, 'a lord.' The designation in India of those who

claim to be descendants of Mahommed. But the usage of _Saiyid_ and _Sharīf_

varies in different parts of Mahommedan Asia. ["As a rule (much disputed)

the Sayyid is a descendant from Mahommed through his grandchild Hasan, and

is a man of the pen; whereas the Sharīf derives from Husayn and is a man of

the sword" (_Burton, Ar. Nights_, iv. 209).]

1404.—"On this day the Lord played at chess, for a great while, with

certain ZAYTES; and ZAYTES they call certain men who come of the lineage

of Mahomad."—_Clavijo_, § cxiv. (_Markham_, p. 141-2).

1869.—"Il y a dans l'Inde quatre classes de musulmans: les SAIYIDS ou

descendants de Mahomet par Huçain, les _Schaikhs_ ou Arabes, nommés

vulgairement Maures, les PATHANS ou Afgans, et les MOGOLS. Ces quatres

classes ont chacune fourni à la religion de saints personnages, qui sont

souvent designés par ces dénominations, et par d'autres spécialement

consacrées à chacune d'elles, telles que _Mir_ pour les SAIYIDS, _Khân_

pour les Pathans, _Mirzâ_, _Beg_, _Agâ_, et _Khwâja_ pour les

Mogols."—_Garcin de Tassy, Religion Mus. dans l'Inde_, 22.

(The learned author is mistaken here in supposing that the obsolete term

MOOR was in India specially applied to Arabs. It was applied, following

Portuguese custom, to all Mahommedans.)

T

TABASHEER, s. 'Sugar of Bamboo.' A siliceous substance sometimes found in

the joints of the bamboo, formerly prized as medicine, [also known in India

as _Bānslochan_ or _Bānskapūr_]. The word is Pers. _tabāshīr_, but that is

from the Skt. name of the article, _tvakkshīra_, and _tavakkshīra_. The

substance is often confounded, in name at least, by the old Materia Medica

writers, with _spodium_ and is sometimes called _ispodio di canna_. See

_Ces. Federici_ below. Garcia De Orta goes at length into this subject (f.

193 _seqq._). [See SUGAR.]

c. 1150.—"Tanah (miswritten _Banah_) est une jolie ville située sur un

grand golfe.... Dans les montagnes environnantes croissent le ... kana et

le ... TABĀSHĪR ... Quant au TÉBACHIR, on le falsifie en le mélangeant

avec de la cendre d'ivoire; mais le veritable est celui qu'on extrait des

racines du roseau dit ... _al Sharkí_."—_Edrisi_, i. 179.

1563.—"And much less are the roots of the cane TABAXER; so that according

to both the translations Avicena is wrong; and Averrois says that it is

charcoal from burning the canes of India, whence it appears that he never

saw it, since he calls such a white substance charcoal."—_Garcia_, f.

195_v_.

c. 1570.—"Il _Spodio_ si congela d'acqua in alcune canne, e io n'ho

trouato assai nel Pegù quando faceuo fabricar la mia casa."—_Ces.

Federici_, in _Ramusio_, iii. 397.

1578.—"The _Spodium_ or TABAXIR of the Persians ... was not known to the

Greeks."—_Acosta_, 295.

c. 1580.—"Spodium TABAXIR vocant, quo nomine vulgus pharmacopoeorum

Spodium factitium, quippe metallicum, intelligunt. At eruditiores viri eo

nomine lacrymam quandam, ex caudice arboris procerae in India nascentis,

albicantem, odoratam, facultatis refrigeratoriae, et cor maxime

roborantis itidem intelligunt."—_Prosper Alpinus, Rerum Ægyptiarum_, Lib.

III. vii.

1598.—"... these _Mambus_ have a certain Matter within them, which is (as

it were) the pith of it ... the Indians call it _Sacar Mambu_, which is

as much as to say, as Sugar of _Mambu_, and is a very deep Medicinable

thing much esteemed, and much sought for by the Arabians, Persians, and

Moores, that call it TABAXIIR."—_Linschoten_, p. 104; [Hak. Soc. ii. 56].

1837.—"Allied to these in a botanical point of view is _Saccharum

officinarum_, which has needlessly been supposed not to have yielded

_saccharum_, or the substance known by this name to the ancients; the

same authors conjecturing this to be TABASHEER.... Considering that this

substance is pure _silex_, it is not likely to have been arranged with

the honeys and described under the head of περι Σακχαρον μελιτον."—_Royle

on the Ant. of Hindoo Medicine_, p. 83. This confirms the views expressed

in the article SUGAR.

1854.—"In the cavity of these cylinders water is sometimes secreted, or,

less commonly, an opaque white substance, becoming opaline when wetted,

consisting of a flinty secretion, of which the plant divests itself,

called TABASHEER, concerning the optical properties of which Sir David

Brewster has made some curious discoveries."—_Engl. Cycl._ Nat. Hist.

Section, article _Bamboo_.

TABBY, s. Not Anglo-Indian. A kind of watered silk stuff; Sp. and Port.

_tabi_, Ital. _tabino_, Fr. _tabis_, from Ar. _'attābī_, the name said to

have been given to such stuffs from their being manufactured in early times

in a quarter of Baghdad called _al-'attābīya_; and this derived its name

from a prince of the 'Omaiyad family called 'Attāb. [See Burton, _Ar.

Nights_, ii. 371.]

12th cent.—"The _'Attābīya_ ... here are made the stuffs, called

'ATTĀBĪYA, which are silks and cottons of divers colours."—_Ibn Jubair_,

p. 227.

[c. 1220.—"'ATTABI." See under SUCLAT.]

TABOOT, s. The name applied in India to a kind of shrine, or model of a

Mahommedan mausoleum, of flimsy material, intended to represent the tomb of

Husain at Kerbela, which is carried in procession during the Moharram (see

_Herklots_, 2nd ed. 119 _seqq._, and _Garcin de Tassy, Rel. Musulm. dans

l'Inde_, 36). [The word is Ar. _tabūt_, 'a wooden box, coffin.' The term

used in N. India is _ta'ziya_ (see TAZEEA).]

[1856.—"There is generally over the vault in which the corpse is

deposited an oblong monument of stone or brick (called 'tarkeebeh') or

wood (in which case it is called 'TABOOT')."—_Lane, Mod. Egypt._, 5th ed.

i. 299.]

[TACK-RAVAN, s. A litter carried on men's shoulders, used only by royal

personages. It is Pers. _takht-ravān_, 'travelling-throne.' In the Hindi of

Behar the word is corrupted into _tartarwān_.

[c. 1660.—"... several articles of _Chinese_ and _Japan_ workmanship;

among which were a _paleky_ and a TACK-RAVAN, or travelling throne, of

exquisite beauty, and much admired."—_Bernier_, ed. _Constable_, 128; in

370, TACT-RAVAN.

[1753.—"Mahommed Shah, emperor of Hindostan, seated in a royal litter

(TAKHT REVAN, which signifies a moving throne) issued from his

camp...."—_Hanway_, iv. 169.]

TAEL, s. This is the trade-name of the Chinese ounce, viz., 1/16 of a CATTY

(q.v.); and also of the Chinese money of account, often called "the ounce

of silver," but in Chinese called _liang_. The standard _liang_ or _tael_

is, according to Dr. Wells Williams, = 579.84 grs. troy. It was formerly

equivalent to a string of 1000 _tsien_, or (according to the trade-name)

CASH (q.v.). The China _tael_ used to be reckoned as worth 6_s._ 8_d._, but

the rate really varied with the price of silver. In 1879 an article in the

_Fortnightly Review_ puts it at 5_s._ 7½_d._ (Sept. p. 362); the exchange

at Shanghai in London by telegraphic transfer, April 13, 1885, was 4_s._

9⅜_d._; [on Oct. 3, 1901, 2_s._ 7¼_d._]. The word was apparently got from

the Malays, among whom _taïl_ or _tahil_ is the name of a weight; and this

again, as Crawfurd indicates, is probably from the India TOLA (q.v.). [Mr.

Pringle writes: "Sir H. Yule does not refer to such forms as TAHE (see

below), TAIES (plural in Fryer's _New Account_, p. 210, sub _Machawo_),

TAYE (see quotation below from Saris), TAYES (see quotation below from

Mocquet), or TAEY, and TAEYS (Philip's translation of _Linschoten_, Hak.

Soc. i. 149). These probably come through the medium of the Portuguese, in

which the final _l_ of the singular TAEL is changed into _s_ in the plural.

Such a form as TAEIS might easily suggest a singular wanting the final _s_,

and from such a singular French and English plurals of the ordinary type

would in turn be fashioned" (_Diary Ft. St. Geo._, 1st ser. ii. 126).]

The Chinese scale of weight, with their trade-names, runs: 16 TAELS = 1

CATTY, 100 _catties_ = 1 PECUL = 133½ _lbs. avoird._ Milburn gives the

weights of Achin as 4 _copangs_ (see KOPANG) = 1 MACE, 5 MACE = 1 _mayam_,

16 _mayam_ = 1 _tale_ (see TAEL), 5 _tales_ = 1 _buncal_, 20 _buncals_ = 1

CATTY, 200 _catties_ = 1 BAHAR; and the _catty_ of Achīn as = 2 _lbs._ 1

_oz._ 13 _dr._ Of these names, MACE, TALE and BAHAR (qq.v.) seem to be of

Indian origin, _mayam_, _bangkal_, and _kati_ Malay.

1540.—"And those three junks which were then taken, according to the

assertion of those who were aboard, had contained in silver alone 200,000

TAELS (_taeis_), which are in our money 300,000 _cruzados_, besides much

else of value with which they were freighted."—_Pinto_, cap. xxxv.

1598.—"A TAEL is a full ounce and a halfe Portingale

weight."—_Linschoten_, 44; [Hak. Soc. i. 149].

1599.—"Est et ponderis genus, quod TAEL vocant in Malacca. TAEL unum in

Malacca pendet 16 MASAS."—_De Bry_, ii. 64.

" "Four hundred CASHES make a _cowpan_ (see KOBANG). Foure

_cowpans_ are one MAS. Foure _masses_ make a _Perdaw_ (see PARDAO). Four

_Perdaws_ make a TAYEL."—_Capt. T. Davis_, in _Purchas_, i. 123.

c. 1608.—"Bezar stones are thus bought by the TAILE ... which is one

Ounce, and the third part English."—_Saris_, in _do._, 392.

1613.—"A TAYE is five shillinge sterling."—_Saris_, in _do._ 369.

1643.—"Les Portugais sont fort desireux de ces Chinois pour esclaves ...

il y a des Chinois faicts à ce mestier ... quand ils voyent quelque beau

petit garçon ou fille ... les enleuent par force et les cachent ... puis

viennent sur la riue de la mer, ou ils sçauent que sont les trafiquans à

qui ils les vendent 12 et 15 TAYES chacun, qui est enuiron 25

escus."—_Mocquet_, 342.

c. 1656.—"Vn Religieux Chinois qui a esté surpris auec des femmes de

debauche ... l'on a percé le col avec vn fer chaud; à ce fer est attaché

vne chaisne de fer d'enuiron dix brasses qu'il est obligé de traisner

jusques à ce qu'il ait apporté au Couuent trente THEYLS d'argent qu'il

faut qu'il amasse en demandant l'aumosne."—In _Thevenot, Divers Voyages_,

ii. 67.

[1683.—"The abovesaid Musk weyes Cattee 10: TAHE 14: Mas

03...."—_Pringle, Diary Ft. St. Geo._, 1st ser. ii. 34.]

TAHSEELDAR, s. The chief (native) revenue officer of a subdivision

(_taḥsīl_, conf. PERGUNNAH, TALOOK) of a district (see ZILLAH). Hind. from

Pers. _taḥsīldār_, and that from Ar. _taḥsīl_, 'collection.' This is a term

of the Mahommedan administration which we have adopted. It appears by the

quotation from Williamson that the term was formerly employed in Calcutta

to designate the cash-keeper in a firm or private establishment, but this

use is long obsolete. [Possibly there was a confusion with _taḥvīldār_, 'a

cashier.']

[1772.—"TAHSILDAR, or _Sezawaul_, an officer employed for a monthly

salary to collect the revenues."—_Glossary_, in _Verelst, View of

Bengal_, s.v.]

1799.—"... He (Tippoo) divided his country into 37 Provinces under Dewans

(see DEWAUN) ... and he subdivided these again into 1025 inferior

districts, having each a TISHELDAR."—Letter of _Munro_, in _Life_, i.

215.

1808.—"... he continues to this hour TEHSILDAR of the petty pergunnah of

Sheopore."—_Fifth Report_, 583.

1810.—"... the sircar, or TUSSEELDAR (cash-keeper) receiving one key, and

the master retaining the other."—_Williamson, V.M._ i. 209.

[1826.—"... I told him ... that I was ... the bearer of letters to his

head collector or T,HUSEELDAM (_sic_) there."—_Pandurang Hari_, ed. 1873,

i. 155.]

TAILOR-BIRD, s. This bird is so called from the fact that it is in the

habit of drawing together "one leaf or more, generally two leaves, on each

side of the nest, and stitches them together with cotton, either woven by

itself, or cotton thread picked up; and after putting the thread through

the leaf, it makes a knot at the end to fix it" (_Jerdon_). It is

_Orthrotomos longicauda_, Gmelin (sub-fam. _Drymoicinae_).

[1813.—"Equally curious in the structure of its nest, and far superior

(to the BAYA) in the variety and elegance of its plumage, is the

TAILOR-BIRD of Hindostan" (here follows a description of its

nest).—_Forbes, Or. Mem._, 2nd ed. i. 33.]

1883.—"Clear and loud above all ... sounds the to-whee, to-whee, to-whee

of the TAILOR-BIRD, a most plain-looking little greenish thing, but a

skilful workman and a very Beaconsfield in the matter of keeping its own

counsel. Aided by its industrious spouse, it will, when the monsoon comes

on, spin cotton, or steal thread from the DURZEE, and sew together two

broad leaves of the laurel in the pot on your very doorstep, and when it

has warmly lined the bag so formed it will bring up therein a large

family of little tailors."—_Tribes on My Frontier_, 145.

TAJ, s. Pers. _tāj_, 'a crown.' The most famous and beautiful mausoleum in

Asia; the _Tāj Mahal_ at Agra, erected by Shāh Jahān over the burial-place

of his favourite wife Mumtāz-i-Mahal ('Ornament of the Palace') Banū Begam.

1663.—"I shall not stay to discourse of the Monument of _Ekbar_, because

whatever beauty is there, is found in a far higher degree in that of TAJ

MEHALE, which I am now going to describe to you ... judge whether I had

reason to say that the _Mausoleum_, or Tomb of TAJ-MEHALE, is something

worthy to be admired. For my part I do not yet well know, whether I am

somewhat infected still with Indianisme; but I must needs say, that I

believe it ought to be reckoned amongst the Wonders of the

World...."—_Bernier_, E.T. 94-96; [ed. _Constable_, 293].

1665.—"Of all the Monuments that are to be seen at _Agra_, that of the

Wife of _Cha-Jehan_ is the most magnificent; she caus'd it to be set up

on purpose near the _Tasimacan_, to which all strangers must come, that

they should admire it. The _Tasimacan_ [? Tāj-i-mukām, 'Place of the

Tāj'] is a great _Bazar_, or Market-place, comprised of six great courts,

all encompass'd with Portico's; under which there are Warehouses for

Merchants.... The monument of this _Begum_ or _Sultaness_, stands on the

East side of the City.... I saw the beginning and compleating of this

great work, that cost two and twenty years labour, and 20,000 men always

at work."—_Tavernier_, E.T. ii. 50; [ed. _Ball_, i. 109].

1856.—

"But far beyond compare, the glorious TAJ,

Seen from old Agra's towering battlements,

And mirrored clear in Jumna's silent stream;

Sun-lighted, like a pearly diadem

Set royal on the melancholy brow

Of withered Hindostan; but, when the moon

Dims the white marble with a softer light,

Like some queened maiden, veiled in dainty lace,

And waiting for her bridegroom, stately, pale,

But yet transcendent in her loveliness."

_The Banyan Tree._

TALAING, n.p. The name by which the chief race inhabiting Pegu (or the

Delta of the Irawadi) is known to the Burmese. The Talaings were long the

rivals of the Burmese, alternately conquering and conquered, but the

Burmese have, on the whole, so long predominated, even in the Delta, that

the use of the Talaing language is now nearly extinct in Pegu proper,

though it is still spoken in Martaban, and among the descendants of

emigrants into Siamese territory. We have adopted the name from the Burmese

to designate the race, but their own name for their people is _Mōn_ or

_Mūn_ (see MONE).

Sir Arthur Phayre has regarded the name _Talaing_ as almost undoubtedly a

form of TELINGA. The reasons given are plausible, and may be briefly stated

in two extracts from his Essay _On the History of Pegu_ (_J. As. Soc.

Beng._, vol. xlii. Pt. i.): "The names given in the histories of Tha-htun

and Pegu to the first Kings of those cities are Indian; but they cannot be

accepted as historically true. The countries from which the Kings are said

to have derived their origin ... may be recognised as Karnáta, _Kalinga_,

Venga and Vizianagaram ... probably mistaken for the more famous

Vijayanagar.... The word _Talingána_ never occurs in the Peguan histories,

but only the more ancient name Kalinga" (_op. cit._ pp. 32-33). "The early

settlement of a colony or city for trade, on the coast of Rámanya by

settlers from Talingána, satisfactorily accounts for the name TALAING, by

which the people of Pegu are known to the Burmese and all peoples of the

west. But the Peguans call themselves by a different name ... _Mun_,

_Mwun_, or _Mon_" (_ibid._ p. 34).

Prof. Forchhammer, however, who has lately devoted much labour to the study

of Talaing archæology and literature, entirely rejects this view. He states

that prior to the time of Alompra's conquest of Pegu (middle of 18th

century) the name Talaing was entirely unknown as an appellation of the

Muns, and that it nowhere occurs in either inscriptions or older

palm-leaves, and that by all nations of Further India the people in

question is known by names related to either _Mun_ or _Pegu_. He goes on:

"The word 'Talaing' is the term by which the Muns acknowledged their total

defeat, their being vanquished and the slaves of their Burmese conqueror.

They were no longer to bear the name of Muns or Peguans. Alompra

stigmatized them with an appellation suggestive at once of their submission

and disgrace. Talaing means" (in the Mun language) "'one who is trodden

under foot, a slave.'... Alompra could not have devised more effective

means to extirpate the national consciousness of a people than by burning

their books, forbidding the use of their language, and by substituting a

term of abject reproach for the name under which they had maintained

themselves for nearly 2000 years in the marine provinces of Burma. The

similarity of the two words 'Talaing' and 'Telingana' is purely accidental;

and all deductions, historical or etymological ... from the resemblance ...

must necessarily be void _ab initio_" (_Notes on Early Hist. and Geog. of

Br. Burma_, Pt. ii. pp. 11-12, Rangoon, 1884).

Here we leave the question. It is not clear whether Prof. F. gives the

story of Alompra as a historical fact, or as a probable explanation founded

on the etymology. Till this be clear we cannot say that we are altogether

satisfied. But the fact that we have been unable to find any occurrence of

_Talaing_ earlier than Symes's narrative is in favour of his view.

Of the relics of Talaing literature almost nothing is known. Much is to be

hoped from the studies of Prof. Forchhammer himself.

There are linguistic reasons for connecting the _Talaing_ or Mun people

with the so-called Kolarian tribes of the interior of India, but the point

is not yet a settled one. [Mr. Baines notes coincidences between the Mon

and Munda languages, and accepts the connection of Talaing with Telinga

(_Census Report_, 1891, i. p. 128).]

1795.—"The present King of the Birmans ... has abrogated some severe

penal laws imposed by his predecessors on the TALIENS, or native Peguers.

Justice is now impartially distributed, and the only distinction at

present between a Birman and a TALIEN, consists in the exclusion of the

latter from places of public trust and power."—_Symes_, 183.

TALAPOIN, s. A word used by the Portuguese, and after them by French and

other Continental writers, as well as by some English travellers of the

17th century, to designate the Buddhist monks of Ceylon and the

Indo-Chinese countries. The origin of the expression is obscure.

Monseigneur Pallegoix, in his _Desc. du Royaume Thai ou Siam_ (ii. 23)

says: "Les Européens les ont appelés TALAPOINS, probablement du nom de

l'éventail qu'ils tiennent à la main, lequel s'appelle _talapat_, qui

signifie _feuille de palmier_." Childers gives _Talapannam_, Pali, 'a leaf

used in writing, &c.' This at first sight seems to have nothing to support

it except similarity of sound; but the quotations from Pinto throw some

possible light, and afford probability to this origin, which is also

accepted by Koeppen (_Rel. des Buddhas_, i. 331 _note_), and by Bishop

Bigandet (_J. Ind. Archip._ iv. 220). [Others, however, derive it from

Peguan _Tilapoin_, _tala_ (not _tila_), 'lord,' _poin_, 'wealth.']

c. 1554.—"... hũa procissão ... na qual se affirmou ... que hião quarenta

mil Sacerdotes ... dos quaes muytos tinhão differentes dignidades, come

erão _Grepos_ (?), TALAGREPOS, _Rolins_, _Neepois_, _Bicos_, _Sacareus_ e

_Chanfarauhos_, os quaes todas pelas vestiduras, de que hião ornados, _e

pelas divisas, e insignias, que levarão nas mãos, se conhecião_, quaes

erão huno, e quaes erão outros."—_F. M. Pinto_, ch. clx. Thus rendered by

Cogan: "A Procession ... it was the common opinion of all, that in this

Procession were 40,000 Priests ... most of them were of different

dignities, and called Grepos, TALAGREPOS (&c.). Now by the ornaments they

wear, as also by the devices and ensigns which they carry in their hands,

they may be distinguished."—p. 218.

" "O _Chaubainha_ lhe mandou hũa carta por hum seu _Grepo_ TALAPOY,

religioso já de idade de oitenta annos."—_Pinto_, ch. cxlix. By Cogan:

"The _Chaubinhaa_ sent the King a Letter by one of his Priests that was

fourscore years of age."—_Cogan_, 199.

[1566.—"TALAPOINS." See under COSMIN.]

c. 1583.—"... Sì veggono le case di legno tutte dorate, et ornate di

bellissimi giardini fatti alla loro vsanza, nelle quali habitano tutti i

TALAPOI, che sono i loro Frati, che stanno a gouerno del

Pagodo."—_Gasparo Balbi_, f. 96.

1586.—"There are ... many good houses for the TALLAPOIES to preach

in."—_R. Fitch_, in _Hakl._ ii. 93.

1597.—"The TALIPOIS persuaded the _Iangoman_, brother to the King of

_Pegu_, to vsurpe the Kingdome, which he refused, pretending his Oath.

They replied that no Religion hindered, if he placed his brother in the

_Vahat_, that is, a _Golden Throne_, to be adored of the people for a

God."—_Nicolas Pimenta_, in _Purchas_, ii. 1747.

1612.—"There are in all those Kingdoms many persons belonging to

different Religious Orders; one of which in Pegu they call

TALAPOIS."—_Couto_, V. vi. 1.

1659.—"Whilst we looked on these temples, wherin these horrid idols sat,

there came the Aracan TALPOOYS, or Priests, and fell down before the

idols."—_Walter Schulze, Reisen_, 77.

1689.—"S'il vous arrive de fermer la bouche aux TALAPOINS et de mettre en

évidence leurs erreurs, ne vous attendez qu'à les avoir pour ennemis

implacables."—_Lett. Edif._ xxv. 64.

1690.—"Their Religious they call TELAPOI, who are not unlike mendicant

_Fryers_, living upon the Alms of the People, and so highly venerated by

them that they would be glad to drink the Water wherein they wash their

Hands."—_Ovington_, 592.

1696.—"... à permettre l'entrée de son royaume aux TALAPOINS."—_La

Bruyère, Caractères_, ed. Jouast, 1881, ii. 305.

1725.—"This great train is usually closed by the Priests or TALAPOIS and

Musicians."—_Valentijn_, v. 142.

1727.—"The other Sects are taught by the TALAPOINS, who ... preach up

Morality to be the best Guide to human Life, and affirm that a good Life

in this World can only recommend us in the next to have our Souls

transmigrated into the Body of some innocent Beast."—_A. Hamilton_, i.

151; [ed. 1744, i. 152].

" "The great God, whose Adoration is left to their TALLAPOIES or

Priests."—_Ibid._ ii.; [ed. 1744, ii. 54].

1759.—"When asked if they believed the existence of any SUPERIOR BEING,

they (the _Carianners_ (CARENS)) replied that the Bûraghmahs and Pegu

TALLOPINS told them so."—Letter in _Dalrymple, Or. Rep._ i. 100.

1766.—"_André Des Couches._ Combien avez-vous de soldats? _Croutef._

Quatre-vingt-mille, fort médiocrement payés. _A. des C._ Et de TALAPOINS?

_Cr._ Cent vingt mille, tous faineans et très riches. Il est vrai que

dans la dernière guerre nous avons été bien battus; mais, en récompense,

nos TALAPOINS ont fait très grande chère," &c.—_Voltaire_, Dial. xxii.

_André Des Couches à Siam._

c. 1818.—"A certain priest or TALAPOIN conceived an inordinate affection

for a garment of an elegant shape, which he possessed, and which he

diligently preserved to prevent its wearing out. He died without

correcting his irregular affection, and immediately becoming a louse,

took up his abode in his favourite garment."—_Sangermano_, p. 20.

1880.—"The _Phongyies_ (POONGEE), or Buddhist Monks, sometimes called

TALAPOINS, a name given to them, and introduced into Europe by the

Portuguese, from their carrying a fan formed of _tála-pat_, or

palm-leaves."—_Saty. Rev._, Feb. 21, p. 266, quoting _Bp. Bigandet_.

TALEE, s. Tam. _tāli_. A small trinket of gold which is fastened by a

string round the neck of a married woman in S. India. It may be a curious

question whether the word may not be an adaptation from the Ar. _tahlīl_,

"qui signifie proprement: prononcer la formule _lâ ilâha illâ 'llâh_....

Cette formule, écrite sur un morceau de papier, servait d'amulette ... le

tout était renfermé dans un étui auquel on donnait le nom de _tahlīl_"

(_Dozy & Engelmann_, 346). These Mahommedan _tahlīls_ were worn by a band,

and were the origin of the Span. word _tali_, 'a baldrick.' [But the

_talee_ is a Hindu, not a Mahommedan ornament, and there seems no doubt

that it takes its name from Skt. _tāla_, 'the palmyra' (see TALIPOT), it

being the original practice for women to wear this leaf dipped in

saffron-water (_Mad. Gloss._ s.v. _Logan, Malabar_, i. 134).] The Indian

word appears to occur first in Abraham Rogerius, but the custom is alluded

to by early writers, _e.g._ Gouvea, _Synodo_, f. 43_v_.

1651.—"So the Bridegroom takes this TALI, and ties it round the neck of

his bride."—_Rogerius_, 45.

1672.—"Among some of the Christians there is also an evil custom, that

they for the greater tightening and fast-making of the marriage bond,

allow the Bridegroom to tie a TALI or little band round the Bride's neck;

although in my time this was as much as possible denounced, seeing that

it is a custom derived from Heathenism."—_Baldaeus, Zeylon_ (German),

408.

1674.—"The bridegroom attaches to the neck of the bride a line from which

hang three little pieces of gold in honour of the three gods: and this

they call TALE; and it is the sign of being a married woman."—_Faria y

Sousa, Asia Port._, ii. 707.

1704.—"Praeterea, quum moris hujus Regionis sit, ut infantes sex vel

septem annorum, interdum etiam in teneriori aetate, ex genitorum

consensu, matrimonium indissolubile de praesenti contrahant, per

impositionem TALII, seu aureae tesserae nuptialis, uxoris collo pensilis:

missionariis mandamus ne hujusmodi irrita matrimonia inter Christianos

fieri permittant."—_Decree of Card. Tournon_, in _Norbert, Mem. Hist._ i.

155.

1726.—"And on the betrothal day the TALI, or bride's betrothal band, is

tied round her neck by the Bramin ... and this she must not untie in her

husband's life."—_Valentijn, Choro._ 51.

[1813.—"... the TALI, which is a ribbon with a gold head hanging to it,

is held ready; and, being shown to the company, some prayers and

blessings are pronounced; after which the bridegroom takes it, and hangs

it about the bride's neck."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ 2nd ed. ii. 312.]

TALIAR, TARRYAR, s. A watchman (S. India). Tam. _talaiyāri_, [from _talai_,

'head,' a chief watchman].

1680.—"The Peons and TARRYARS sent in quest of two soldiers who had

deserted ... returned with answer that they could not light of them,

whereupon the Peons were turned out of service, but upon Verona's

intercession were taken in again and fined each one month's pay, and to

repay the money paid them for Battee (see BATTA); also the Pedda Naigu

was fined in like manner for his TARRYARS."—_Fort St. Geo. Consns._, Feb.

10. In _Notes and Exts._, Madras, 1873, No. III. p. 3.

1693.—"TALIARS and Peons appointed to watch the Black Town...."—In

_Wheeler_, i. 267.

1707.—"Resolving to march 250 soldiers, 200 TALLIARS, and 200

peons."—_Ibid._ ii. 74.

[1800.—"In every village a particular officer, called TALLIARI, keeps

watch at night, and is answerable for all that may be stolen."—_Buchanan,

Mysore_, i. 3.]

TALIPOT, s. The great-leaved fan-palm of S. India and Ceylon, _Corypha

umbraculifera_, L. The name, from Skt. _tāla-pattra_, Hind. _tālpāt_, 'leaf

of the _tāla_ tree,' properly applies to the _leaf_ of such a tree, or to

the smaller leaf of the palmyra (_Borassus flabelliformis_), used for many

purposes, _e.g._ for slips to write on, to make fans and umbrellas, &c. See

OLLAH, PALMYRA, TALAPOIN. Sometimes we find the word used for an umbrella,

but this is not common. The quotation from Jordanus, though using no name,

refers to this tree. [Arrian says: "These trees were called in Indian

speech _tala_, and there grew on them, as there grows at the tops of the

palm-trees, a fruit resembling balls of wool" (_Indika_, vii.).]

c. 1328.—"In this India are certain trees which have leaves so big that

five or six men can very well stand under the shade of one of them."—_Fr.

Jordanus_, 29-30.

c. 1430.—"These leaves are used in this country for writing upon instead

of paper, and in rainy weather are carried on the head as a covering, to

keep off the wet. Three or four persons travelling together can be

covered by one of these leaves stretched out." And again: "There is also

a tree called TAL, the leaves of which are extremely large, and upon

which they write."—_N. Conti_, in _India in the XV. Cent._, 7 and 13.

1672.—"TALPETS or sunshades."—_Baldaeus_, Dutch ed., 102.

1681.—"There are three other trees that must not be omitted. The first is

TALIPOT...."—_Knox_, 15.

" "They (the priests) have the honour of carrying the TALLIPOT with

the broad end over their heads foremost; which none but the King

does."—_Ibid._ 74. [See TALAPOIN.]

1803.—"The TALIPOT tree ... affords a prodigious leaf, impenetrable to

sun or rain, and large enough to shelter ten men. It is a natural

umbrella, and is of as eminent service in that country as a great-coat

tree would be in this. A leaf of the TALIPOT-tree is a tent to the

soldier, a parasol to the traveller, and a book to the scholar."—_Sydney

Smith, Works_, 3rd ed. iii. 15.

1874.—"... dans les embrasures ... s'étalaient des bananiers, des

TALLIPOTS...."—_Franz, Souvenirs d'un Cosaque_, ch. iv.

1881.—"The lofty head of the TALIPOT palm ... the proud queen of the

tribe in Ceylon, towers above the scrub on every side. Its trunk is

perfectly straight and white, like a slender marble column, and often

more than 100 feet high. Each of the fans that compose the crown of

leaves covers a semicircle of from 12 to 16 feet radius, a surface of 150

to 200 square feet."—_Haeckel's Visit to Ceylon_, E.T. p. 129.

TALISMAN, s. This word is used by many medieval and post-medieval writers

for what we should now call a MOOLLAH, or the like, a member of the

Mahommedan clergy, so to call them. It is doubtless the corruption of some

Ar. term, but of _what_ it is not easy to say. Qu. _talāmiẓa_, 'disciples,

students'? [See _Burton, Ar. Nights_, ix. 165.] On this Prof. Robertson

Smith writes: "I have got some fresh light on your _Talisman_.

"W. Bedwell, the father of English Arabists, in his _Catalogue_ of the

Chapters of the _Turkish Alkoran_, published (1615) along with the

_Mohammedis Imposturae_, and _Arabian Trudgman_, has the following, quoted

from _Postellus de Orbis Concordia_, i. 13: 'Haec precatio (the _fātiḥa_)

illis est communis ut nobis dominica: et ita quibusdum ad battologiam usque

recitatur ut centies idem, aut duo aut tria vocabula repetant dicendo,

_Alhamdu lillah, hamdu lillah, hamdu lillah_, et cetera ejus vocabula eodem

modo. Idque facit in publicà oratione TAALIMA, id est sacrificulus, pro his

qui negligenter orant ut aiunt, ut ea repititione suppleat eorum

erroribus.... Quidam medio in campo tam assiduè, ut defessi considant; alii

circumgirando corpus,' etc.

"Here then we have a form without the _s_, and one which from the vowels

seem to be _ti'lima_, 'a very learned man.' This, owing to the influence of

the guttural, would sound in modern pronunciation nearly as _Taalima_. At

the same time _ti'lima_ is not the name of an office, and prayers on behalf

of others can be undertaken by any one who receives a mandate, and is paid

for them; so it is very possible that Postellus, who was an Arabic scholar,

made the pointing suit his idea of the word meant, and that the real word

is _talāmi_, a shortened form, recognised by Jawhari, and other

lexicographers, of TALĀMIDH, 'disciples.' That students should turn a penny

by saying prayers for others is very natural." This, therefore, confirms

our conjecture of the origin.

1338.—"They treated me civilly, and set me in front of their mosque

during their Easter; at which mosque, on account of its being their

Easter, there were assembled from divers quarters a number of their

_Cadini_, _i.e._ of their bishops, and of their TALISMANI, _i.e._ of

their priests."—Letter of _Friar Pascal_, in _Cathay_, &c., p. 235.

1471.—"In questa città è vna fossa d'acqua nel modo di vna fontana, la

qual'è guardata da quelli suoi THALASSIMANI, cioè preti; quest'acqua

dicono che ha gran vertù contra la lebra, e contra le

caualette."—_Giosafa Barbaro_, in _Ramusio_, ii. f. 107.

1535.—

"Non vi sarebbe più confusione

S'a Damasco il Soldan desse l'assalto;

Un muover d'arme, un correr di persone

E di TALACIMANNI un gridar d'alto."

_Ariosto_, xviii. 7.

1554.—"TALISMÁNNOS habent hominum genus templorum ministerio

dicatum...."—_Busbeq. Epistola._ i. p. 40.

c. 1590.—"Vt TALISMANNI, qui sint commodius intelligatur: sciendum,

certos esse gradus Mahumetanis eorum qui legum apud ipsos periti sunt, et

partim jus dicunt, partim legem interpretantur. Ludovicus Bassanus

Iadrensis in hunc modum comparat eos cum nostris Ecclesiasticis....

_Muphtim_ dicit esse inter ipsos instar vel Papae nostro, vel Patriarchae

Graecorum.... Huic proximi sunt _Cadilescheri_.... Bassanus hos cum

Archiepiscopis nostris comparat. Sequuntur CADIJ ... locum obtinent

Episcopi. Secundum hos sunt eis _Hoggiae_,[262] qui seniores dicuntur, vt

Graecis et nostris Presbyteri. Excipiunt _Hoggias_ TALISMANI, seu

Presbyteros Diaconi. Vltimi sunt DERVISII, qui Calogeris Graecorum,

monachis nostris respondent. TALISMANI Mahumetanis ad preces interdiu et

noctu quinquis excitant."—_Leunclavius, Annales Sultanorum Othmanidarum_,

ed. 1650, 414.

1610.—"Some hauing two, some foure, some sixe adioyning turrets,

exceeding high, and exceeding slender: tarrast aloft on the outside like

the maine top of a ship ... from which the TALISMANNI with elated voices

(for they vse no bels) do congregate the people...."—_Sandys_, p. 31.

c. 1630.—"The _Fylalli_ converse most in the Alcoran. The _Deruissi_ are

wandering wolves in sheepes clothing. The TALISMANNI regard the houres of

prayer by turning the 4 hour'd glasse. The _Muyezini_ crie from the tops

of Mosques, battologuizing Llala Hyllula."—_Sir T. Herbert_, 267; [and

see ed. 1677, p. 323].

1678.—"If he can read like a Clerk a Chapter out of the Alcoran ... he

shall be crowned with the honour of being a Mullah or

TALMAN...."—_Fryer_, 368.

1687.—"... It is reported by the Turks that ... the victorious Sultan ...

went with all Magnificent pomp and solemnity to pay his thanksgiving and

devotions at the church of Sancta Sophia; the Magnificence so pleased

him, that he immediately added a yearly Rent of 10,000 zechins to the

former Endowments, for the maintenance of IMAUMS or Priests, Doctours of

their Law, TALISMANS and others who continually attend there for the

education of youth...."—_Sir P. Rycaut, Present State of the Ottoman

Empire_, p. 54.

TĀLIYAMĀR, s. Sea-Hind. for 'cut-water.' Port. _talhamar_.—_Roebuck._

TALLICA, s. Hind. from Ar. _ta'līḳah_. An invoice or schedule.

1682.—"... that he ... would send another Droga (DAROGA) or CUSTOMER on

purpose to take our TALLICAS."—_Hedges, Diary_, Dec. 26; [Hak. Soc. i.

60. Also see under KUZZANNA].

TALOOK, s. This word, Ar. _ta'alluḳ_, from root _'alaḳ_, 'to hang or

depend,' has various shades of meaning in different parts of India. In S.

and W. India it is the subdivision of a district, presided over as regards

revenue matters by a TAHSEELDAR. In Bengal it is applied to tracts of

proprietary land, sometimes not easily distinguished from _Zemindaries_,

and sometimes subordinate to or dependent on Zemindars. In the N.W. Prov.

and Oudh the _ta'alluḳ_ is an estate the profits of which are divided

between different proprietors, one being superior, the other inferior (see

TALOOKDAR). _Ta'alluḳ_ is also used in Hind. for 'department' of

administration.

1885.—"In October, 1779, the Dacca Council were greatly disturbed in

their minds by the appearance amongst them of John Doe, who was then

still in his prime. One Chundermonee demised to John Doe and his assigns

certain lands in the pergunna Bullera ... whereupon George III., by the

Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, King, Defender of

the Faith, and so forth, commanded the Sheriff of Calcutta to give John

Doe possession. At this Mr. Shakspeare burst into fury, and in language

which must have surprised John Doe, proposed 'that a _sezawul_ be

appointed for the collection of Patparrah TALOOK, with directions to pay

the same into Bullera CUTCHERRY.'"—_Sir J. Stephen, Nuncomar and Impey_,

ii. 159-60. A _sazãwal_ is "an officer specially appointed to collect the

revenue of an estate, from the management of which the owner or farmer

has been removed."—(_Wilson_).

TALOOKDĀR, s. Hind. from Pers. _ta'alluḳdār_, 'the holder of a _ta'alluḳ_'

(see TALOOK) in either of the senses of that word; _i.e._ either a

Government officer collecting the revenue of a _ta'alluḳ_ (though in this

sense it is probably now obsolete everywhere), or the holder of an estate

so designated. The famous _Talookdars_ of Oudh are large landowners,

possessing both villages of which they are sole proprietors, and other

villages, in which there are subordinate holders, in which the _Talookdar_

is only the superior proprietor (see _Carnegie, Kachari Technicalities_).

[1769.—"... inticements are frequently employed by the TALOOKDARS to

augment the concourse to their lands."—_Verelst, View of Bengal_, App.

233. In his _Glossary_ he defines "_Talookdar_, the Zemeen-dar of a small

district."]

TAMARIND, s. The pod of the tree which takes its name from that product,

_Tamarindus indica_, L., N.O. _Leguminosae_. It is a tree cultivated

throughout India and Burma for the sake of the acid pulp of the pod, which

is laxative and cooling, forming a most refreshing drink in fever. The tree

is not believed by Dr. Brandis to be indigenous in India, but is supposed

to be so in tropical Africa. The origin of the name is curious. It is Ar.

_tamar-u'l-Hind_, 'date of India,' or perhaps rather in Persian form,

_tamar-i-Hindī_. It is possible that the original name may have been

_thamar_, 'fruit' of India, rather than _tamar_, 'date.'

1298.—"When they have taken a merchant vessel, they force the merchants

to swallow a stuff called TAMARINDI, mixed in sea-water, which produces a

violent purging."—_Marco Polo_, 2nd ed., ii. 383.

c. 1335.—"L'arbre appelé _ḥammar_, c'est à dire AL-TAMAR-AL-HINDI, est un

arbre sauvage qui couvre les montagnes."—_Masālik-al-abṣar_, in _Not. et

Ext._ xiii. 175.

1563.—"It is called in Malavar _puli_, and in Guzerat _ambili_, and this

is the name they have among all the other people of this India; and the

Arab calls it TAMARINDI, because _tamar_, as you well know, is our

_tamara_, or, as the Castilians say, _datil_ [_i.e._ date], so that

TAMARINDI are 'dates of India'; and this was because the Arabs could not

think of a name more appropriate on account of its having stones inside,

and not because either the tree or the fruit had any

resemblance."—_Garcia_, f. 200. [_Puli_ is the Malayāl. name; _ambilii_

is probably Hind. _imlī_, Skt. _amlikā_, 'the tamarind.']

c. 1580.—"In febribus verò pestilentibus, atque omnibus aliis ex

putridis, exurentibus, aquam, in qua multa copia TAMARINDORUM infusa

fuerit cum saccharo ebibunt."—_Prosper Alpinus (De Plantis Aegypt.)_ ed.

Lugd. Bat. 1735, ii. 20.

1582.—"They have a great store of TAMARINDOS...."—_Castañeda_, by N.L. f.

94.

[1598.—"TAMARINDE is by the Aegyptians called _Derelside_ (qu.

_dār-al-sayyida_, 'Our Lady's tree'?)."—_Linschoten_, Hak. Soc. ii. 121.]

1611.—"That wood which we cut for firewood did all hang trased with cods

of greene fruit (as big as a Bean-cod in England) called TAMERIM; it hath

a very soure tast, and by the Apothecaries is held good against the

Scurvie."—_N. Dounton_, in _Purchas_, i. 277.

[1623.—"TAMARINDS, which the Indians call _Hambele_" (_imlī_, as in

quotation from Garcia above).—_P. della Valle_, Hak. Soc. i. 92.]

1829.—"A singularly beautiful TAMARIND tree (ever the most graceful, and

amongst the most magnificent of trees)...."—_Mem. of Col. Mountain_, 98.

1877.—"The natives have a saying that sleeping beneath the 'DATE OF HIND'

gives you fever, which you cure by sleeping under a _nim_ tree (_Melia

azedirachta_), the lilac of Persia."—_Burton, Sind Revisited_, i. 92. The

_nim_ (see NEEM) (_pace_ Capt. Burton) is not the 'lilac of Persia' (see

BUCKYNE). The prejudice against encamping or sleeping under a tamarind

tree is general in India. But, curiously, Bp. Pallegoix speaks of it as

the practice of the Siamese "to rest and play under the beneficent shade

of the TAMARIND."—(_Desc. du Royaume Thai ou Siam_, i. 136).

TAMARIND-FISH, s. This is an excellent zest, consisting, according to Dr.

Balfour, of white POMFRET, cut in transverse slices, and preserved in

tamarinds. The following is a note kindly given by the highest authority on

Indian fish matters, Dr. Francis Day:

"My account of TAMARIND FISH is very short, and in my _Fishes of Malabar_

as follows:—

"'The best TAMARIND FISH is prepared from the Seir fish (see SEER-FISH),

and from the _Lates calcarifer_, known as COCKUP in Calcutta; and a

rather inferior quality from the _Polynemus_ (or Roe-ball, to which genus

the MANGO-FISH belongs), and the more common from any kind of fish.' The

above refers to Malabar, and more especially to Cochin. Since I wrote my

_Fishes of Malabar_ I have made many inquiries as to TAMARIND FISH, and

found that the white pomfret, where it is taken, appears to be the best

for making the preparation."

TAMBERANEE, s. Malayāl. _tam-burān_, 'Lord; God, or King.' It is a title of

honour among the NAIRS, and is also assumed by Saiva monks in the Tamil

countries. [The word is derived from Mal. _tam_, 'one's own,' _purān_,

'lord.' The junior male members of the Malayāli Rāja's family, until they

come of age, are called _Tambān_, and after that _Tamburān_. The female

members are similarly styled _Tambaṭṭi_ and _Tamburaṭṭi_ (_Logan, Malabar_,

iii. _Gloss._ s.v.).]

1510.—"Dice l'altro TAMARAI: zoe Per Dio? L'altro respõde TAMARANI: zoe

Per Dio."—_Varthema_, ed. 1517, f. 45.

[c. 1610.—"They (the Nairs) call the King in their language TAMBIRAINE,

meaning 'God.'"—_Pyrard de Laval_, Hak. Soc. i. 357.]

TANA, TANNA, n.p. _Thāna_, a town on the Island of Salsette on the strait

('River of Tana') dividing that island from the mainland and 20 m. N.E. of

Bombay, and in the early Middle Ages the seat of a Hindu kingdom of the

Konkan (see CONCAN), as well as a seaport of importance. It is still a

small port, and is the chief town of the District which bears its name.

c. 1020.—"From Dhár southwards to the river Nerbudda, nine; thence to

Mahratdes ... eighteen; thence to Konkan, of which the capital is TANA,

on the sea-shore, twenty-five parasangs."—_Al-Birūnī_, in _Elliot_, i.

60.

[c. 1150.—"TANAH," miswritten BANAH. See under TABASHEER.]

1298.—"TANA is a great Kingdom lying towards the West.... There is much

traffic here, and many ships and merchants frequent the place."—_Marco

Polo_, Bk. III. ch. 27.

1321.—"After their blessed martyrdom, which occurred on the Thursday

before Palm Sunday in THANA of India, I baptised about 90 persons in a

certain city called Parocco, ten days' journey distant therefrom, and I

have since baptised more than twenty, besides thirty-five who were

baptised between THANA and Supera (SUPARA)."—_Letter of Friar Jordanus_,

in _Cathay_, &c., 226.

c. 1323.—"And having thus embarked I passed over in 28 days to TANA,

where for the faith of Christ four of our Minor Friars had suffered

martyrdom.... The land is under the dominion of the Saracens...."—_Fr.

Odoric_, _Ibid._ i. 57-58.

1516.—"25 leagues further on the coast is a fortress of the before-named

king, called TANA-_Mayambu_" (this is perhaps rather BOMBAY).—_Barbosa_,

68.

1529.—"And because the norwest winds blew strong, winds contrary to his

course, after going a little way he turned and anchored in sight of the

island, where were stationed the foists with their captain-in-chief

Alixa, who seeing our fleet in motion put on his oars and assembled at

the River of TANA, and when the wind came round our fleet made sail, and

anchored at the mouth of the River of TANA, for the wind would not allow

of its entering."—_Correa_, iii. 290.

1673.—"The Chief City of this Island is called TANAW; in which are Seven

Churches and Colleges, the chiefest one of the _Paulistines_ (see

PAULIST).... Here are made good Stuffs of Silk and Cotton."—_Fryer_, 73.

TANA, THANA, s. A Police station. Hind. _thāna_, _thānā_, [Skt. _sthāna_,

'a place of standing, a post']. From the quotation following it would seem

that the term originally meant a fortified post, with its garrison, for the

military occupation of the country; a meaning however closely allied to the

present use.

c. 1640-50.—"THÁNAH means a corps of cavalry, matchlockmen, and archers,

stationed within an enclosure. Their duty is to guard the roads, to hold

the places surrounding the THÁNAH, and to despatch provisions (_rasad_,

see RUSSUD) to the next THÁNAH."—_Pádisháh námah_, quoted by _Blochmann_,

in _Āīn_, i. 345.

TANADAR, THANADAR, s. The chief of a police station (see TANA), Hind.

_thānadār_. This word was adopted in a more military sense at an early date

by the Portuguese, and is still in habitual use with us in the civil sense.

1516.—In a letter of 4th Feb. 1515 (_i.e._ 1516), the King Don Manoel

constitutes João Machado to be TANADAR and captain of land forces in

Goa.—_Archiv. Port. Orient._ fasc. 5, 1-3.

1519.—"Senhor Duarte Pereira; this is the manner in which you will

exercise your office of TANNADAR of this Isle of Tyçoari (_i.e._ Goa),

which the Senhor Capitão will now encharge you with."—_Ibid._ p. 35.

c. 1548.—"In Aguaci is a great mosque (_mizquita_), which is occupied by

the _tenadars_, but which belongs to His Highness; and certain _petayas_,

(yards?) in which _bate_ (PADDY) is collected, which also belong to His

Highness."—_Tombo_ in _Subsidios_, 216.

1602.—"So all the force went aboard of the light boats, and the Governor

in his bastard-galley entered the river with a grand clangour of music,

and when he was in mid-channel there came to his galley a boat, in which

was the TANADAR of the City (Dabul), and going aboard the galley

presented himself to the Governor with much humility, and begged pardon

of his offences...."—_Couto_, IV. i. 9.

[1813.—"The third in succession was a TANDAR, or petty officer of a

district...."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ 2nd ed. ii. 5.]

TANGA, s. Mahr. _ṭānk_, Turki _tanga_. A denomination of coin which has

been in use over a vast extent of territory, and has varied greatly in

application. It is now chiefly used in Turkestan, where it is applied to a

silver coin worth about 7½_d._ And Mr. W. Erskine has stated that the word

_tanga_ or _tanka_ is of Chagatai Turki origin, being derived from _tang_,

which in that language means 'white' (_H. of Baber and Humayun_, i. 546).

Though one must hesitate in differing from one usually so accurate, we must

do so here. He refers to Josafa Barbaro, who says this, viz. that certain

silver coins are called by the Mingrelians _tetari_, by the Greeks _aspri_,

by the Turks _akcha_, and by the Zagatais _tengh_, all of which words in

the respective languages signify 'white.' We do not however find such a

word in the dictionaries of either Vambéry or of Pavet de Courteille;—the

latter only having _tangah_, 'fer-blanc.' And the obvious derivation is the

Skt. _ṭaṅka_, 'a weight (of silver) equal to 4 _māshas_ ... a stamped

coin.' The word in the forms _ṭakā_ (see TUCKA) and _ṭanga_ (for these are

apparently identical in origin) is, "in all dialects, laxly used for money

in general" (_Wilson_).

In the Lahore coinage of Mahmūd of Ghaznī, A.H. 418-419 (A.D. 1027-28), we

find on the Skt. legend of the reverse the word _ṭanka_ in correspondence

with the _dirham_ of the Ar. obverse (see _Thomas, Pathan Kings_, p. 49).

_Ṭanka_ or _Ṭanga_ seems to have continued to be the popular name of the

chief silver coin of the Delhi sovereigns during the 13th and first part of

the 14th centuries, a coin which was substantially the same with the RUPEE

(q.v.) of later days. In fact this application of the word in the form

_ṭakā_ (see TUCKA) is usual in Bengal down to our own day. Ibn Batuta

indeed, who was in India in the time of Mahommed Tughlak, 1333-1343 or

thereabouts, always calls the gold coin then current a _tanka_ or _dīnār_

of gold. It was, as he repeatedly states, the equivalent of 10 silver

_dīnārs_. These silver _dīnārs_ (or rupees) are called by the author of the

_Masālik-al-Abṣār_ (c. 1340) the "silver _tanka_ of India." The gold and

silver _tanka_ continue to be mentioned repeatedly in the history of Feroz

Shāh, the son of Mahommed (1351-1388), and apparently with the same value

as before. At a later period under Sikandar Buhlol (1488-1517), we find

_black_ (or copper) _tankas_, of which 20 went to the old silver _tanka_.

We cannot say when the coin, or its name rather, first appeared in

Turkestan.

But the name was also prevalent on the western coast of India as that of a

low denomination of coin, as may be seen in the quotations from Linschoten

and Grose. Indeed the name still survives in Goa as that of a copper coin

equivalent to 60 _reis_ or about 2_d._ And in the 16th century also 60

_reis_ appears from the papers of Gerson da Cunha to have been the

equivalent of the silver _tanga_ of Goa and Bassein, though all the

equations that he gives suggest that the _rei_ may have been more valuable

then.

The denomination is also found in Russia under the form DENGI. See a

quotation under COPECK, and compare PARDAO.

c. 1335.—"According to what I have heard from the Shaikh Mubarak, the red

_lak_ (see LACK) contains 100,000 golden TANKAHS, and the white _lak_

100,000 (silver) TANKAHS. The golden TANKA, called in this country the

red _tanka_, is equivalent to three _mithḳāls_, and the silver TANKA is

equivalent to 8 _hashtkānī dirhams_, this _dirham_ being of the same

weight as the silver _dirham_ current in Egypt and

Syria."—_Masālik-al-abṣār_, in _Not. et Exts._ xiii. 211.

c. 1340.—"Then I returned home after sunset and found the money at my

house. There were 3 bags containing in all 6233 TANKAS, _i.e._ the

equivalent of the 55,000 dīnārs (of silver) which was the amount of my

debts, and of the 12,000 which the sultan had previously ordered to be

paid me, after of course deducting the tenth part according to Indian

custom. The value of the piece called TANKA is 2½ dīnārs in gold of

Barbary."—_Ibn Batuta_, iii. 426. (Here the gold TANGA is spoken of.)

c. 1370.—"Sultán Fíroz issued several varieties of coins. There was the

gold TANKA, and the silver TANKA," &c.—_Táríkh-i-Fíroz Sháhí_, in

_Elliot_, iii. 357.

1404.—"... vna sua moneda de plata que llaman TANGAES."—_Clavijo_, f.

46_b_.

1516.—"... a round coin like ours, and with Moorish letters on both

sides, and about the size of a _fanon_ (see FANAM) of Calicut, ... and

its worth 55 maravedis; they call these TANGA, and they are of very fine

silver."—_Barbosa_, 45.

[1519.—Rules regulating ferry-dues at Goa: "they may demand for this one

TAMGUA only."—_Archiv. Port. Orient._ fasc. 5, p. 18.]

c. 1541.—"Todar ... fixed first a golden _ashrafi_ (see ASHRAFEE) as the

enormous remuneration for one stone, which induced the _Ghakkars_ to

flock to him in such numbers that afterwards a stone was paid with a

rupee, and this pay gradually fell to 5 TANKAS, till the fortress

(Rōhtās) was completed."—_Táríkh-i-Khán-Jahán Lodí_, in _Elliot_, v. 115.

(These are the Bahlūlī or Sikandarī TANKAS of copper, as are also those

in the next quotation from _Elliot_.)

1559.—"The old Muscovite money is not round but oblong or egg-shaped, and

is called DENGA.... 100 of these coins make a Hungarian gold-piece; 6

DENGAS make an _altin_; 20 a _grifna_; 100 a _poltina_; and 200 a

_ruble_."—_Herberstein_, in _Ramusio_, ii. f. 158_v_.

[1571.—"Gujarati TANKCHAHS at 100 TANKCHAHS to the rupee. At the present

time the rupee is fixed at 40 dams.... As the current value of the

TANKCHAH of Pattan, etc., was less than that of

Gujarat."—_Mirat-i-Ahmadī_, in _Bayley, Gujarat_, pp. 6, 11.

[1591.—"DINGOES." See under RUBLE.]

1592-3.—"At the present time, namely, A.H. 1002, Hindustan contains 3200

towns, and upon each town are dependent 200, 500, 1000, or 1500 villages.

The whole yields a revenue of 640 _krors_ (see CRORE) _murádí_

TANKAS."—_Ṭabaḳāt-i-Akbarī_, in _Elliot_, v. 186.

1598.—"There is also a kinde of reckoning of money which is called

TANGAS, not that there is any such coined, but are so named onely in

telling, five TANGAS is one _Pardaw_ (see PARDAO), or XERAPHIN badde

money, for you must understande that in telling they have two kinds of

money, good and badde, for foure TANGAS good money are as much as five

TANGAS badde money."—_Linschoten_, ch. 35; [Hak. Soc. i. 241].

[c. 1610.—"The silver money of Goa is perdos, larins, TANGUES, the last

named worth 7 sols, 6 deniers a piece."—_Pyrard de Laval_, Hak. Soc. ii.

69.]

1615.—"Their moneyes in Persia of silver, are the ... the rest of copper,

like the TANGAS and Pisos (see PICE) of India."—_Richard Steele_, in

_Purchas_, i. 543.

[c. 1630.—"There he expended fifty thousand Crow (see CRORE) of TACKS ...

sometimes twenty TACK make one Roopee."—_Sir T. Herbert_, ed. 1677, p.

64.]

1673.—"TANGO." See under REAS.

[1638.—"Their (at Surat) ordinary way of accompting is by LACS, each of

which is worth 100,000 _ropias_ (see RUPEE), and 100 lacs make a _crou_,

or _carroa_ (see CRORE), and 10 _carroas_ make an _Areb_. A _Theil_ (see

TOLA, TAEL) of silver (? gold) makes 11, 12, or 13 _ropias_ ready money.

A _massa_ (_māshā_) and a half make a _Thiel_ of silver, 10 whereof make

a _Thiel_ of gold. They call their brass and copper-money

TACQUES."—_Mandelslo_, 107.]

c. 1750-60.—"Throughout Malabar and Goa, they use TANGAS, vintins, and

Pardoo (see PARDAO) XERAPHIN."—_Grose_, i. 283. The Goa TANGA was worth

60 _reis_, that of Ormus 62-34/43 to 69-33/43 _reis_.

[1753.—In Khiva "... TONGAS, a small piece of copper, of which 1500 are

equal to a ducat."—_Hanway_, i. 351.]

1815.—"... one TUNGAH ... a coin about the value of fivepence."—_Malcolm,

H. of Persia_, ii. 250.

[1876.—"... it seemed strange to me to find that the Russian word for

money, DENGA or DENGI, in the form TENGA, meant everywhere in Central

Asia a coin of twenty kopeks...."—_Schuyler, Turkistan_, i. 153.]

TANGUN, TANYAN, s. Hind. _ṭānghan_, _ṭāngan_; apparently from Tibetan

_rTaṅāṅ_, the vernacular name of this kind of horse (_rTa_, 'horse'). The

strong little pony of Bhutān and Tibet.

c. 1590.—"In the confines of Bengal, near Kuch [-Bahár], another kind of

horses occurs, which rank between the _gúṭ_ (see GOONT) and Turkish

horses, and are called TÁNG'HAN: they are strong and powerful."—_Āīn_, i.

133.

1774.—"2d. That for the possession of the Chitchanotta Province, the Deb

Raja shall pay an annual tribute of five TANGAN Horses to the Honorable

Company, which was the acknowledgment paid to the Deb Raja."—_Treaty of

Peace_ between the H.E.I.C. and the _Rajah of Bootan_, in _Aitchison's

Treaties_, i. 144.

" "We were provided with two TANGUN ponies of a mean appearance,

and were prejudiced against them unjustly. On better acquaintance they

turned out patient, sure-footed, and could climb the Monument."—_Bogle's

Narrative_, in _Markham_, 17.

1780.—"... had purchased 35 Jhawah or young elephants, of 8 or 9 years

old, 60 TANKUN, or ponies of Manilla and Pegu."—_H. of Hydur Naik_, 383.

" "... small horses brought from the mountains on the eastern side

of Bengal. These horses are called TANYANS, and are mostly

pyebald."—_Hodges, Travels_, 31.

1782.—"To be sold, a Phaeton, in good condition, with a pair of young

TANYAN Horses, well broke."—_India Gazette_, Oct. 26.

1793.—"As to the TANGUNS or TANYANS, so much esteemed in India for their

hardiness, they come entirely from the Upper Tibet, and notwithstanding

their make, are so sure footed that the people of Nepaul ride them

without fear over very steep mountains, and along the brink of the

deepest precipices."—_Kirkpatrick's Nepaul_, 135.

1854.—"These animals, called TANGHAN, are wonderfully strong and

enduring; they are never shod, and the hoof often cracks.... The Tibetans

give the foals of value messes of pig's blood and raw liver, which they

devour greedily, and it is said to strengthen them wonderfully; the

custom is, I believe, general in Central Asia."—_Hooker, Himalayan

Journals_, 1st ed. ii. 131.

TANJORE, n.p. A city and District of S. India; properly _Tañjāvūr_ ('Low

Town'?), so written in the inscription on the great Tanjore Pagoda (11th

century). [The _Madras Manual_ gives two derivations: "_Tañjāvūr_,

familiarly called _Tañjai_ by the natives. It is more fully given as

_Tañjai-mānagaram_, Tañjan's great city, after its founder. _Tañjam_ means

'refuge, shelter'" (ii. 216). The Gloss. gives _Tañjāvūr_, Tam. _tañjam_,

'asylum,' _ūr_, 'village.']

[1816.—"The TANJORE Pill, it is said, is made use of with great success

in India against the bite of mad dogs, and that of the most venemous

serpents."—_Asiatic Journal_, ii. 381.]

TANK, s. A reservoir, an artificial pond or lake, made either by excavation

or by damming. This is one of those perplexing words which seem to have a

double origin, in this case one Indian, the other European.

As regards what appears to be the Indian word, Shakespear gives: "_Tānk'h_

(in Guzerat), an underground reservoir for water." [And so Platts.] Wilson

gives: "_Ṭánkeṇ_ or _ṭákeṇ_, Mahr. ... _Tánkh_ (said to be Guzeráthí). A

reservoir of water, an artificial pond, commonly known to Europeans in

India as a TANK. _Ṭánki_, Guz. A reservoir of water; a small well." R.

Drummond, in his _Illustrations of Guzerattee_, &c., gives: "_Tanka_ (Mah.)

and _Tankoo_ (Guz.) Reservoirs, constructed of stone or brick or lime, of

larger and lesser size, generally inside houses.... They are almost

entirely covered at top, having but a small aperture to let a pot or bucket

down."... "In the towns of Bikaner," says Tod, "most families have large

cisterns or reservoirs called _Tankas_, filled by the rains" (_Rajputana_,

ii. 202). Again, speaking of towns in the desert of Márwár, he says: "they

collect the rain water in reservoirs called _Tanka_, which they are obliged

to use sparingly, as it is said to produce night blindness" (ii. 300).

Again, Dr. Spilsbury (_J.A.S.B._ ix. pt. 2, 891), describing a journey in

the Nerbudda Basin, cites the word, and notes: "I first heard this word

used by a native in the Betool district; on asking him if at the top of

Bowergurh there was any spring, he said No, but there was a _Tanka_ or

place made of _pukka_ (stone and cement) for holding water." Once more, in

an Appendix to the Report of the Survey of India for 1881-1882, Mr. G. A.

MacGill, speaking of the rain cisterns in the driest part of Rajputana,

says: "These cisterns or wells are called by the people _tánkás_" (_App._

p. 12). See also quotation below from a Report by Major Strahan. It is not

easy to doubt the genuineness of the word, which may possibly be from Skt.

_taḍaga_, _taṭāga_, _taṭāka_, 'a pond, pool, or tank.'

Fr. Paolino, on the other hand, says the word _tanque_ used by the

Portuguese in India was _Portoghesa corrotta_, which is vague. But in fact

_tanque_ is a word which appears in all Portuguese dictionaries, and which

is used by authors so early after the opening of communication with India

(we do not know if there is an instance actually earlier) that we can

hardly conceive it to have been borrowed from an Indian language, nor

indeed could it have been borrowed from Guzerat and Rajpūtāna, to which the

quotations above ascribe the vernacular word. This Portuguese word best

suits, and accounts for that application of _tank_ to large sheets of water

which is habitual in India. The indigenous Guzerati and Mahratti word seems

to belong rather to what we now call a _tank_ in England; _i.e._ a small

reservoir for a house or ship. Indeed the Port. _tanque_ is no doubt a form

of the Lat. _stagnum_, which gives It. _stagno_, Fr. old _estang_ and

_estan_, mod. _étang_, Sp. _estanque_, a word which we have also in old

English and in Lowland Scotch, thus:

1589.—"They had in them STANGES or pondes of water full of fish of

sundrie sortes."—_Parkes's Mendoza_, Hak. Soc. ii. 46.

c. 1785.—

"I never drank the Muses' STANK,

Castalia's burn and a' that;

But there it streams, and richly reams,

My Helicon I ca' that."—

_Burns._

It will be seen that Pyrard de Laval uses _estang_, as if specifically,

for the _tank_ of India.

1498.—"And many other saints were there painted on the walls of the

church, and these wore diadems, and their portraiture was in a divers

kind, for their teeth were so great that they stood an inch beyond the

mouth, and every saint had 4 or 5 arms, and below the church stood a

great TANQUE wrought in cut stone like many others that we had seen by

the way."—_Roteiro de Vasco da Gama_, 57.

" "So the Captain Major ordered Nicolas Coelho to go in an armed

boat, and see where the water was, and he found in the said island

(ANCHEDIVA) a building, a church of great ashlar work which had been

destroyed by the Moors, as the country people said, only the chapel had

been covered with straw, and they used to make their prayers to three

black stones which stood in the midst of the body of the chapel. Moreover

they found just beyond the church a TANQUE of wrought ashlar in which we

took as much water as we wanted; and at the top of the whole island stood

a great TANQUE of the depth of 4 fathoms, and moreover we found in front

of the church a beach where we careened the ship Berrio."—_Ibid._ 95.

1510.—"Early in the morning these Pagans go to wash at a TANK, which TANK

is a pond of still water (—_ad uno_ TANCHO _il qual_ TANCHO _è una fossa

d'acqua morta_)."—_Varthema_, 149.

" "Near to Calicut there is a temple in the midst of a TANK, that

is, in the middle of a pond of water."—_Ibid._ 175.

1553.—"In this place where the King (Bahádur Sháh) established his line

of battle, on one side there was a great river, and on the other a TANK

(_tanque_) of water, such as they are used to make in those parts. For as

there are few streams to collect the winter's waters, they make these

TANKS (which might be more properly called lakes), all lined with stone.

They are so big that many are more than a league in compass."—_Barros_,

IV. vi. 5.

c. 1610.—"Son logis estoit éloigné près d'vne lieuë du palais Royal,

situé sur vn ESTANG, et basty de pierres, ayant bien demy lieuë de tour,

comme rous les autres ESTANGS."—_Pyrard de Laval_, ed. 1679, i. 262;

[Hak. Soc. i. 367].

[1615.—"I rode early ... to the TANCKE to take the ayre."—_Sir T. Roe_,

Hak. Soc. i. 78.]

1616.—"Besides their Rivers ... they have many Ponds, which they call

TANKES."—_Terry_, in _Purchas_, ii. 1470.

1638.—"A very faire TANKE, which is a square pit paved with gray

marble."—_W. Bruton_, in _Hakl._ v. 50.

1648.—"... a standing water or TANCK...."—_Van Twist, Gen. Beschr._ 11.

1672.—"Outside and round about Suratte, there are elegant and delightful

houses for recreation, and stately cemeteries in the usual fashion of the

Moors, and also divers TANKS and reservoirs built of hard and solid

stone."—_Baldaeus_, p. 12.

1673.—"Within a square Court, to which a stately Gate-house makes a

Passage, in the middle whereof a TANK vaulted...."—_Fryer_, 27.

1754.—"The post in which the party intended to halt had formerly been one

of those reservoirs of water called TANKS, which occur so frequently in

the arid plains of this country."—_Orme_, i. 354.

1799.—"One crop under a TANK in Mysore or the Carnatic yields more than

three here."—_T. Munro_, in _Life_, i. 241.

1809.—

"Water so cool and clear,

The peasants drink not from the humble well.

* * * * *

Nor TANKS of costliest masonry dispense

To those in towns who dwell,

The work of kings in their beneficence."

_Kehama_, xiii. 6.

1883.—"... all through sheets[263] 124, 125, 126, and 131, the only

drinking water is from 'TANKAS,' or from '_tobs_.' The former are

circular pits puddled with clay, and covered in with wattle and daub

domes, in the top of which are small trap doors, which are kept locked;

in these the villages store rain-water; the latter are small and somewhat

deep ponds dug in the valleys where the soil is clayey, and are filled by

the rain; these latter of course do not last long, and then the

inhabitants are entirely dependent on their TANKAS, whilst their cattle

migrate to places where the well-water is fit for use."—_Report_ on Cent.

Ind. and Rajputana Topogr. Survey (Bickaneer and Jeysulmeer). By _Major

C. Strachan_, R.E., in _Report of the Survey in India_, 1882-83, App. p.

4. [The writer in the _Rajputana Gazetteer_ (Bikanir) (i. 182) calls

these covered pits _kund_, and the simple excavations _sār_.]

TANOR, n.p. An ancient town and port about 22 miles south of Calicut. There

is a considerable probability that it was the _Tyndis_ of the Periplus. It

was a small kingdom at the arrival of the Portuguese, in partial subjection

to the Zamorin. [The name is Malayāl. _Tānūr_, _tanni_, the tree

_Terminalis belerica_, _ūr_, village.]

1516.—"Further on ... are two places of Moors 5 leagues from one another.

One is called Paravanor, and the other TANOR, and inland from these towns

is a lord to whom they belong; and he has many Nairs, and sometimes he

rebels against the King of Calicut. In these towns there is much shipping

and trade, for these Moors are great merchants."—_Barbosa_, Hak. Soc.

153.

1521.—"Cotate was a great man among the Moors, very rich, and lord of

TANOR, who carried on a great sea-trade with many ships, which trafficked

all about the coast of India with passes from our Governors, for he only

dealt in wares of the country; and thus he was the greatest possible

friend of the Portuguese, and those who went to his dwelling were

entertained with the greatest honour, as if they had been his brothers.

In fact for this purpose he kept houses fitted up, and both cots and

bedsteads furnished in our fashion, with tables and chairs and casks of

wine, with which he regaled our people, giving them entertainments and

banquets, insomuch that it seemed as if he were going to become a

Christian...."—_Correa_, ii. 679.

1528.—"And in the year (A.H.) 935, a ship belonging to the Franks was

wrecked off TANOOR.... Now the Ray of that place affording aid to the

crew, the Zamorin sent a messenger to him demanding of him the surrender

of the Franks who composed it, together with such parts of the cargo of

the ship as had been saved, but that chieftain having refused compliance

with this demand, a treaty of peace was entered into with the Franks by

him; and from this time the subjects of the Ray of TANOOR traded under

the protection of the passes of the Franks."—_Tohfut-ul-Mujahideen_, E.T.

124-125.

1553.—"For Lopo Soares having arrived at Cochin after his victory over

the Çamorin, two days later the King of TANOR, the latter's vassal, sent

(to Lopo) to complain against the Çamorin by ambassadors, begging for

peace and help against him, having fallen out with him for reasons that

touched the service of the King of Portugal."—_Barros_, I. vii. 10.

1727.—"Four leagues more southerly is TANNORE, a Town of small Trade,

inhabited by Mahometans."—_A. Hamilton_, i. 322; [ed. 1744].

TAPPAUL, s. The word used in S. India for 'post,' in all the senses in

which DAWK (q.v.) is used in Northern India. Its origin is obscure. C. P.

Brown suggests connection with the Fr. _étape_ (which is the same

originally as the Eng. _staple_). It is sometimes found in the end of the

18th century written _tappa_ or _tappy_. But this seems to have been

derived from Telugu clerks, who sometimes write _tappā_ as a singular of

_tappālu_, taking the latter for a plural (_C.P.B._). Wilson appears to

give the word a southern origin. But though its use is confined to the

South and West, Mr. Beames assigns to it an Aryan origin: "_ṭappā_

'post-office,' _i.e._ place where letters are stamped, _ṭappāl_

'letter-post' (_ṭappā_ + _alya_ = 'stamping-house')," connecting it

radically with _ṭāpā_ 'a coop,' _ṭāpnā_ 'to tap,' 'flatten,' 'beat down,'

_ṭapak_ 'a sledge hammer,' _ṭīpnā_ 'to press,' &c. [with which Platts

agrees.]

1799.—"You will perceive that we have but a small chance of establishing

the TAPPAL to Poonah."—_Wellington_, i. 50.

1800.—"The TAPPAL does not go 30 miles a day."—_T. Munro_, in _Life_, i.

244.

1809.—"Requiring only two sets of bearers I knew I might go by TAPPAUL

the whole way to Seringapatam."—_Ld. Valentia_, i. 385.

TAPTEE R., n.p. _Tāptī_; also called _Tāpī_, [Skt. _Tāpī_, 'that which is

hot']. The river that runs by the city of Surat.

[1538.—"TAPI." See under GODAVERY.]

c. 1630.—"_Surat_ is ... watered with a sweet River named TAPPEE (or

_Tindy_), as broad as the _Thames_ at _Windsor_."—_Sir T. Herbert_, ed.

1638, p. 36.

1813.—"The sacred groves of Pulparra are the general resort for all the

Yogees (JOGEE), Senassees (SUNYASEE), and Hindoo pilgrims ... the whole

district is holy, and the TAPPEE in that part has more than common

sanctity."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ i. 286; [2nd ed. i. 184, and compare i.

176].

" "TAPPEE or TAPTY."—_Ibid._ 244; [2nd ed. i. 146].

TARA, TARE, s. The name of a small silver coin current in S. India at the

time of the arrival of the Portuguese. It seems to have survived longest in

Calicut. The origin we have not traced. It is curious that the commonest

silver coin in Sicily down to 1860, and worth about 4½_d._, was a _tarī_,

generally considered to be a corruption of _dirhem_. I see Sir Walter

Elliot has mooted this very question in his _Coins of S. India_ (p. 138).

[The word is certainly Malayāl. _tāram_, defined in the _Madras Gloss._ as

"a copper coin, value 1½ pies." Mr. Gray in his note to the passage from

Pyrard de Laval quoted below, suggests that it took its name from _tāra_,

'a star.']

1442.—"They cast (at Vijayanagar), in pure silver a coin which is the

sixth of the _fanom_, which they call TAR."—_Abdurrazzāk_, in _India in

the XV. Cent._ 26.

1506.—(The Viceroy, D. Francisco D'Almeida, wintering his fleet in

Cochin). "As the people were numerous they made quite a big town with a

number of houses covered with upper stories of timber, and streets also

where the people of the country set up their stalls in which they sold

plenty of victuals, and cheap. Thus for a vinten of silver you got in

change 20 silver coins that they called TARAS, something like the scale

of a sardine, and for such coin they gave you 12 or 15 figs, or 4 or 5

eggs, and for a single _vintem_ 3 or 4 fowls, and for one TARA fish

enough to fill two men's bellies, or rice enough for a day's victuals,

dinner and supper too. Bread there was none, for there was no wheat

except in the territory of the Moors."—_Correa_, i. 624.

1510.—The King of Narsinga (or Vijayanagar) "coins a silver money called

TARE, and others of gold, twenty of which go to a PARDAO, and are called

fanom. And of these small ones of silver, there go 16 to a

fanom."—_Varthema_, 130.

[c. 1610.—"Each man receives four TARENTS, which are small silver coins,

each of the value of one-sixteenth of a LARIN."—_Pyrard de Laval_, Hak.

Soc. i. 344. Later on (i. 412) he says "16 TARENS go to a Phanan"].

1673.—(at Calicut). "Their coin admits no Copper; Silver TARRS, 28 of

which make a _Fanam_, passing instead thereof."—_Fryer_, 55.

" "Calicut.

* * * * *

"TARRS _are the peculiar Coin, the rest are common to_ India."—_Ibid._

207.

1727.—"_Calecut_ ... coins are 10 TAR to a Fanam, 4½ Fanams to a

Rupee."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 316; [ed. 1744].

[1737.—"We are to allow each man 4 measures of rice and 1 TAR per

diem."—_Agreement_ in _Logan, Malabar_, iii. 95, and see "TARRS" in iii.

192. Mr. Logan (vol. iii. _Gloss._ s.v.) defines the _tara_ as equal to 2

pies.]

TARE AND TRET. Whence comes this odd firm in the books of arithmetic? Both

partners apparently through Italy. The first Fr. _tare_, It. _tara_, from

Ar. _ṭaraḥa_, 'to reject,' as pointed out by Dozy. _Tret_ is alleged to be

from It. _tritare_, 'to crumble or grind,' perhaps rather from _trito_,

'ground or triturated.' [Prof. Skeat (_Concise Dict._ s.v.) derives it from

Fr. _traite_, 'a draught,' and that from Lat. _tractus_, _trahere_, 'to

draw.']

TAREGA, s. This represents a word for a broker (or person analogous to the

HONG MERCHANTS of Canton in former days) in Pegu, in the days of its

prosperity. The word is from S. India. We have in Tel. _taraga_, 'the

occupation of a broker'; Tam. _taragari_, 'a broker.'

1568.—"Sono in Pegu otto sensari del Re che si chiamano TAREGE li quali

sono obligati di far vendere tutte le mercantie ... per il prezzo

corrente."—_Ces. Federici_, in _Ramusio_, iii. 395.

1583.—"... e se fosse alcuno che a tempo del pagamento per non pagar si

absentasse dalla città, o si ascondesse, il TARRECÀ e obligato pagar per

lui ... i TARRECÀ cosi si demandano i sensari."—_G. Balbi_, f. 107_v_,

108.

1587.—"There are in Pegu eight Brokers, whom they call TAREGHE, which are

bound to sell your goods at the price they be Woorth, and you give them

for their labour two in the hundred: and they be bound to make your debt

good, because you sell your marchandises vpon their word."—_R. Fitch_, in

_Hakl._ ii. 393.

TARIFF, s. This comes from Ar. _ta'rīf_, _ta'rīfa_, 'the making known.'

Dozy states that it appears to be comparatively modern in Spanish and

Port., and has come into Europe apparently through Italian.

[1591.—"So that helping your memorie with certain Tablei or TARIFFAS made

of purpose to know the numbers of the souldiers that are to enter into

ranke."—_Garrard, Art Warre_, p. 224 (_Stanf. Dict._).

[1617.—"... a brief TAREG of Persia."—_Birdwood, First Letter Book_,

462.]

TAROUK, TAROUP, n.p. Burm. _Tarūk_, _Tarūp_. This is the name given by the

Burmese to the Chinese. Thus a point a little above the Delta of the

Irawadi, where the invading army of Kublai Khan (c. 1285) is said to have

turned back, is called _Tarūk-mau_, or Chinese Point. But the use of this

name, according to Sir A. Phayre, dates only from the Middle Ages, and the

invasion just mentioned. Before that the Chinese, as we understand him, are

properly termed _Tsin_; though the coupled names _Tarūk_ and _Taret_, which

are applied in the chronicles to early invaders, "may be considered as

designations incorrectly applied by later copyists." And Sir A. Phayre

thinks _Tarūk_ is a form of _Tūrk_, whilst _Taret_ is now applied to the

Manchus. It seems to us probable that _Taruk_ and _Taret_ are probably

meant for 'Turk and Tartar' (see _H. of Burma_, pp. 8, 11, 56). [Mr. Scott

(_Upper Burma Gazetteer_, i. pt. i. 193) suggests a connection with the

_Teru_ or _Tero_ State, which developed about the 11th century, the race

having been expelled from China in 778 A.D.]

TASHREEF, s. This is the Ar. _tashrīf_, 'honouring'; and thus "conferring

honour upon anyone, as by paying him a visit, presenting a dress of honour,

or any complimentary donation" (_Wilson_). In Northern India the general

use of the word is as one of ceremonious politeness in speaking of a visit

from a superior or from one who is treated in politeness as a superior;

when such an one is invited to 'bring his _tashrīf_,' _i.e._ 'to carry the

honour of his presence,' 'to condescend to visit '——. The word always

implies superiority on the part of him to whom _tashrīf_ is attributed. It

is constantly used by polite natives in addressing Europeans. But when the

European in return says (as we have heard said, through ignorance of the

real meaning of the phrase), 'I will bring my _tashrīf_,' the effect is

ludicrous in the extreme, though no native will betray his amusement. In S.

India the word seems to be used for the dress of honour conferred, and in

the old Madras records, rightly or wrongly, for any complimentary present,

in fact a _honorarium_. Thus in Wheeler we find the following:

1674.—"He (Lingapa, naik of Poonamalee) had, he said, carried a TASHERIFF

to the English, and they had refused to take it...."—_Op. cit._ i. 84.

1680.—"It being necessary to appoint one as the Company's Chief Merchant

(Verona being deceased), resolved Bera Pedda Vincatadry, do succeed and

the TASHERIFFS be given to him and the rest of the principal Merchants,

viz., 3 yards Scarlett to Pedda Vincatadry, and 2½ yards each to four

others....

"The Governor being informed that Verona's young daughter was melancholly

and would not eat because her husband had received no TASHERIFF, he also

is TASHERIFD with 2½ yards Scarlet cloth."—_Fort St. Geo. Consns._, April

6. In _Notes and Exts._, Madras, 1873, p. 15.

1685.—"Gopall Pundit having been at great charge in coming hither with

such a numerous retinue ... that we may engage him ... to continue his

friendship, to attain some more and better privileges there (at

Cuddalore) than we have as yet—It is ordered that he with his attendants

be TASHERIFT as followeth" (a list of presents follows).—In _Wheeler_, i.

148. [And see the same phrase in _Pringle, Diary_, &c., i. 1].

TATTOO, and abbreviated, TAT, s. A native-bred pony. Hind. _ṭaṭṭū_, [which

Platts connects with Skt. _tara_, 'passing over'].

c. 1324.—"Tughlak sent his son Mahommed to bring Khusrū back. Mahommed

seized the latter and brought him to his father mounted on a TĀTŪ, _i.e._

a pack-horse."—_Ibn Batuta_, iii. 207.

1784.—"On their arrival at the Choultry they found a miserable dooley and

15 TATTOO horses."—In _Seton-Karr_, i. 15.

1785.—"We also direct that strict injunctions be given to the baggage

department, for sending all the lean TATOOS, bullocks, &c., to grass, the

rainy season being now at hand."—_Tippoo's Letters_, 105.

1804.—"They can be got for 25 rupees each horseman upon an average; but,

I believe, when they receive only this sum they muster TATTOOS.... From

30 to 35 rupees each horse is the sum paid to the best

horsemen."—_Wellington_, iii. 174.

1808.—"These TUT,HOOS are a breed of small ponies, and are the most

useful and hardy little animals in India."—_Broughton's Letters_, 156;

[ed. 1892, 117].

1810.—"Every servant ... goes share in some TATTOO ... which conveys his

luggage."—_Williamson, V.M._ i. 311.

1824.—"TATTOOS. These are a kind of small, cat-hammed, and ill-looking

ponies; but they are hardy and walk faster than oxen."—_Seely, Wonders of

Ellora_, ch. ii.

1826.—"... when I mounted on my TATTOO, or pony, I could at any time have

commanded the attendance of a dozen grooms, so many pressed forward to

offer me their services."—_Pandurang Hari_, 21; [ed. 1873, i. 28].

[1830.—"Mounting our TATS, we were on the point of proceeding

homewards...."—_Oriental Sport. Mag._, ed. 1873, i. 437.]

c. 1831.—"... mon TATTOU est fort au dessous de la taille d'un

arabe...."—_Jacquemont, Corresp._ i. 347.

c. 1840.

"With its bright brass patent axles, and its little hog-maned TATTS,

And its ever jetty harness, which was always made by Watts...."

_A few lines in honour of the late Mr. Simms_,

in _Parker's Bole Ponjis_, 1851, ii. 215.

1853.—"... Smith's plucky proposal to run his notable TAT,

Pickles."—_Oakfield_, i. 94.

1875.—"You young Gentlemen rode over on your TATS, I suppose? The

Subaltern's TAT—that is the name, you know, they give to a pony in this

country—is the most useful animal you can imagine."—_The Dilemma_, ch.

ii.

TATTY, s. Hind. _ṭaṭṭī_ and _ṭaṭi_, [which Platts connects with Skt.

_tantra_, 'a thread, the warp in a loom']. A screen or mat made of the

roots of fragrant grass (see CUSCUS) with which door or window openings are

filled up in the season of hot winds. The screens being kept wet, their

fragrant evaporation as the dry winds blow upon them cools and refreshes

the house greatly, but they are only efficient when such winds are blowing.

See also THERMANTIDOTE. The principle of the _tatty_ is involved in the

quotation from Dr. Fryer, though he does not mention the grass-mats.

c. 1665.—"... or having in lieu of Cellarage certain _Kas-Kanays_, that

is, little Houses of Straw, or rather of odoriferous Roots, that are very

neatly made, and commonly placed in the midst of a Parterre ... that so

the Servants may easily with their Pompion-bottles, water them from

without."—_Bernier_, E.T. 79; [ed. _Constable_, 247].

1673.—"They keep close all day for 3 or 4 Months together ... repelling

the Heat by a coarse wet Cloath, continually hanging before the

chamber-windows."—_Fryer_, 47.

[1789.—The introduction of TATTIES into Calcutta is mentioned in a letter

from Dr. Campbell, dated May 10, 1789:—"We have had very hot winds and

delightful cool houses. Everybody uses TATTIES now.... Tatties are

however dangerous when you are obliged to leave them and go abroad, the

heat acts so powerfully on the body that you are commonly affected with a

severe catarrh."—In _Carey, Good Old Days_, i. 80.]

1808.—"... now, when the hot winds have set in, and we are obliged to

make use of TATTEES, a kind of screens made of the roots of a coarse

grass called Kus."—_Broughton's Letters_, 110; [ed. 1892, p. 83].

1809.—"Our style of architecture is by no means adapted to the climate,

and the large windows would be insufferable, were it not for the TATTYES

which are easily applied to a house one story high."—_Ld. Valentia_, i.

104.

1810.—"During the hot winds TATS (a kind of mat), made of the root of the

koosa grass, which has an agreeable smell, are placed against the doors

and windows."—_Maria Graham_, 125.

1814.—"Under the roof, throughout all the apartments, are iron rings,

from which the TATTEES or screens of sweet scented grass, were

suspended."—_Forbes, Or. Mem._ iv. 6; [2nd ed. ii. 392].

1828.—"An early breakfast was over; the well watered TATTIES were applied

to the windows, and diffused through the apartment a cool and refreshing

atmosphere which was most comfortably contrasted with the white heat and

roar of the fierce wind without."—_The Kuzzilbash_, I. ii.

TAUT, s. Hind. _ṭāṭ_, [Skt. _trātra_, 'defence,' or _tantrī_, 'made of

threads']. Sackcloth.

[c. 1810.—"In this district (Dinajpoor) large quantities of this cloth

(TAT or Choti) are made...."—_Buchanan, Eastern India_, ii. 851.]

1820.—"... made into coarse cloth TAUT, by the Brinjaries and people who

use pack bullocks for making bags (gonies, see GUNNY) for holding grain,

&c."—_Tr. Bo. Lit. Soc._ iii. 244.

TAVOY, n.p. A town and district of what we call the Tenasserim Province of

B. Burma. The Burmese call it _Dha-wé_; but our name is probably adopted

from a Malay form. The original name is supposed to be Siamese. [The

_Burmah Gazetteer_ (ii. 681) gives the choice of three etymologies:

'landing place of bamboos'; from its arms (_dha_, 'a sword,' _way_, 'to

buy'); from _Hta-way_, taken from a cross-legged Buddha.]

1553.—"The greater part of this tract is mountainous, and inhabited by

the nation of _Brammás_ and _Jangomas_, who interpose on the east of this

kingdom (Pegu) between it and the great kingdom of Siam; which kingdom of

Siam borders the sea from the city of TAVAY downwards."—_Barros_, III.

iii. 4.

1583.—"Also some of the rich people in a place subject to the Kingdom of

Pegu, called TAVAE, where is produced a quantity of what they call in

their language _Calain_, but which in our language is called _Calaia_

(see CALAY), in summer leave their houses and go into the country, where

they make some sheds to cover them, and there they stop three months,

leaving their usual dwellings with food in them for the devil, and this

they do in order that in the other nine months he may give them no

trouble, but rather be propitious and favourable to them."—_G. Balbi_, f.

125.

1587.—"... Iland of TAVI, from which cometh great store of Tinne which

serveth all India."—_R. Fitch_, in _Hakl._ ii. 395.

1695.—"10th. That your _Majesty_, of your wonted favour and charity to

all distresses, would be pleased to look with Eyes of Pity, upon the poor

_English Captive, Thomas Browne_, who is the only _one surviving_ of four

that were accidentally drove into TAUWY by _Storm_, as they were going

for _Atcheen_ about 10 years ago, in the _service_ of the _English

Company_."—_Petition to the King of Burma_, presented at Ava by _Edward

Fleetwood_, in _Dalrymple, Or. Repert._ ii. 374.

[TAWEEZ, s. Ar. _ta'wīẓ_, lit. 'praying for protection by invoking God, or

by uttering a charm'; then 'an amulet or phylactery'; and, as in the

quotation from Herklots, 'a structure of brick or stone-work over a tomb.'

[1819.—"The Jemidar ... as he is very superstitious, all his stud have

TURVEEZ or charms...."—_Lt.-Col. Fitzclarence, Journal of a Route across

India_, 144.

[1826.—

"Let her who doth this TAWEEY wear,

Guard against the Gossein's snare."

_Pandurang Hari_, ed. 1873, i. 148.

[1832.—"The generality of people have tombs made of mud or stone ...

forming first three square TAWEEZES or platforms...."—_Herklots,

Qanoon-e-Islam_, 2nd ed. 284.]

[TAZEE, s. Pers. _tāzī_, 'invading, invader,' from _tāz_, 'running.' A

favourite variety of horse, usually of Indian breed. The word is also used

of a variety of greyhound.

[c. 1590.—"Horses have been divided into seven classes.... Arabs, Persian

horses, Mujannas, Turki horses, Yabus (see YABOO) and Janglah horses....

The last two classes are also mostly Indian breed. The best kind is

called TÁZÍ...."—_Āīn_, i. 234-5.

[1839.—"A good breed of the Indian kind, called TAUZEE, is also found in

Bunnoo and Damaun...."—_Elphinstone, Caubul_, ed. 1842, i. 189.

[1883.—"The 'TAZZIES,' or greyhounds are not looked upon as

unclean...."—_Wills, Modern Persia_, ed. 1891, p. 306.]

TAZEEA, n. A.—P.—H. _ta'ziya_, 'mourning for the dead.' In India the word

is applied to the TABOOT, or representations, in flimsy material, of the

tombs of Hussein and Hassan which are carried about in the Muḥarram (see

MOHURRUM) processions. In Persia it seems to be applied to the whole of the

mystery-play which is presented at that season. At the close of the

procession the _ta'ziyas_ must be thrown into water; if there be no

sufficient mass of water they should be buried. [See Sir L. Pelly, _The

Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain_.] The word has been carried to the W.

Indies by the coolies, whose great festival (whether they be Mahommedans or

Hindus) the Muḥarram has become. And the attempt to carry the _Tazeeas_

through one of the towns of Trinidad, in spite of orders to the contrary,

led in the end of 1884 to a sad catastrophe. [Mahommedan Lascars have an

annual celebration at the London Docks.]

1809.—"There were more than a hundred TAZIYUS, each followed by a long

train of Fuqueers, dressed in the most extravagant manner, beating their

breasts ... such of the Mahratta Surdars as are not Brahmuns frequently

construct TAZIYUS at their own tents, and expend large sums of money upon

them."—_Broughton, Letters_, 72; [ed. 1892, 53].

1869.—"En lisant la description ... de ces fêtes on croira souvent qu'il

s'agit de fêtes hindous. Telle est par exemple la solennité du TA'ZIA ou

_deuil_, établie en commemoration du martyre de Huçaïn, laquelle est

semblable en bien de points à celle du _Durga-pujâ_.... Le TA'ZIYA dure

dix jours comme le _Durga-pujâ_. Le dixième jour, les Hindous précipitent

dans la rivière la statue de la déesse au milieu d'une foule immense,

avec un grand appareil et au son de mille instruments de musique; la même

chose a lieu pour les représentations du tombeau de Huçaïn."—_Garcin de

Tassy, Rel. Musulm._ p. 11.

TEA, s. Crawfurd alleges that we got this word in its various European

forms from the Malay _Te_, the Chinese name being _Chhâ_. The latter is

indeed the pronunciation attached, when reading in the 'mandarin dialect,'

to the character representing the tea-plant, and is the form which has

accompanied the knowledge of tea to India, Persia, Portugal, Greece (τσάι)

and Russia. But though it may be probable that _Te_, like several other

names of articles of trade, may have come to us through the Malay, the word

is, not the less, originally Chinese, _Tê_ (or _Tay_ as Medhurst writes it)

being the utterance attached to the character in the Fuh-kien dialect. The

original pronunciation, whether direct from Fuh-kien or through the Malay,

accompanied the introduction of tea to England as well as other countries

of Western Europe. This is shown by several couplets in Pope, _e.g._

1711.—

"... There stands a structure of majestic frame

Which from the neighbouring Hampton takes its name.

* * * * *

Here thou, great ANNA, whom three Realms obey,

Dost sometimes counsel take, and sometimes TEA."

_Rape of the Lock_, iii.

Here _tay_ was evidently the pronunciation, as in Fuh-kien. The _Rape of

the Lock_ was published in 1711. In Gray's _Trivia_, published in 1720, we

find _tea_ rhyme to _pay_, in a passage needless to quote (ii. 296). Fifty

years later there seems no room for doubt that the pronunciation had

changed to that now in use, as is shown by Johnson's extemporised verses

(c. 1770):

"I therefore pray thee, Renny, dear,

That thou wilt give to me

With cream and sugar soften'd well,

Another dish of TEA"—and so on.

_Johnsoniana_, ed. _Boswell_, 1835, ix. 194.

The change must have taken place between 1720 and 1750, for about the

latter date we find in the verses of Edward Moore:

"One day in July last at TEA,

And in the house of Mrs. P."

_The Trial of Sarah_, &c.

[But the two forms of pronunciation seem to have been in use earlier, as

appears from the following advertisement in _The Gazette_ of Sept. 9, 1658

(quoted in 8 ser. _N. & Q._ vi. 266): "That excellent, and by all

Physitians approved, China Drink, called by the Chineans Toha, by other

nations Tay, alias Tee, is sold at the Sultaness Head, a coffee house in

Sweetings Rents by the Royal Exchange, London."] And in _Zedler's Lexicon_

(1745) it is stated that the English write the word either _Tee_ or _Tea_,

but pronounce it _Tiy_, which seems to represent our modern pronunciation.

["Strange to say, the Italians, however, have two names for tea, _cia_ and

_te_, the latter, of course, is from the Chinese word _te_, noticed above,

while the former is derived from the word _ch'a_. It is curious to note in

this connection that an early mention, if not the first notice, of the word

in English is under the form _cha_ (in an English Glossary of A.D. 1671);

we are also told that it was once spelt _tcha_—both evidently derived from

the Cantonese form of the word: but 13 years later we have the word derived

from the Fokienese _te_, but borrowed through the French and spelt as in

the latter language _the_; the next change in the word is early in the

following century when it drops the French spelling and adopts the present

form of _tea_, though the Fokienese pronunciation, which the French still

retain, is not dropped for the modern pronunciation of the now wholly

Anglicised word _tea_ till comparatively lately. It will thus be seen that

we, like the Italians, might have had two forms of the word, had we not

discarded the first, which seemed to have made but little lodgement with

us, for the second" (_Ball, Things Chinese_, 3rd ed. 583 _seq._).]

Dr. Bretschneider states that the Tea-shrub is mentioned in the ancient

Dictionary _Rh-ya_, which is believed to date long before our era, under

the names _Kia_ and _K'u-tu_ (_K'u_ = 'bitter'), and a commentator on this

work who wrote in the 4th century A.D. describes it, adding "From the

leaves can be made by boiling a hot beverage" (_On Chinese Botanical

Works_, &c., p. 13). But the first distinct mention of tea-cultivation in

Chinese history is said to be a record in the annals of the T'ang Dynasty

under A.D. 793, which mentions the imposition in that year of a duty upon

tea. And the first western mention of it occurs in the next century, in the

notes of the Arab traders, which speak not only of tea, but of this fact of

its being subject to a royal impost. Tea does not appear to be mentioned by

the medieval Arab writers upon Materia Medica, nor (strange to say) do any

of the European travellers to Cathay in the 13th and 14th centuries make

mention of it. Nor is there any mention of it in the curious and

interesting narrative of the Embassy sent by Shāh Rukh, the son of the

great Timur, to China (1419-21).[264] The first European work, so far as we

are aware, in which _tea_ is named, is Ramusio's (posthumous) Introduction

to Marco Polo, in the second volume of his great collection of _Navigationi

e Viaggi_. In this he repeats the account of Cathay which he had heard from

Hajji Mahommed, a Persian merchant who visited Venice. Among other matters

the Hajji detailed the excellent properties of _Chiai-Catai_ (_i.e._ Pers.

_Chā-i-Khitāī_, 'Tea of China'), concluding with an assurance that if these

were known in Persia and in Europe, traders would cease to purchase

rhubarb, and would purchase this herb instead, a prophecy which has been

very substantially verified. We find no mention of tea in the elaborate

work of Mendoça on China. The earliest notices of which we are aware will

be found below. Milburn gives some curious extracts from the E.I. Co.'s

records as to the early importation of tea into England. Thus, 1666, June

30, among certain "raretys," chiefly the production of China, provided by

the Secretary of the Company for His Majesty, appear:

"22¾ _lbs._ of THEA at 50_s._ per _lb._ = £56 17 6

For the two cheefe persons

that attended his Majesty, THEA 6 15 6"

In 1667 the E.I. Co.'s first order for the importation of tea was issued to

their agent at Bantam: "to send home by these ships 100lb. weight of the

best TEY that you can get." The first importation actually made for the Co.

was in 1669, when two canisters were received from Bantam, weighing 143½

lbs. (_Milburn_, ii. 531.) [The earliest mention of tea in the Old Records

of the India Office is in a letter from Mr. R. Wickham, the Company's Agent

at Firando, in Japan, who, writing, June 27, 1615, to Mr. Eaton at Miaco,

asks for "a pt. of the best sort of CHAW" (see _Birdwood, Report on Old

Records_, 26, where the early references are collected).]

A.D. 851.—"The King (of China) reserves to himself ... a duty on salt,

and also on a certain herb which is drunk infused in hot water. This herb

is sold in all the towns at high prices; it is called SĀKH. It has more

leaves than the _ratb'ah_ (Medicago sativa recens) and something more of

aroma, but its taste is bitter. Water is boiled and poured upon this

herb. The drink so made is serviceable under all

circumstances."—_Relation_, &c., trad. par _Reinaud_, i. 40.

c. 1545.—"Moreover, seeing the great delight that I above the rest of the

party took in this discourse of his, he (Chaggi Memet, _i.e._ Hajji

Mahommed) told me that all over the country of Cathay they make use of

another plant, that is of its leaves, which is called by those people

CHIAI _Catai_: it is produced in that district of Cathay which is called

Cachan-fu. It is a thing generally used and highly esteemed in all those

regions. They take this plant whether dry or fresh, and boil it well in

water, and of this decoction they take one or two cups on an empty

stomach; it removes fever, headache, stomach-ache, pain in the side or

joints; taking care to drink it as hot as you can bear; it is good also

for many other ailments which I can't now remember, but I know gout was

one of them. And if any one chance to feel his stomach oppressed by

overmuch food, if he will take a little of this decoction he will in a

short time have digested it. And thus it is so precious and highly

esteemed that every one going on a journey takes it with him, and judging

from what he said these people would at any time gladly swap a sack of

rhubarb for an ounce of _Chiai Catai_. These people of Cathay say (he

told us) that if in our country, and in Persia, and the land of the

Franks, it was known, merchants would no longer invest their money in

_Rauend Chini_ as they call rhubarb."—_Ramusio, Dichiaratione_, in ii. f.

15.

c. 1560.—"Whatsoever person or persones come to any mans house of

qualitee, hee hath a custome to offer him in a fine basket one Porcelane

... with a kinde of drinke which they call CHA, which is somewhat bitter,

red, and medicinall, which they are wont to make with a certayne

concoction of herbes."—_Da Cruz_, in _Purchas_, iii. 180.

1565.—"Ritus est Japoniorum ... benevolentiae causâ praebere spectanda,

quae apud se pretiosissima sunt, id est, omne instrumentum necessarium ad

potionem herbae cujusdam in pulverem redactae, suavem gustu, nomine CHIA.

Est autem modus potionis ejusmodi: pulveris ejus, quantum uno juglandis

putamine continetur, conjiciunt in fictile vas ex eorum genere, quae

procellana (PORCELAIN) vulgus appellat. Inde calenti admodum aquâ dilutum

ebibunt. Habent autem in eos usus ollam antiquissimi operis ferream,

figlinum poculum, cochlearia, infundibulum eluendo figlino, tripodem,

foculum denique potioni caleficiendae."—Letter from Japan, of _L.

Almeida_, in _Maffei, Litt. Select. ex India_, Lib. iv.

1588.—"Caeterum (apud Chinenses) ex herba quadam expressus liquor admodum

salutaris, nomine CHIA, calidus hauritur, ut apud Iaponios."—_Maffei,

Hist. Ind._ vi.