THE ESSENTIAL POINTS IN ROWING.

1st. To straighten the arms before bending the body forward; 2d, to drop

the oar cleanly into the water; 3d, to draw it straight through at the

same depth; 4th, to feather neatly, and without bringing the oar out

before doing so; 5th, to use the back and shoulders freely, keeping the

arms as straight as possible; and 6th, to keep the eyes fixed upon the

rower before them, avoiding looking out of the boat, by which means the

body is almost sure to swing backwards and forwards in a straight line.

MANAGEMENT OF THE BOAT.

Every boat without a rudder is manœuvred in the water, either by pulling

both sides alike, in which case it progresses in a straight line, or by

reversing the action of the oars, equally on both sides, pushing them

through the water instead of pulling them, and called backing water,

when the boat recedes; or by pulling one side only, on which the boat

describes a segment of a circle, which is made smaller by pulling one

oar, and backing the other. By means of a rudder the boat is made to

take a certain course, independent of the rowers, called “steering,” the

chief art in which consists in keeping the rudder as still as possible,

by holding the lines “taut,” and avoiding pulling them from one side to

the other more than is absolutely necessary. Some steersmen think it

necessary to swing backwards and forwards with a great effort, but this

is quite useless, and the more still they keep the better. Every

coxswain should know the course of the stream or tide; and when meeting

other boats he should, if he is going down stream, give them the side

nearest the shore, so as to allow them the advantage of the slack water,

which is quite prejudicial to him. When a crew are steered by a

competent coxswain, they ought to be perfectly obedient to his commands,

rowing exactly as he tells them. His orders are communicated by the

following words, viz. when desiring his crew to row he says, “Pull all;”

or if wishing any one oar to be pulled, he says “Pull bow,” or “Pull,

No. 3,” or 4, &c. as the case may be. If they are to stop rowing, he

says “Easy all,” or for any one oar, “Easy bow,” or No. 2. The same kind

of order is conveyed when “backing” or “holding water” is desired; the

only variation, as before, being between confining his order to any one

or more oars, or extending it to all. In this way all the evolutions

practicable on the water are managed, and the coxswain has complete

control over the boat, being able to cause her to be rowed slowly or

quickly, or to be stopped, backed, or turned on her own centre.

ROWING TOGETHER

Is of the utmost importance to the success of a boat when she is manned

by a crew; and they should all endeavour to attain the same style as the

“stroke-oar,” who should be the best in the boat, and as free from

faults as possible. In a four or eight-oared boat, every one of the crew

would do well to imitate his stroke by rowing with him occasionally in a

pair-oared boat, or else, if this is not practicable, by pulling behind

a waterman who rows in the same style as the stroke-oar. In this way an

uniform kind of rowing is attained, and the boat is propelled equally by

all at the same time. The great object is for all to lay hold of the

water at the same moment, and pull their oars through it and out with

the same power and at the same time; this is called “keeping stroke.”

“Keeping time” means, all “feathering” the oar together, by which the

peculiar click of the oars in the rowlocks is made exactly at the same

instant. When this is not done precisely together, the “time” is

defective, and the ear at once detects the error; but even when the

“time” is ever so good, the want of keeping stroke is fatal to the speed

of any boat, however good the individuals may be.

CAUTIONS TO YOUNG ROWERS.

Do not be over anxious to avoid “catching crabs,” which is an event

likely to occur in early practice; and should it happen, throw the oar

quickly upwards out of the rowlock, and no mischief will ensue. The

young rower should be at once shown how to free his oar in this way, and

then he may pull with that freedom from restraint which is necessary to

produce a good style. Do not stand on the seats, or lean out of the

boat, and never attempt any practical jokes on the water, as it is a

dangerous element to trifle with.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

SAILING.

“The tar’s a jolly tar, that can hand, reef and steer,

That can nimbly cast-off and belay;

Who in darkest of nights finds each halliard and gear,

And dead reckoning knows well, and leeway:

But the tar to please me must more jolly be,

He must laugh at the waves as they roar.”--_Dibdin._

It would be very difficult to trace to its origin the art of sailing.

Perhaps the curled leaf passing over the water, with one end erect,

might have given to observant man the first notion of a sail. It has

been supposed that the _Nautila_, _Argonaut_, or sailor-fish, was

suggestive of the first sailing-vessel; but long before the Argonaut had

been noticed, sails of some kind or other had no doubt been common. A

man could not stand in the simplest boat without perceiving that the

wind exerted a power upon him and his boat; and therefore the idea of a

sail must have been identical with the first launching of the rudest

boat. The _science_ of sailing, however, has grown up gradually through

a succession of ages, and has now reached a perfection of which the

ancients had no idea.

We will first speak of the various kinds of vessels, which are

distinguished principally by the number of masts, and the number and

shape of their sails.

A _Sloop_ is properly a vessel with one mast, having her sails, with the

exception of her topsails, set in the plane of her length, which is

technically called “set fore and aft.” Her topsail is a square sail,

rigged at right angles to the plane of her length. The bowsprit is

generally elevated from the bows, inclining slightly to the deck. The

term “sloop” is now usually applied to a man-of-war, ship-rigged, and

carrying less than 18 guns.

[Illustration]

A _Cutter_ differs from a sloop in being without a square sail, and in

having her bowsprit horizontal; her mast at the same time “raking” aft.

Her topsail is fore and aft, and triangular in shape.

A _Brig_ is a square-rigged vessel, with two masts.

[Illustration]

A _Schooner_ is a two-masted vessel, with fore and aft topsails, which

are called gaff-topsails. Sometimes she has a square fore-topsail and

top-gallantsail.

[Illustration]

A _Brigantine_ is something between a schooner and a brig, and is worked

either with oars (called sweeps) or sails.

[Illustration: DUTCH GALLEOT.]

A _Dutch Galleot_ is rigged like a schooner, but of a broader and more

Chinese build, her bottom being nearly flat.

A _Billy-boy_ is rigged sometimes like a sloop, and sometimes like a

schooner; but her bottom is nearly flat, and she draws but little water.

A _Smack_ is a small vessel with one mast like a cutter, used

principally for fishing.

A _Canoe_ is a boat used by savages, usually made of a trunk of a tree,

hollowed.

[Illustration]

A _Felucca_ has two triangular sails, is used in the Mediterranean, and

is particularly swift. It can also use oars in calm weather.

[Illustration]

A _Junk_ is a Chinese vessel, used either for war or merchandise, is

built very heavily.

A _Proa_ is used by the natives of the Ladrone Islands, and is

remarkable for its swiftness and sailing close to the wind. The lee-side

is quite straight, and the weather-side is convex, like a common boat.

Both head and stern are equally sharp; and in working her there is no

necessity to tack or turn at any time. Besides this peculiarity of

construction, the proa has on her lee-side what is called an

“out-rigger,” which is made of two poles, extending about 10 feet from

her side, having at their extremity a piece of solid wood. This prevents

her from having any lee-way. She will sail with a good wind twenty miles

an hour.

[Illustration]

The natives of the Society Islands use a canoe, averaging in length from

ten to forty feet. It is made of a trunk of a tree, hollowed out; and is

just wide enough for a person to sit down. It will carry from one to as

many as thirty persons. It also has an outrigger, like a proa. When a

native leaves one island to go to another, he joins two large canoes

together, and builds on them a small hut, which will hold all his

family. This is the most convenient way to travel in a canoe, for it is

difficult to see anything but one’s knees when sitting down in the

ordinary manner. These canoes carry a square sail in the fore-part.

We will now speak of the vessels we have most to do with--viz. yachts.

CHARACTERS OF A YACHT.

Speed, safety, and accommodation are the three first qualities of a

yacht. She ought to be pleasing to the eye when afloat, of such a

breadth as to carry her canvass with ease, and at the same time so

sharp in her bow and well-shapen astern as to displace her weight of

water smoothly and gradually, while she leaves it in the same way.

VARIOUS KINDS OF YACHTS.

Yachts are of various kinds, according to their size. If more than

eighty tons burden, the schooner is most suitable; for, as the spars are

more numerous, they are proportionally lighter. The schooner, as has

been before observed, has two masts--the foremast and mainmast; the one

bearing the sail called the boom-foresail, and the other a mainsail. She

has two or more headsails, called staysail, fore-staysail, and jib. Her

topsails are either square or fore and aft.

The _Cutter_ has one mast and four sails--viz. mainsail, maintopsail,

foresail, and jib. Some smaller craft have larger jibs, and no foresail.

The _Dandy-rigged Yacht_ differs from a cutter, in having no boom for

her mainsail, which can consequently be brailed up by a rope passing

round it. She has a mizen-mast standing in the stern, which sets a sail

called a mizen, and which is stretched on a horizontal spar, projecting

over the stern. This style of rig is more safe for a yacht, as the boom

in ordinary cutters is liable to sweep persons overboard; and the sail

can be taken in quicker by brailing it up than by lowering it down.

[Illustration]

The _Hatteener_ has only two sails, a fore and a main sail, of a

triangular shape. Each has a spar standing from the deck to the peak of

the sail, and a boom at the bottom, like a cutter. This rig, from

setting more canvass abaft, is well adapted for narrow waters.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

One of the most handy rigs for a young sailor is a triangular mainsail

and foresail rig, on a good-sized open boat. She should be at least

twenty feet long, and five feet on her beam. The foresail is carried

over the stem for about a foot, by means of an iron bowsprit, which

ships and unships on the nose of the boat. Her mainsail has a spar

reaching from the lower part of the mast to the upper corner of the

sail; a rope is fastened in the middle of this spar, and passes through

a block on the mast, by which the sail is hoisted. The advantages of

this rig are, that it can be easily managed, while under it the boat is

much safer than under most other kinds of rig; for, should a squall

arise, the yachtsman has only to let fly his foresheet and put his helm

alee, and the boat will right immediately. With this rig, a boat stands

very well to windward, and may be easily brought about.

DESCRIPTION OF THE CUTTER YACHT.

But the vessel with which we have most to do in our directions for

sailing is the Cutter Yacht, which stands closer to the wind than any

other kind of European boat; and of which we propose, in the first

instance, to give a general description.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE HULL.

The first step in the construction of the hull is laying down the keel

or backbone of the vessel; which is done by fixing a strong piece of

wood, generally oak, upon blocks, that the rest of the timber may be

securely added; the stem is then joined to the fore-post, nearly at

right angles, slanting a little forward as it ascends; and the

stern-post to its after or hinder part, sloping upwards and backwards.

The timbers and ribs are next cut out of solid wood, and placed

transversely on the keel, their width varying according to the lines of

a plan previously drawn out,--being, of course, farthest apart at the

beam; these, as well as the planks of larger craft, are made to bend

into the required shape by being steamed and bolted in while hot. The

skeleton being completed, her planks are then secured by copper or iron

nails to the timbers, and riveted. The deck is made of narrow planks,

running fore and aft. From the level of the deck, her sides are raised

by upright timbers, called “stancheons,” cased over by the bulwarks, and

surmounted by a rail called the “gunwale.” Some yachts are only

half-decked, the after-part being left open and fitted with seats; but,

in order to prevent the water from getting in, a portion of deck, called

water-ways, is left at each side; which opposes a further barrier by its

terminating on the inner edge in a high crest or combing. The stepping

the mast requires great care, since the good or bad sailing of the boat

depends very greatly upon it. If we divide the length of a good yacht

into three parts, the point at which the foremost part joins the middle

part will be the widest part, and there will be nearly the place for the

cutter’s mast. But the American builders have departed from this rule in

the construction of their celebrated yacht, “The America,” whose model,

after all the study and ingenuity that have been applied to

yacht-building, seems to resemble the simple yet beautiful model which

nature has given us in the duck. The bow of this vessel rises very

gradually for some distance along the keel, like the breast of the duck;

and, further imitating the same model, her beam or widest part is abaft,

or further back than the centre. This superior vessel will sail nearly

four points off the wind, and will probably work an entire change in

the present style of yacht-building. We have now glanced at all the

principal parts of the hull, except that all-important part, the rudder;

which swings by a hinge from the stern-post, and is moved by a handle

fixed to its upper part, bearing the name of “a tiller,” and which is

used to steer the boat. Before proceeding with our instructions for

sailing a yacht, it will be necessary to describe the action of the

rudder; as the art of steering is the nicest and most important branch

of seamanship.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

The rudder is a flat board, with a pole rising up on the side, which is

fastened to the vessel; on the top of which is fixed the tiller. In

large vessels, there are two ropes fastened to the tiller, which are

carried through blocks on each side of the vessel; then brought back

through blocks fastened on the mizenmast, and passed round a wheel, by

which means a greater command is obtained over the rudder. When the

tiller is moved to the right (starboard), the rudder, of course, is

forced in the water to the left (port). As the vessel moves on, the

water presses against the rudder on the port side, and thus forces her

stern to the starboard side, and her bow to the port. When the tiller is

moved to the left, it of course produces a contrary effect. If the ship

is moving backwards, then, by moving the tiller to the right, the bow is

also turned to the right; for the water presses against the rudder

behind it on the left side, and thus pushes the stern to the left. In

steering, care must be taken not to steer too much,--that is, not to

move the rudder too violently or more than is necessary,--as this

materially stops her way.

[Illustration: CUTTER AT ANCHOR.]

We here present the young yachtsman with a cutter at anchor, with her

ropes and spars numbered; and which ought to be thoroughly known, as

well as the uses to which they are applied in sailing a yacht:--

1. Stem.

2. Stern.

3. Tiller.

4. Anchor.

5. Cable.

6. Bowsprit.

7. Bobstay.

8. Mast.

9. Topmast.

10. Truck.

11. Vane and Spindle.

12. Cross-trees.

13. Trussle-trees.

14. Gaff.

15. Boom.

16. Topmast-shroud.

17. Topmast-backstay.

18. Topmast-stay.

19. Runner and Tackle.

20. Traveller for Jib.

21. Forestay.

22. Topping Lift.

23. Lift Blocks.

24. Mainsheet.

25. Peak Halliards.

28. Foresheet.

29. Signal Halliards.

30. Companion.

31. Forecastle.

32. Rudder.

SOMETHING ABOUT THE MASTS, SPARS, ROPES, ETC.

The _Mast_ (8) is a spar set nearly upright, inclining a little aft, to

support yards and sails. In a yacht, it is kept in its place by two

shrouds on each side, made of strong rope, and fastened to the sides of

the vessel.

The _Bowsprit_ (6) is a spar carried out from the forepart of a yacht,

secured at its inner end between two strong posts piercing the deck,

called “the bitts.” It is kept in its place by the bobstay (7), which is

fastened to the stem, and by a shroud on each side secured to the bow.

The _Boom_ (15) is that spar which sets out the mainsail below, and is

attached at one end to the mast by a swivel cable, called the

“goose-neck,” and is eased off or hauled in at the other by the

mainsheet (24), which is a rope passing from the end of the boom through

a block on the side of the vessel.

The _Gaff_ (14) sets out the mainsail above, and slides up and down the

mast by means of a crescent end, which embraces it. The sides of this

curve are called “horns.”

The _Topmast_ (9) stands above the mast, and is made to slide up and

down. On it a topsail (_i. e._ a gaff-topsail) is set in light winds;

but both sail and mast are generally lowered in squally weather. It is

kept steady by a backstay (17) on each side of the foretopmast-stay. The

latter is brought down to the bowsprit.

[Illustration: CUTTER BEFORE THE WIND.]

_Ropes._--There are various ropes to hoist and lower sails, called

haulyards (pronounced halliards). There are also other ropes of great

importance, especially those called the sheets, which are to haul in the

sails, and make them stand to the wind. In a yacht, the mainsail has

sometimes a sheet each side; and sometimes only one sheet reeved through

double blocks, which travel on an iron rod, called “a horse,” from side

to side. The jib has two sheets, the starboard and port (right and

left). The foresail has the same, except in some instances, when it has

but one sheet working on a traveller, like the mainsail. The topsail has

only one, which is rove through a sheave at the end of the gaff and a

block at the throat of the gaff, and then down to a cleat or fastening

place on the deck. Signal haulyards are for hauling up the colours, and

pass through a small sheave, in the truck (10), at the end of the

topmast. The ensign haulyards are reeved through a small block at the

peak end, and lead down to the boom. The other ropes on board a yacht

are for the support of the spars, and are called “standing rigging,”

while those used for the sails are called “running rigging.”

[Illustration: TOPMAST AND FORETOPMAST STAY.]

SAILING A YACHT.

If the reader has paid attention to our instructions, he ought now to be

pretty well conversant with build, rigging, spars, and sails of a yacht;

the next thing, therefore, is to explain the actual practical sailing of

a yacht. The number of hands must depend on the tonnage of the boat and

the number of sails. It is best to have a steersman, and one hand for

each sail. Our yacht is now lying at anchor, or moorings, which consists

of a chain and buoy, fastened to a heavy anchor sunk in the bed of the

river. Having got on board, by means of the little boat called a

“dingy,” we first unloose the fore and mainsail, and forestaysail; haul

out the jib on the bowsprit, ready for hoisting; hoist the colours, with

the name of the yacht or club to which she belongs, to the gaff-end; and

stand by to hoist the canvass. We will suppose it just past high water,

the yacht swinging ebb, and the wind up stream; we shall, therefore,

have tide with us, and the wind against us. We now hoist the throat and

peak halliards, till the former is well up block to block; then, by

hauling at the peak-halliards till the after part of the sail is taut

(tight), the mainsail is set, and she swings head to wind. The next

thing is to hoist the forestaysail and the jib, which must be well

purchased up, and the sheet well hauled in, before we can get her on the

wind, _i. e._ sail close up to the wind. The ropes must now be coiled

up, and hung on the cleat belonging to each. Our canvass being now up,

we may cast off, slack out the mainsail, haul in jibsheet on the

contrary tack to which we intend to sail, and we are under weigh.

We have already told the reader that “starboard” means right, and “port”

means left. Formerly, the word “larboard” was used for left; but, owing

to the similarity between the two words starboard and larboard, the word

port was substituted for the latter. A boat is said to be on the

starboard tack, when the wind is blowing from the starboard side; the

port side is then called the lee side, and the starboard the weather

side. She is on the port tack when the wind blows from the port side,

which is then called the weather side, and the starboard the lee side.

When in steering she is brought nearer the wind, she is said to “luff;”

and when further from it, to “bear away.” When the helm is put so as to

cause the boat to luff, the helm is “put up;” when it causes the boat to

bear away, it is “put down,” or a-lee.

Proceeding to our cruise, we must haul the jib-sheet well in, put the

helm up, and sail close to the wind; as, the wind being against us, we

shall have to “beat up,” that is, sail in a zigzag direction. In

sailing close to the wind, we must always take care _not to sail too

close, but always keep the canvass quite full_. Upon the skill of the

steersman, mainly depend the motions of the boat; he must endeavour to

attain the happy medium of keeping the boat close to the wind, and yet

not allowing the canvass to shake. The practised yachtsman feels with

his helm every variation of the wind, and meets it with a turn to port

or starboard; but the young sailor would do well to watch the colour at

the masthead, and, by keeping it in a line with the gaff, he will not

steer very wildly. We are now getting near the opposite bank from whence

we started, and must therefore tack. If the boat is quick in stays (_i.

e._ will go round quickly), and the bottom is not muddy, and is deep

enough for the boat, we may go pretty close to the bank before we tack;

but if she is a slow tub, we must begin in good time. First, we must see

that all the canvass is quite full; then the mainsail must be hauled to

the middle of the boat, or amidships, and the helm put gradually down.

When she is head to wind, let fly the jibsheet; if she is on the

starboard tack, haul in the port foresheet taut, which is called backing

the foresail; the wind, by blowing on the foresail, assists the boat

round. When she begins to fill on the other tack, cast off the port (now

the weather) foresheet, and haul in the leesheet and also the jibsheet,

and trim the mainsail (_i. e._ let go, or haul in, the mainsheet),

according to the direction of the wind. If when the boat is in stays, or

head to wind, she moves neither way, put the helm amidships; if she

moves back, put the helm the contrary way to what you had it before,

resuming its former position when she moves on again. When the wind gets

more on our beam (_i. e._ blows directly across us), we may slack out

the canvass a little; the more aft it blows, so much more we must square

our sails. There is a heavy cloud in the wind’s eye, that admonishes us

that a squall is brewing, and the dark ripple of the water to windward

tells us that it will soon be here. Keep her well full, that as the

squall strikes her she may have good way on; and luff into the wind as

soon as the squall begins: and if she does not right at once, let go jib

and foresheets; if that fails, cast off the mainsheet, and send a hand

to stand by the fore and jib halliards, which must be let go when the

squall becomes violent. We must now reef the mainsail; to effect

this, allow plenty of room for driving to leeward; set taut the

“topping-lift,” a rope which hoists up the end of the boom; lower the

halliards; hook at the end of the boom an earring which is higher up in

the sail, and tie up the reef-points; then, having set up our mainsail,

hoisted a smaller jib, and drawn in the foresheet, we are under sail

again.

We must take care always to observe the rules of sailing, when meeting

with another yacht. Whichever boat is running free must make way for one

close hauled; for a boat when close hauled cannot conveniently alter her

course, but when she is running free she is always able to move to which

side she pleases. As we get into wider water, we shall find more swell,

that impedes the boat to windward; but, if the waves be long enough,

there is a way of easing her over them, by putting down the helm

slightly, just before the highest of them strikes her bow; thus, by

stopping the boat’s way, she strikes the sea with less violence.

BRINGING UP.

Our destination outward bound being in sight, we must prepare to bring

up. The anchor must be got on deck; the cable passed through the

hawsehole, and shackled or fastened to the anchor, with its stock made

ready and secured; then suspended over the bowsprit shrouds, and made

ready to let go. Lower the head-sails, put down the helm till she is

head to wind, and when she is fairly stopped we may drop the anchor.

MAKING SNUG.

The mainsail may now be triced up, with the peak lowered, and with the

helm to one quarter or the other, according as the tide sets; we may

then hope to lie securely as long as we choose.

GOING BACK.

In getting under weigh once more, first haul the cable short; get all

the canvass ready to set up; weigh anchor, and, as the wind is fair, set

the head sails first and the mainsail afterwards; the peak should not be

too high in running, nor the back of the mainsail fast, but raised

slightly to let the wind into the head sails. The tide is now against

us; we must, therefore, keep out of the strength of it as much as

possible.

JIBING.

In rounding the next point we shall jib, or jibe, one of the most

difficult manœuvres in sailing; for in doing so there is danger of

broaching-to, so as to run on shore; of being swept overboard by the

boom as it passes from side to side; and of carrying away or snapping

the boom itself. To avoid these mischances, give the shore a wide berth;

take in the mainsheet, keeping its coils clear for running out; trice up

the tack of the mainsail, and if the breeze is strong, lower the peak;

you may then put your helm to the opposite side to which the boom

swings, and, on the instant the mainsail has traversed to the other

side, change your helm to the reverse and meet her;--this prevents the

broaching-to which would otherwise occur.

BRINGING UP AT MOORINGS.

We are still against the tide, and our moorings are in sight. To bring

her up handsomely calls for more skill than even handling her well. Our

object now must be to lay her still at the moorings from whence we

started, and at the same time to have enough way to reach them. In our

present case it will be best to round her to about an hundred yards

short of the moorings, and, when head to wind, lower the mainsail,

leaving the head sails standing--this with putting up the helm will

bring her head round again--then take in the jib, and, if she has way

enough, the foresail also; and with the opposing tide we may steer our

craft so steadily to the buoy as to take it on board with ease.

Having informed the young sailor of what is necessary to be done on

board, we will now impress on his mind a few useful nautical terms and

maxims, which may lead to the preservation of life and limb.

OF THE MARINERS’ COMPASS, AND VARIOUS NAUTICAL TERMS.

[Illustration]

The ancients, whose only guides over the trackless waters were the

heavenly bodies, so often obscured by clouds, could not venture far from

shore. It is the compass which has enabled us to steer boldly across the

deep. The directive power of the loadstone has been long known to the

Chinese, and it was brought over to Europe about the year 1260. The

communication of the magnetic power to steel and suspending it on a

pivot, is undoubtedly an European invention. The compass is composed of

a magnetic needle suspended freely on a pivot, and supporting a card

marked with the thirty-two points of direction into which the horizon is

divided, and which are thence called the points of the compass. The

needle always points nearly north, and the direction of the boat may be

easily seen by looking at the card. The whole apparatus on board a ship

is enclosed in a box with a glass cover, to allow the card to be seen

without being disturbed by the wind. This box is also sometimes

suspended, to prevent the needle being affected by the motion of the

vessel. The whole is then placed at the binnacle, in sight of the

helmsman. In the inside of that part of the compass-box which is

directly in a line with the bow, is a clear black stroke, called the

lubber line, which the helmsman uses to keep his course; that is, he

must always keep the point of the card which indicates her course

pointing at the lubber line. Every young yachtsman must learn to box the

compass; that is, to repeat all its points in order.

CAUTIONS AND DIRECTIONS.

1. Never leave anything in the gangway, and keep the decks clear.

2. Coil up all ropes; and have a place for everything, and everything in

its place.

3. Take care that in tacking or jibing the boom does not knock you

overboard.

4. Stand clear of ropes’ ends and blocks flying about, when you are

tacking, and the sails shaking.

5. Keep a good look out ahead, and also for squalls, which may generally

be observed to windward.

6. Always obey the orders of the steersman promptly.

7. Keep all your standing rigging taut.

8. When the boat is on the wind, sit on the weather side.

9. Should the boat capsize, keep yourself clear of the rigging, and swim

ashore.

The young yachtsman should on no account attempt to take command of a

boat till he is thoroughly experienced, and should never go in one

without having at least one experienced hand on board; he should also

always have his eyes open to what is going on, and be ever ready to lend

assistance with the greatest promptitude. Quickness and agility are the

characteristics of a sailor; without these, numerous would be the losses

at sea. The casting off or belaying a rope quickly, is often attended

with the most important consequences, in which the losing or saving of

life may be concerned; and we would therefore advise all who are emulous

of being sailors, to be attentive to their duties, quick in their

evolutions, and steady in all their doings.

NAUTICAL TERMS.

_Aback_, the situation of the sails when the wind presses their surfaces

against the mast.

_Abaft_, towards the stern; _e.g._, abaft the mainmast, behind the

mainmast.

_About_, on the other tack; going about, tacking.

_Abreast_, alongside of.

_Adrift_, broken from moorings.

_Afloat_, on the surface of the water.

_Ahead_, in the direction of the vessel’s head.

_Amidships_, in the middle of the vessel.

_Apeak_, when the cable is hove taut, so as to bring the vessel nearly

over the anchor.

_Astern_, in the direction of her stern.

_Avast_, an order to stop.

_Athwart_, across--as “thwart hawse.”

_Backstays_, ropes running from topmast and top-gallantmast to her

sides.

_Ballast_, heavy materials placed in the bottom of the boat, to bring

her low in the water.

_Beacon_, a post or buoy placed over a shallow bank, to warn vessels.

_Bearings_, the widest part of the vessel below the upper deck. The

bearings of an object is its direction according to the points of the

compass.

_Belay, to_; to make a rope fast.

_Bend, to_; is to make a sail fast to the yard, or a cable to the

anchor.

_Berth_, the place where the vessel lies; a man’s sleeping place on

board.

_Bulwarks_, the woodworks of a vessel above deck; also the wooden

partition between cabins.

_Bunting_, the woollen stuff of which ships’ colours are made.

_Buoy_, a floating cask or piece of wood.

_Cabin_, the after part of the vessel in which the officers live.

_Capstan_, a machine placed perpendicularly on deck, round which the

cable is passed, in order to hoist the anchor. It is moved round with

bars of wood stuck into it, which are called handspikes or capstanbars.

_Cathead_, large pieces of wood over the bow, having sheaves within

them, by which the anchor is hoisted or lowered.

_Cleat_, pieces of wood on which ropes are belayed.

_Combings_, raised woodwork round the hatches, to prevent the water

going down to the hold.

_Companion_, ladder leading down to the state cabins.

_Davits_, rods of timber or iron, with sheaves or blocks at their ends,

projecting over a vessel’s side or stern, to hoist boats up to.

_Draught_, the depth of water which a vessel requires to float her.

_Feather, to_; to lift the blade of the oar horizontally as it comes out

of the water.

_Fenders_, pieces of wood or rope hanging over the side of a boat, to

keep it from chafing.

_Fathom_, six feet.

_Flat_, a sheet is said to be hauled flat, when it is hauled down close.

_Fore and Aft_, lengthwise with the vessel.

_Forecastle_, the part of the vessel before the foremast.

_Foul Anchor_, when the cable has a turn round the anchor.

_Gaff_, a spar to which the head of a fore and aft sail is bent.

_Gage_, depth of water in a vessel--this water is called “bilge water.”

_Gangway_, that part of a vessel’s side through which people pass in and

out of the vessel.

_Gaskets_, pieces of rope or plaited stuff, used to fasten the sail to

the yard when it is furled.

_Give way, to_; to row more forcibly.

_Grapnel_, a small anchor with several claws, generally four, used to

secure boats.

_Gunwale_, (pron. _Gun’el_,) the upper rail of a boat or vessel.

_Gybe_, or _Jibe, to_; to shift over the boom of a fore-and-aft sail.

_Halliards_, ropes used for hoisting or lowering yards and sails.

_Hatchway_, an opening of the deck.

_Hatches_, the coverings of hatchways.

_Hawser_, a large rope.

_Helm_, the steering apparatus.

_Hold water, to_; to stop the progress of a boat, by keeping the oars in

the water.

_Jib_, a triangular headsail.

_Jib-boom_, a spar rigged out beyond the bowsprit.

_Jurymast_, a temporary mast rigged in the place of a lost one.

_Lee Board_, a board fitted to the lee side of flat-bottomed boats, to

prevent their drifting to leeward.

_Log_, a journal of the proceedings of a vessel; also a line with a

triangular piece of board, called the log ship, which is cast overboard

to ascertain the ship’s rate of sailing.

_Luff, to_; to steer the boat nearer the wind.

_Lurch_, the sudden rolling of a vessel to one side.

_Marling-spike_, an iron pin sharpened at one end, to separate the

strands of a rope.

_Martingale_, or _Dolphin-striker_, a short perpendicular spar under the

bowsprit’s end.

_Miss stays_, to fail going about.

_Oakum_, pieces of yarn picked to pieces, used for caulking.

_Overhaul, to_; when a rope is passed through two blocks, in order to

make a tackle, the rope which is hauled on is called the fall; if one of

the blocks gets loose, the act of hauling on the rope between the

blocks, in order to separate them, is called overhauling.

_Painter_, a rope attached to the bow of a boat.

_Pendant_, a long narrow flag at the mast-head.

_Quarter_, that part of the vessel between the stern and the main

chains.

_Ratlines_ (pron. _Rat’lin’s_,) ropes fastened across the shrouds, like

the steps of a ladder.

_Scud, to_; to drive along before a gale with no sail, or only enough to

keep her ahead of the sea. Also, low thin clouds flying swiftly before

the wind.

_Spanker_, or _Driver_, the after sail of a ship or bark. It is fore and

aft sail set with a boom and gaff.

_Splice, to_; to join two ropes together by entwining their strands; a

rope is generally formed of three strands twisted together.

_Spring, to_; to split a mast.

_Stays_, large ropes leading from the masthead forward.

_Staysail_, a sail hoisted on a stay.

_Steerage_, the part of the between decks just before the after cabin.

_Stretcher_, pieces of wood placed across a boat’s bottom for the rowers

to put their feet against.

_Surge_, large swelling waves breaking over rocks.

_Taut_, tight.

_Throat_, the inner edge of the gaff which embraces the mast.

_Unbend, to_; to untie.

_Unmoor, to_; to heave up one anchor, or to unfasten the ship from her

moorings.

_Vane_, a piece of bunting flying at the masthead to show the direction

of the wind.

_Waist_, the part of the upper deck between the quarterdeck and

forecastle.

_Wake_, the path that a ship leaves behind her in the water.

_Wear, to_; to come round on the other side of the wind without backing.

[Illustration: Let A B be the vessel, G the direction of the wind; A B

is sailing in the direction B C, and wants to change her course to A D;

if she tacks, she traverses the direction C H D; if she wears, she goes

off from the wind in the direction C E D.]

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

SKATING.

Skating is one of the finest gymnastic exercises, by which man, as

Klopstock says, “like the Homeric gods, strides with winged feet over

the sea transmuted into solid ground.” It is one of the healthiest

exercises, bringing the body into action by a great variety of motions.

The art is mentioned in the Edda, written eight hundred years ago, in

which the god Uller is represented as distinguished by beauty, arrows,

and _skates_.

[Illustration: SKATING.]

It is not known at what period skating was introduced into England, but

there are indications of it in the thirteenth century, for Fitz Stephen,

in his History of London, says, that it was in that time customary, when

the ice was sufficiently strong, for the young citizens of London to

fasten the leg-bones of animals under the soles of the feet by tying

them round the ancles, and then taking a pole shod with iron into their

hands, they pushed themselves forward by striking it against the ice,

and moved with a celerity equal to a bird flying through the air or an

arrow from a cross-bow.

Fitz Stephen describes another kind of diversion on the ice in these

words, which may be acceptable to the young reader. He says: “Others

make a seat of ice as large as a millstone, and having placed one of

their companions on it, they draw him along, when it sometimes happens

that moving in slippery places they all fall down together, which is

rare sport, provided no harm be engendered.” Ibral mentions, that in his

time it was customary to use sledges, which being extended from the

centre by means of a strong rope, those who are seated on them are moved

round with great rapidity.

The use of the modern skate is supposed to have been brought from

Holland, and for many years skating has been exercised with much

elegance in England and in Scotland. Somehow or other, we do not of late

years have those severe frosts which enable the skater to practise his

art with vigour; but there is now a skating club in London who

anticipate trips to Holland during the winter months, where the art may

be practised in all its perfection.

In early days we were “prodigiously,” as Dominie Sampson would say, fond

of the sport. Our first attempts were made during the great frost in

1813-14, which lasted eleven weeks, and during which time there was a

fair on the Thames, and skating was practised in a most delightful

manner. One of the finest and most beautiful skaters of that period was

Robert Fergusson, a Scotchman, who had been a “gentleman of means,” in

the early part of his life, but having shot, horsed, tandem’d, dog’d,

and skated away his substance, was so reduced as to become a teacher of

his favourite art, and near the water works of old London Bridge, on the

west side, he pitched his tent during the frost, inviting “gentlemen,”

who could afford a “crown” to become his pupils in the art of “Land

flying,” as he termed it. He boasted of having taught the Prince of

Wales, and he sported the three ostrich feathers and “Ich dien” over his

canvas. To him in youthful ardour we repaired, and the substance of his

teachings we subjoin for the special benefit of our young friends.

The first maxim of Fergusson to his pupils was, “Throw fear to the

dogs;” the next, “Put on your skates securely;” and the third, “Keep

your balance:” and premising this as a “start,” I shall now describe the

various kinds of skates, and the methods of using them.

THE SKATE.

There are various kinds of skates. Some, such as the Dutch skates, are

very large and somewhat cumbersome, but very safe for those who skate

with heavy loads on their shoulders, as they do in Holland, Denmark, and

Russia. In these the iron often projects above six inches from the wood,

and curls up towards the shin-bone above a foot, that the skater may

glide the more easily over the hillocks of snow common to large expanses

of ice.

[Illustration]

Some skates are what are called fluted, that is, they have a groove

running along the centre of the iron, which are the best for beginners,

as they take a better hold of the ice. The plain skates have no such

groove, and are better adapted for those who have partially acquired the

art, as with them the utmost velocity and elegance of movement may be

performed.[4]

[4] Fluted skates, however, are dangerous for any but those of light

weight, as the cut ice is apt to “ball” in the groove, and so to

throw the wearer, if he leans on one side.

The iron of the skate, which lies under the foot, is called its _blade_;

this varies in different kinds of skates, and the practised professor of

skating will choose a high or a low bladed skate, according to the

nature of the ice; but the beginner should never use a skate whose blade

is more than three quarters of an inch in depth and a quarter of an inch

in breadth, for when the blades are deeper than this, the balance of the

body is not so easily preserved, and the ancles are liable to be

sprained or twisted.

PUTTING ON THE SKATES.

In putting on the skate, the “youngster” should kneel on one knee and

fasten the skate on the foot of the other leg. If he should have a high

laced boot, called in the eastern counties a “high-low,” he will find

such an excellent support to the whole machinery. Or if he can provide

himself with a “skate boot,” in which the skate and shoe are all of a

piece, he will do better. Such skates were invented in the great frost

about seven years ago, but just as they were coming in the frost went

out; but they can still be procured. At all events, the skater should

bear in mind that the skate must be fastened securely and firmly to the

foot, by being well fastened to the heel and sole of the boot by means

of the screw and points, and well, but not clumsily, strapped round the

ancle, exactly so tight as to confine the foot without hurting it or

impeding the motions of the ancle joints. There is a new skate now in

use by the London Skating Club, called the elastic skate, or spring

skate, in which a spring is introduced at the bottom of the foot, which

keeps it fast in every part. Skates are also now made of gutta percha,

and these are well worthy the notice of the young skater.

HOW TO START UPON THE INSIDE EDGE.

[Illustration]

Having risen to the perpendicular, the learner should first ascertain,

by moving his feet about on the ice, whether the skates are firmly and

comfortably fixed on his feet. He should then walk a little on them,

supporting himself by a light pole about six feet in length, having an

iron spike at its end. Having in this manner got a little used to the

feel of the skate on his foot, he should then endeavour to throw away

all fear and strike out slowly with the right foot, leaning on the

inside edge of the skate, and making the pressure greatest at that part

of the skate opposite the ball of the great toe, at the same time

bending slightly forward. When the skate has moved about a yard forward

in this manner, the left foot should be brought to the ice in precisely

similar manner. The figure represents the skater starting and proceeding

on the inside edge.

MOVEMENT ON THE OUTSIDE EDGE.

Having practised on the inside edge for some days, to get used to the

skates, the learner may afterwards attempt the “outside edge,” which is

nothing more than throwing themselves upon the outer edge of the skate,

and making the balance of the body bend to that side which will

necessarily enable them to form a semicircle. In this much assistance

will be derived by placing a bag of lead shot in the pocket next to the

foot employed in making the outside stroke, which will produce an

artificial poise of the body at first very useful. At the commencement

of the outside stroke the knee of the employed leg should be a little

bent, and gradually brought to a rectilineal position when the stroke is

completed. The best method of getting to the “outside edge” is to form

the circle inwards--say with the right foot and with considerable force;

in the course of this, place the left foot down in front of the right,

and lean powerfully on the outside of the left heel. A little practice

and confidence in his balance will enable the student to lift his right

foot, and hang it behind while he proceeds to cut outside with his

_left_ foot. Let him then stop, and begin the inward circle with the

left foot, and slip down the outer edge of the right heel in the same

way.

The young skater has now learned to balance himself, and can venture to

strike out at once to the right, on the heel of the right foot, keeping

the left suspended behind, with its toe closely pointed to the heel of

the right. As he advances, the left must be brought past the inside of

the right with a slight jerk; this slight jerk produces an opposing

balancing motion of the body; the right foot then quickly poises, first

on the outside of the heel, and then on the inside of its toe, and by

placing the left foot down before it, and striking outside to the left,

giving at the same time a slight push with the inside of the right toe,

he passes from right to left. Having learned this much, the skater will

proceed to change from left to right, and then from right to left again,

without any trouble. To skate “outside edge” properly, the toe of the

suspended foot must be pointed close to the ice behind the other, and

kept there until the foot be regained, when it must be brought sharply

round to the change. The skater must keep himself erect, leaning most on

the heel.

This mode of skating having been acquired, an endless variety of

figures, devices, and modes of movement may be practised; such as “the

roll,” the figure of 3, of 6, or of 8, “the spread-eagle,” “the

mercury,” “the backward outside edge,” “the circle,” “the waltz,” “the

minuet,” “the pirouette,” “the quadrille,” &c.

The first step towards figure skating is the

FORWARD ROLL,

which is performed in the manner already prescribed in the directions on

the “outside edge.” To perform it gracefully, the skater should bring

his left shoulder forward, throw his right arm back, look over that

shoulder, and boldly incline his body to that side, proceeding

alternately, with ease, grace, and deliberation. When he wishes to stop,

he should bring both his feet together, and stop gradually; or he may

stop suddenly, by pressing on the heels of his skates, taking care not

to throw his toes up too much, or he will cut “all-fours.”

THE DUTCH ROLL

is so called from the motion being used in Holland by the travelling and

trading classes in their common avocation. The figures it presents on

the ice are small segments of very large circles; which enables the

skater to diverge but very slightly from the right line of his course,

and consequently accelerates his progress.

[Illustration]

THE FIGURE OF EIGHT.

[Illustration]

This is composed by merely finishing the great circles, of which the

above segments form a part. To produce it, when the skater comes to the

finish of the stroke on the right foot, he should throw the left quite

across it, which will make him bear hard on the outside of the right

skate, from which he must immediately strike. By completing the circle

in this manner on each leg, the figure subjoined is performed.

THE FIGURE OF THREE.

[Illustration]

This is performed principally on the inside edge backwards. The head of

the 3 is formed of half a small circle on the heel of the outside edge;

but when the circle is nearly completed, the skater leans suddenly

forward, and rests on the same toe inside, and a backward motion is

produced, which develops the tail of the 3. The right legged figure is

that of the 3 in its natural position, and the figure made by the left

leg is the same figure reversed; as per example. In these evolutions,

the motion is not, strictly speaking, backwards, but rather sideways, as

his face and body are always in the direction of his motions.

THE BACK ROLL.

By the “back roll,” as it is termed, the skater moves from one foot to

the other alternately. His face is turned towards the left shoulder. The

inside of the left skate bears on the ice, and the skater immediately

strikes from it to the outside back of the other, by pressing it into

the ice as forcibly as he can at the toe. The “back cross roll” is

performed in a similar manner, the stroke being from the outside,

instead of the inside of the skate.

[Illustration]

The above motions combine the elements of skating, and having acquired

these, the learner may perform an infinite variety of movements, such as

“the cornua ammonis,” “the Dutch maze,” “the fish,” “the kite,” “the

true lovers’ knot,” &c.; with any other devices his imagination may

suggest. He may also engage in the quadrille or waltz, and exhibit his

person in every variety of graceful form, at the same time that he

exercises every muscle of the body.

GENERAL DIRECTIONS TO BE FOLLOWED BY PERSONS LEARNING TO SKATE.

1. Let your dress fit closely, but at the same time be of sufficient

ease to ensure freedom of motion. Neither skirts to coats nor full

trowsers should be worn.

2. Let flannel be worn next the skin by the delicate, and an extra

under-garment by the robust. Let the chest be well defended against the

cold. A piece of brown paper laid between the waistcoat and shirt is one

of the best chest protectors.

3. Be careful in venturing upon the ice, unless it be sufficiently

strong to bear the weight of the number that flock to it; and watch for

the increase of numbers, that you may retire before danger ensues.

4. Avoid rough and very smooth ice, and look carefully out for

obstructions thereon; such as small twigs of trees, stones, or

“hobbles;” as well as for rotten ice, cracks where the ice has risen

higher on one side than the other, or holes. Should you suddenly come

upon rotten ice, do not stop, but pass over it as rapidly as possible.

Should you fall down upon it, roll lengthwise towards the firmer part,

without attempting to stand or walk upon it.

5. Should the skater fall into a hole, he should extend his pole or

stick across it, and hold on to it till assistance arrives: should he

have no stick, he may extend his arms horizontally across the edges of

the ice, till a rope can be thrown to him.

6. After an unlucky immersion in the water, the unfortunate skater

should immediately take off his skates, and, if able, run home as

quickly as he can. He should then pull off all his wet clothes, take a

tablespoonful of brandy in a glass of hot water, rub himself thoroughly

with dry towels, and go to bed.

[Illustration]

SLIDING.

What can be jollier or more enjoyable than sliding for an hour upon a

crisp wintry morning, when the snow is lying three inches deep on the

ground? You may say what you please about the pleasures of skating, but

if you talk for an hour you’ll never convince us that there’s more fun

in it than in sliding. We confess we gaze with admiration at a man

twisting about on the ice like a teetotum on a ricketty tea-tray, and

that when, like a crab, he goes backwards or waltzes round on one foot,

while the other is gracefully poised in the air, we feel a pleasure in

looking at him; but then, after watching a party of skaters for a short

time, we begin to wonder how it is that they all look so solemn, as if

each man were engaged on such an important task that he could not speak

a word to his neighbour, and then we come to the conclusion that there

is more display than real jolly pleasure in skating, and that the

highly-trained skater goes through his evolutions rather in the hope of

affording satisfaction to the spectators than of deriving enjoyment

himself, for we defy any jolly-tempered fellow to feel jovial on a

winter morning in company without laughing and shouting with glee at any

person he comes across.

Therefore, when on turning from the mystic movements of a troup of

skaters to a party of sliders, we hear them laugh and shout at each

other, “now, then, keep the pot boiling,” and other choice sentences,

and when we see a broad grin of pleasure plainly depicted on their rosy

faces, we cannot but think that the enjoyment of sliding shows itself in

a far more demonstrative manner than skating, and that more pleasure is

derived from looking at a crowd of merry urchins going gaily down a

slide than in seeing quadrilles danced, or names cut on the ice, by a

band of skilled _pâtineurs_.

We also like sliding on account of its simplicity. All that its devotees

require is a good sharp frost. What care they for ice? The hobnails in

London boys’ boots soon produce a shiny slippery surface, and in a short

time a respectable slide is made out of the drippings from a water-can,

which a servant may have filled at the pump the day before.

There are, we are sure, few English lads who do not know how to slide.

It seems to come as a matter of course to most boys; but still, lest

there be some benighted youth to whom the pleasures of the slide are

still unknown, we must insert a few hints on the subject.

Take a sharp run of about ten yards, and as soon as you feel that you

are upon the slide, push the sole of the left foot as far along as you

can, making the weight of the body rest almost upon it. You will then

slide away, the right foot following without any effort on your part. We

say advisedly do not push your foot until you feel well upon the slide,

for if you are not very careful about this point you will endeavour to

slide on that part of the earth which is not slippery, and although the

momentum may impel you as far as the slippery portion, yet your progress

will not be very great, as the force which was required to carry you

along the whole length of the slide is partly wasted by the resistance

which, at the start-off, the hard earth offers to your foot. Then, we

have seen many boys in their first attempts to slide, place the heel

upon the slide before the toe. The consequence is that they either fall

over, or else only slip along a few yards, for a moment’s reflection

will show that much greater force can be exerted by pushing the sole

along than is exerted when the heel takes its place, and in the latter

case, instead of the weight of the body assisting one’s progress, it

probably causes the youthful tyro to fall backwards upon Mother Earth,

and to wonder how it happens that he does not get on so well at first as

other boys.

And now surmising that the slider is proficient in the first rudiments

of the art, let us enumerate a few of the feats which a slider may

perform while on the glassy track.

Foremost amongst these stands the postman’s knock, in which a boy slides

upon one foot only, while with the other he gives double taps quickly

upon the ice, in imitation of the noise made by the red-coated messenger

at our street doors. This, however, should not be attempted until the

performer is well on the slide, or the result will probably be that

he’ll measure his length upon the ground. This is also known as

“knocking at the cobbler’s door.”

Then comes the “carambole,” which consists in the slider sinking down

two or three times during his journey, and rising as he reaches its

termination; unless, however, he is very careful the weight of his body

will drag him down altogether, and he will continue his journey on

another portion of his frame, rather than on his feet. But the best

accomplishment to be performed on a slide is the game known as

“turnpikes.” Two stones or bricks are placed on the slide, with

sufficient distance between them for a boy’s foot to pass through. The

turnpike, thus roughly made, is to be kept by one of the party. Off

start the sliders, taking care to pass through the pike, without

displacing or even touching its walls. Woe betide the unlucky wight

whose foot infringes this rule! He is instantly turned off the slide,

and has to wait until some other incautious player commits a like

offence, and is thus compelled to take his place.

Such are a few of the feats performed by adepts in this graceful art.

Most lads, however, will be able to invent many more for themselves, and

numerous are the sports that can be indulged in.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

SWIMMING

Swimming is the most useful of all athletic accomplishments, as by it

human life is frequently saved which might have been sacrificed. It is

also useful in the development of muscular strength, as well as highly

beneficial to the nervous system, and repairs the vital functions when

falling into decline. In places near the sea or rivers, to know how to

swim is an indispensable accomplishment. The ancients, particularly the

Greeks, held the art in such high estimation as to bestow rewards upon

the most perfect swimmers.

From the little familiarity with immersion in water which the

inhabitants of our over-grown towns and cities possess, a very great

proportion of the English population are but little acquainted with the

art of swimming, and with the mode in which they should conduct

themselves when risk of drowning presents itself. The English, above all

other persons, should be good swimmers, exposed as they are by their

insular situation, and commercial pursuits, and disposition to visit

other lands, so frequently to perils by sea; yet, while most towns on

the Continent abound in baths and swimming-schools, in British towns

they are still few in number.

Most animals have a natural aptitude for swimming, not found in man; for

they will at once swim when even first thrown into the water; but it

must be noticed that the motions they then employ much more resemble

their ordinary movements of progression than those made use of by men

under similar circumstances.

The children of many uncivilized nations, especially in warm climates,

frequent the water from an early age, and seem almost to swim by

instinct. The remarkable powers of endurance, agility, and strength

manifested while in the water by many individuals of savage tribes are

well known,--powers which often enable them to come off victorious in

struggles with some of the fiercest inhabitants of those rivers and

coasts.

The art of swimming is by no means difficult of attainment, and several

authors have supplied directions to facilitate its acquisition. Above

all things, self-confidence (not rashness leading into danger) is

required; and, when this is possessed, all difficulty soon ceases. Dr.

Franklin, himself an expert swimmer, recommends that at first a

familiarity with the buoyant power of water should be gained; and to

acquire this, he directs the learner, after advancing into the water

breast high, to turn round, so as to bring his face to the shore: he is

then to let an egg fall in the water, which, being white, will be seen

at the bottom. His object must now be, by diving down with his eyes

open, to reach and bring up the egg. He will easily perceive that there

is no danger in this experiment, as the water gets shallower, of course,

towards the shore, and because whenever he likes, by depressing his

feet, he can raise his head again above water.

The thing that will most strike beginners will be the great difficulty

they experience in forcing themselves through the water to reach the

egg, in consequence of the great resistance the water itself offers to

their progress: and this is indeed the practical lesson derivable from

the experiment; for the learner becomes aware of the very great

sustaining or supporting power of water, and hence has confidence. This

sustaining power of water is shown under many circumstances: thus, a

stone which on land requires two men to remove it, might in water be

easily carried by one. A man might walk without harm on broken glass in

deep water, because his weight is supported by the water. This knowledge

of fluid support constitutes the groundwork of all efforts in swimming,

or in self-preservation from drowning.

Should a person accidentally fall into the water, provided he retained

his presence of mind, a knowledge of the above facts would save him

probably from a “watery grave.” The body being but very slightly heavier

than the volume of water it displaces, will, with a very slight motion

of the hands under water, float. When the chest is thoroughly inflated

with air, it is lighter than water, and floats naturally, having half

the head above water; so that the person exposed to danger has only to

turn upon his back, in order that that half, consisting of his face,

with the mouth and nostrils, be above the water line.

But to float thus upon the water, the greatest care must be taken not

to elevate the arms or other parts above its surface; and it is in

remembering this caution, that presence of mind in the time of dangers

confers so much benefit; for, in the moment of terror, a person thrown

into the water almost instinctively stretches out his hands aloft to

grasp at some object, thereby depriving himself of a means of proceeding

which would frequently keep him afloat until succour arrived. By

elevating any part of the body in this way, we remove it from the

support afforded by the water, and thus render sinking inevitable.

Dr. Arnot, in allusion to this subject, says that many persons are

drowned who might be saved, for the following reasons:--

1. From their believing that their constant exertions are necessary to

preserve the body from sinking, and their hence assuming the position of

a swimmer, with the face downwards, in which the whole head must be kept

out of the water, in order to enable them to breathe; whereas, when

lying on the back, only the face need be above the water.

2. From the groundless fear that water entering by the ears may drown as

if it entered by the mouth or nose, and their employing exertions to

prevent this.

3. The keeping of the hands above water, already alluded to.

4. Neglecting to take the opportunity of the intervals of the waves

passing over the head, to renew the air in their chest by an

inspiration.

5. Their not knowing the importance of keeping the chest as full of air

as possible, which has nearly the same effect as tying a bladder full of

air around the neck would have.

But although floating in water is sufficient to preserve from immediate

danger, this will not alone enable us to swim. To swim, does not mean

simply to float, but to progress; and progression by this means depends,

like the flight of birds, upon the law in Mechanics of every action

being followed by a corresponding reaction, but in an opposite

direction; and thus, as the reaction of the air compressed by the

downward action of the bird’s wing, causes it to mount aloft in

proportion to the force it communicates by that motion; so the backward

stroke communicated by the simultaneous movement of the hands and feet

of the swimmer, causes his forward progress in the water. When once

familiarised with the support derived from the water itself, he soon

learns to make the stroke correctly, especially if aided and supported

by some more experienced friend,--a far better assistant than corks and

bladders.

PLACES AND TIMES FOR BATHING AND SWIMMING.

It is presumed that most young lads who go to bathe will take the

opportunity of learning to swim. In crowded cities there are but few

places in which the youngster can learn the art; but in the country

there are many rivers, ponds, canals, or lakes, where both bathing and

swimming may be indulged in without annoyance. The best kind of place

for bathing is on a shelving gravelly shore, on which the water

gradually deepens, and where no awkward sweep of current may take the

bather off his legs. The spot should also be free from holes, weeds, and

hard stones; and a muddy bottom is to be avoided by all means. Should

the banks of such a spot be shaded by a few trees, and should there be

close by an open space for a run on the grass after the bathe, so much

the better; and the young learner will then have the chief inducement to

venture the sudden dip or head-long plunge.

The best time of the day for bathing or swimming is either before

breakfast, between the hours of six and eight in the summer-time, or

between eleven and twelve o’clock in the forenoon. Delicate persons

should not bathe early in the morning; and it would be always well to

munch a biscuit before early bathing at all times. No one should ever

think of entering the water on a full stomach, or immediately after

dinner, and never when over-heated and exhausted by fatigue. He should

also avoid entering it when cold, or with a headache. Before bathing, it

is best to take a moderate walk of about a mile, and, while the system

is in a glow, to undress quickly and plunge in. It is bad to walk till

you get hot, then to sit down and cool, and afterwards to enter the

water; many have lost their lives by this. It is also very wrong to

enter the water during rain, as the clothes are often wetted or damp,

which gives the bather cold.

ENTERING THE WATER.

Having stripped the body, the bather should select the best place on the

bank for going down to the stream; and then, proceeding cautiously but

quickly, wade up to his breasts, turn his head to the shore, and dip. He

then technically, as the boys say, gets his pinch over. Should he not be

man enough to proceed in this way, he should, as soon as he gets his

feet wet, splash some water over his head, and go into the water more

gradually, and try the rapid rush and dip when he gets bolder. He must

not attempt to swim or strike out till he can master the feat of going

into the water up to his arm-pits, and till he feels himself confident

and void of timidity.

AIDS TO SWIMMING.

Many aids have been used for the benefit of young swimmers: corks and

bladders fastened under the arms are the common ones; but they offer

dangerous temptations for bathers to go out of their depth, and then

should cramp, cold, or any other accident occur, the event may be fatal.

Besides, these aids often slip about from one place to the other. We

remember, in our younger days, of the “corks” slipping to the hips, and

of seeing a young friend, now an old man, suspended in the water with

his head downwards; while collapsing of bladders and of air-jackets is

by no means uncommon. The best aid to a young swimmer is a judicious

friend, himself a good swimmer, who will hold up his head, when he

strikes off, by the “tip of the finger to the tip of the chin,” and who

at the same time will show him how to strike off, and how to manage his

hands and feet. It is not a bad plan to put out a spar from a boat, to

which a rope is attached, which the young learner may make use of by

affixing it to a belt round his body under his arms, which will afford

him support while he learns to strike his legs in the water. The rope

may also be held in the hand of a friend, by the side of the boat, and

the learner may strike off hands and feet as the boat proceeds. The

plank is a dangerous aid, from its tendency to slip about, and to take

the swimmer out of his depth; and, although it has many advantages, is

very unsafe. The safest plan of all is, as we have before stated, for

the learner to advance gradually up to his arm-pits in the water, and

then, turning about, to strike slowly out towards the shore, taking care

to keep his legs well up from the bottom. Rigid perseverance in this

course will in a very short time enable the youngster to feel himself

afloat, and moving at “all fours,”--a delight equal to that experienced

by the child who first feels that he can walk from chair to chair.

STRIKING OFF AND SWIMMING.

[Illustration]

In striking off, the learner, having turned himself to the shore, as

before recommended, should fall towards the water gently, keeping his

head and neck perfectly upright, his breast advancing forward, his chest

inflated; then, withdrawing the legs from the bottom, and stretching

them out, strike the arms forward in unison with the legs. The back can

scarcely be too much hollowed, or the head too much thrown back, as

those who do otherwise will swim with their feet too near the surface,

instead of allowing them to be about a foot-and-half deep in the water.

The hands should be placed just in front of the breast, the fingers

pointing forward and kept close together, with the thumbs to the edge

of the fore-fingers: the hands must be made rather concave on the

inside, though not so much as to diminish the size. In the stroke of the

hands, they should be carried forward to the utmost extent, taking care

that they do not touch the surface of the water; they should next be

swept to the side, at a distance from, but as low as, the hips; and

should then be drawn up again, by bringing the arms towards the side,

bending the elbows upwards and the wrists downwards, so as to let the

hands hang down while the arms are raising them to the first attitude.

HOW TO MANAGE THE LEGS.

The legs, which should be moved alternately with the hands, must be

drawn up with the knees inwards, and the soles of the feet inclined

outwards; and they should then be thrown backwards, as widely apart from

each other as possible. These motions of the hands and legs may be

practised out of the water; and whilst exercising the legs, which can

only be done one at a time, the learner may rest one hand on the back of

a chair to steady himself, while he moves the opposite leg. When in the

water, the learner must take care to draw in his breath at the instant

that his hands, descending to his hips, cause his head to rise above the

surface of the water; and he should exhale his breath at the moment his

body is propelled forward through the action of the legs. If he does not

attend precisely to these rules, he must invariably have a downward

motion, and, as the boys say, swim furthest where it is deepest.

PLUNGING AND DIVING.

[Illustration]

There are two kinds of plunging; that belonging to shallow, and that

belonging to deep water. In shallow-water plunging, the learner should

fling himself as far forward as possible into the stream at a very

oblique angle; and when he touches the water, he should raise his head,

keep his back hollow, and stretch his hands forward. In the deep-water

plunge, his body is to descend at a greater angle; his arms are to be

stretched out, his hands closed and pointed, and his body bent, so that

his nose almost touches his toes.

[Illustration]

Diving is one of the greatest amusements connected with swimming. There

are many kinds; the two most common and easiest and necessary modes of

going below the surface, are--

1. The feet-foremost jump.

2. The head-foremost jump.

In the first, the legs, arms, and head are to be kept perfectly rigid

and stiff. The pupil must not allow fear, or the strange sensation felt

in the bowels in leaping from considerable heights, to induce him to

spread the arms or legs, or to bend his body.

In the second mode, or head-foremost plunge,--which is the safest mode

for persons who are heavily built about the chest and shoulders, if they

have to enter the water from heights,--the head is drawn down upon the

chest, the arms stretched forward, and hands closed to a point; and as

soon as the swimmer feels that he has left the bank, his knees, which

till then were bent, are to be stiffened. The diver must avoid striking

on the belly--the general consequence of fear; and turning over so as to

come down on his back or side--the consequence of pushing with the feet.

When he has gone as deep as he wishes, the arms are to be raised and

pressed downwards.

SWIMMING UNDER WATER.

When under the water, the swimmer may either move in the usual way, or

keep his hands stretched before him, which will enable him to cut the

water more easily, and greatly relieve his chest. If he observes that he

approaches too near the surface of the water, he must press the palms of

his hands upwards. If he wishes to dive to the bottom, he must turn the

palms of his hands upwards, striking with them repeatedly and rapidly

whilst the feet are reposing; and when he has obtained a perpendicular

position, he should stretch out his hands like feelers, and make the

usual movement with his feet, then he will descend with great rapidity

to the bottom. It is well to accustom the eyes to open themselves under

the water, at least in those beds of water that admit the light, as it

will enable the swimmer to ascertain the depth of water he is in.

SWIMMING ON THE SIDE.

In this, the body is turned either on the left or right side, while the

feet perform their usual motions. The _arm from under_ the shoulder

stretches itself out quickly, at the same time that the feet are

striking. The other arm strikes at the same time with the impelling of

the feet. The hand of the latter arm begins its stroke on a level with

the head. While the hand is again brought forward in a flat position,

and the feet are contracted, the stretched-out hand is, while working,

drawn back towards the breast, but not so much impelling as sustaining.

As swimming on the side presents to the water a smaller surface than on

the waist, when rapidity is required, the former is often preferable to

the latter.

SWIMMING ON THE BACK WITHOUT EMPLOYING THE FEET.

[Illustration]

This is twofold: 1. _In the direction of the feet._ The body is placed

in a horizontal position, the feet are stretched out stiffly, and the

heels and toes are kept in contact; then the body is to be somewhat

curved at the seat, the hands are to be stretched flatly forward over

the body, and, slowly striking in small circles, the loins are somewhat

drawn up at each stroke. 2. _In the direction of the head._ The body is

placed horizontally, but somewhat curved in the seat, the head in its

natural position, the arms are kept close to the body, with the elbows

inclined inwards, and the hands describe small circles from the back to

the front, at about a foot-and-half from the hips. These modes serve to

exercise and strengthen the arms in an extraordinary degree without in

the least fatiguing the breast.

FLOATING.

The body is laid horizontally on the back, the head is bent backwards as

much as possible, the arms are stretched out over the head in the

direction of the body, the feet are left to their natural position; if

they sink, the loins must be kept as low as possible. In this position,

the person, who is specifically lighter than water, remains, and may

float at pleasure. The lungs should be kept inflated, that the breast

may be distended and the circumference of the body augmented. In order

not to sink while in the act of taking breath, which the greater

specific weight of the body would effect, the breath must be quickly

expelled, and as quickly drawn in again, and then retained as long as

possible; for, as the back is in a flat position, the sinking, on

account of the resistance of the water, does not take place so rapidly

but the quick respiration will restore the equilibrium before the water

reaches the nose.

TREADING WATER.

This is a perpendicular position of the swimmer, and is of great use to

enable him to save a person from drowning. It is in general thought to

be extremely difficult, but it is very easy. There are two ways of

performing the action: in the first the hands are compressed against the

hips, and the feet describe their usual circle; the other mode consists

in not contracting both legs at the same time, but one after the other,

so that while the one remains contracted the other describes a circle.

In this mode, however, the legs must not be stretched out, but the

thighs are placed in a distended position, and curved as if in a

half-sitting posture.

THE FLING.

[Illustration]

The swimmer lays himself flat upon his waist, draws his feet as close as

possible under the body, stretches his hands forwards, and, with both

feet and hands beating the water violently at the same time, raises

himself out of the water. In this manner one may succeed in throwing

oneself out of the water as high as the hips. This exercise is very

useful, for saving oneself by catching a rope or any other object that

hangs from above the surface of the water, or from any perpendicular

height.

SWIMMING ON THE BACK.

[Illustration]

In this the swimmer turns upon his back in the water by the combined

motion of the arm and leg, and extending his body, his head being in a

line with it, so that the back and upper part of the head may be

immersed, while the face and breast are out of the water. The hands

should be placed on the thighs straight down, and the legs moved as in

forward swimming, taking care that the knees do not rise above the

surface in striking them out. Sometimes the hands are used after the

motion of a wing or fan, by which a slight progression is also made at

the same time that the surface of the body is well lifted out of the

water.

THRUSTING.

In the thrust the swimmer lies horizontally upon his waist, and makes

the common motions in swimming. He then simply stretches one arm

forwards, as in swimming on the side, but remains lying upon the waist,

and, in a widely described circle, he carries the other hand, which is

working under the breast, towards the hip. As soon as the arm has

completed this motion, it is lifted from the water in a stretched

position, and thrown forward in the greatest horizontal level, and is

then sunk with the hand flat into the water; while the swimmer thus

stretches forth the arm, he, with the other hand stretched as wide as

possible, describes a small circle in order to sustain the body; after

this he brings his hand in a largely described circle rapidly to the

hip, lifts the arm out of the water, and _thrusts_ it forward. During

the describing of the larger circle the feet make their movements. To

make the thrust beautifully, a considerable degree of practice is

required. This mode of swimming is useful where a great degree of

rapidity is required for a short distance.

THE DOUBLE THRUST.

In the performance of this the arm is thrust forwards, backwards, and

again forwards without dipping into the water; in the meantime the

stretched-forth arm describes two circles before it begins the larger

one.

TO SWIM LIKE A DOG.

[Illustration]

In this motion each hand and foot is used alternately as a dog uses them

when swimming, as the term implies. The hands are alternately drawn

towards the chin in a compressed form, and then expanded and slightly

hollowed, with fingers close, and as they strike the water the feet are

likewise drawn towards the belly, and struck backwards with a kind of

kick. This mode of swimming is of use to relieve the swimmer from time

to time when going a distance.

THE MILL.

The swimmer lays himself on his back and contracts himself so that the

knees are brought almost to the chin, and while one of the hands keeps

the equilibrium by describing circles, the other continues working. Thus

the body is kept turning round more or less rapidly.

THE WHEEL BACKWARDS AND FORWARDS.

In the _forward wheel_ the hands are put as far backwards as possible,

and so pressed against the water that the head is impelled under the

surface, and the feet, by a pressure of the hands in a contrary

direction, are rapidly flung above the head, which in this manner is

rapidly brought again to the surface.

In the _backward wheel_ the swimmer lies upon his back, he contracts

himself, the hands, stretched forward as far as possible, describe

rapidly small circles, the feet rise, and as the point of equilibrium

has been brought as near as possible to the feet, the head sinks and the

feet are thrown over.

TO SWIM WITH ONE HAND.

The learner to do this swims on one side, keeps his feet somewhat deeply

_sunk_, while the arm which in the meantime ought to work is kept

quiet--and might even be taken out of the water. It is a good practice

of strength to carry, first under and then over the water, a weight of

four or eight pounds.

HAND OVER HAND SWIMMING.

[Illustration]

In this process, the right hand is lifted out of the water from behind,

swung forwards through the air with a kind of circular sweep to the

extent of its reach forward, then dropped into the water edgeways, and

immediately turned, with the palm a little hollowed, downwards, the body

being at the same time thrown a little on one side, and the right leg

struck out backwards to its full extent. The hand descends towards the

thigh, and then passes upwards through the water in a kind of curve

towards the surface. The left hand and leg perform a similar movement

alternately with the right, and the measure of progression attained by

these combined similar movements is very considerable.

BALANCING.

[Illustration]

When the swimmer has obtained ease and confidence in the water, he will

find many things easy which before he deemed impossible. Balancing is

one of these. To perform it he has only, when out of his depth, to fall

gently back with his chin elevated to a line passing exactly through

the centre of his body from the chin to the toes, then, folding his arms

and remaining perfectly motionless, he may suspend himself

perpendicularly: but if he should extend his arms backwards, and pass

them gradually beyond his head, his toes, tips of his knees, abdomen,

and part of his chest, with the whole of his face will appear, and he

will be balanced and float horizontally without the slightest motion.

[Illustration]

THE CRAMP.

The cramp generally proceeds from acidity of the bowels, arising from a

bad state of the stomach, or from the effects of the cold water on the

muscular system. Some persons are very subject to it on slight

occasions, and such persons will do well never to go out of their depth.

But should a tolerable swimmer be seized with the cramp, he should not

be frightened, but the moment the cramp is felt in the foot or leg,

strike out that foot or leg with the heel elongated, and the toes drawn

upwards towards the shin-bone, never minding any little pain it may

occasion, as he need not fear breaking a bone, muscle, or tendon. Should

this not succeed, he should throw himself on his back, and float

quietly, and paddle himself gently to the shore. He may also swim with

his hands like a dog, and practise any of the motions of the upper part

of the body for keeping his head above water till assistance arrives.

SAVING FROM DANGER.

Above all things the good swimmer should be anxious to save life, and to

rescue those who are in danger, _without himself becoming the victim, as

it often happens_. The following rules are highly important to be

observed. The swimmer must avoid approaching the drowning person in

front, in order that he may not be grasped by him; for whatever a

drowning person seizes, he holds with convulsive force, and it is no

easy matter to get disentangled from his grasp; therefore he should

seize him from behind, and let go of him immediately if the other turns

towards him. His best way is to impel him before him to the shore, or to

draw him behind; if the space to be passed be too great, he should seize

him by the foot and drag him, turning him on his back. If the drowning

person should seize him, there is no alternative for the swimmer than to

drop him at once to the bottom of the water, and there to wrestle with

his antagonist; the drowning man, by a kind of instinct to regain the

surface, when drawn down to the bottom, usually quits his prey,

particularly if the diver attacks him there with all his power.

For two swimmers the labour is easier, because they can mutually relieve

each other. If the drowning person has still some presence of mind

remaining, they will then seize him one under _one arm, and the other

under the other_, and without any great effort in treading water, bring

him along with his head above water, while they enjoin him to keep

himself stretched out and as much as possible without motion.

SPORTS AND FEATS IN SWIMMING.

1. _The Float._--In this sport one swimmer lays himself horizontally on

the back, with the feet stretched out, the hands pressed close to the

body, and the head raised forward. The other swimmer takes hold of him

by the extremity of the feet, and, swimming with one hand, impels him

forward. The first remains motionless.

2. _The Plank._--One swimmer lays himself horizontally as before,

another lays hold of him with both his hands, immediately above the

ancle, and pulls him obliquely into the water, while he extends himself

and impels himself forward; thus both the swimmers drop rapidly the one

over the other.

3. _The Pickaback Spring._--One swimmer treads the water, the other

swims near him behind, places his hands upon the shoulders of the first,

and presses him down. He then leaves his hold, and puts his feet upon

his shoulders, and, flinging himself out of the water, pushes the first

towards the bottom. Now he treads water, and the first performs the part

of the second, and so on.

4. _The Shove._--Two swimmers place themselves horizontally on their

backs, the legs are strongly extended, and the soles of the feet bear

against each other; each impels forward with all his power, and he who

succeeds in pushing back the other is the conqueror.

5. _The Wrestle._--Two swimmers place themselves opposite to each other,

tread water and hold their right hands in the air; the question is, who

shall first force his opponent under the water by pressure. Only the

head of the adversary is to be touched, and that only by pressure.

BERNARDI’S SYSTEM OF UPRIGHT SWIMMING.

This system has been introduced into many of the naval and military

colleges on the Continent, and has for its distinguishing characteristic

the swimming in an upright position. The first object is to teach the

pupil how to float in an upright posture. He is taught the use of his

legs and arms for balancing the body in water, and then to imitate as

much as possible the movement of the limbs upon land. He then pays great

attention to the movements of the head, the smallest inclination of

which on either side instantly operates on the whole body. He next

learns the method of using his arms and legs; and for this purpose is

directed to stretch his arms laterally on each side, and then, by

placing one foot forward and the other backward, he is enabled to float

easily and progress slowly. The same circular sweep of the hands and the

action of the legs are next practised, and the feet should be struck

downwards and a little forwards, when the movement of the arms is the

reverse of the old methods of swimming. The young swimmer who has gone

through the various courses laid down by us, will easily comprehend the

principle of Bernardi’s system, and as easily carry it out if he will

take the trouble. It is much less fatiguing than the old plan, and can

be carried on for a longer period, and is of invaluable service to

troops who may have to cross rivers or dykes, and to all who may be

exposed to the various accidents of flood and field.

THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM OF PFUEL.

The best of all methods for teaching swimming is that originally

introduced by General Pfuel into the Prussian swimming-schools. By this

method a person may be made a very good swimmer in a very short time.

The apparatus for teaching consists of a hempen girdle five inches in

width, of a rope from five to six fathoms in length, of a pole eight

feet long, and a horizontal rail fixed about three-and-a-half feet above

the platform, on which the teacher stands, to rest the pole on.

The depth of the water in the place chosen for swimming should, if

possible, be not less than eight feet, and the clearest and calmest

water should be selected. The pupil wears drawers, fastened by a band

above the hips and covering about half the thighs. He is now placed near

the horizontal rail, his hands resting upon it, while the teacher shows

him the motion which he will have to make with his legs in the water.

This he does by guiding the motion of one leg while the pupil rests, on

the other. This motion we shall explain presently.

The swimming girdle, about five inches wide, is now placed round the

pupil’s breast, so that its upper edge rests on the chest, without

getting tight. The teacher takes the rope, which is fastened to the ring

of the girdle, in his hand, and directs the pupil to leap into the

water, keeping the legs straight and close together, and the arms close

to the body, and, what is very important, to breathe out through the

nose as soon as his head rises above the water, instead of breathing in

first, as every man naturally does after a suspension of breath. The

object of this is to prevent the water from getting into the throat,

which produces an unpleasant feeling of choking and headache. This

expiration soon becomes perfectly natural to the swimmers.

The pupil is next invited to leap. He is drawn up immediately by the

rope, pulled to the ladder, and allowed to gain confidence gradually.

The rope is now fastened by a noose to the end of the pole, the other

end of it being kept in the hand of the teacher; the pole is rested on

the horizontal rail, and the pupil stretches himself horizontally on the

water, where he remains, supported by the pole. Next the arms are

extended stiffly forward, the hands clasped, the chin touches the water;

the legs are also stiffly stretched out, the heels being together, the

feet turned out, and the toes drawn up. This horizontal position is

important, and must be executed correctly. No limb is permitted to be

relaxed.

The movement of the limbs is now taught; that of the legs is taught

first. The teacher first says, loudly and slowly, “One;” when the legs

are slowly drawn under the body; at the same time the knees are

separated to the greatest possible distance, the spine is bent

downwards, and the toe kept outwards. The teacher then says briskly,

“Two;” upon which the legs are stiffly stretched out with a moderate

degree of quickness, while the heels are separated, and the legs

describe the widest possible angle, the toes being contracted and kept

outwards. The teacher then says quickly, “Three;” upon which the legs,

with the knees held stiffly, are quickly brought together, and thus the

original position is again obtained.

The point at which the motions “two” and “three” join are the most

important, because it is the object to receive as large and compact a

wedge of water between the legs as possible; so that when the legs are

brought together their action upon this wedge may urge the body forward.

In ordinary cases of swimming, the hands are not used to propel, but

merely to assist in keeping on the surface. By degrees, therefore, “two”

and “three” are counted in quick succession, and the pupil is taught to

extend the legs as widely as possible. After some time, what was done

under the heads “two” and “three” is done when “two” is called out. When

the teacher sees that the pupil is able to propel himself with ease,

which he frequently acquires the power of doing in the first lesson, and

that he performs the motions already mentioned with regularity, he

teaches the motions of the hands, which must not be allowed to sink, as

they are much disposed to do while the motion of the legs is practised.

The motion of the hands consists of two parts. When the teacher says

“One,” the hands, which were held with the palms together, are opened,

laid horizontally an inch or two under water, and the arms are extended

till they form an angle of 90°; then the elbow is bent, and the hands

are brought up to the chin, having described an arch downward and

upward; the lower part of the thumb touches the chin, the palms being

together. When the teacher says “Two,” the arms are quickly stretched

forward, and thus the original horizontal position is regained. The

legs remain stiffly extended during the motion of the hands. If the

motion of the hands is carefully and correctly performed, the legs and

arms are moved together; so that while the teacher says “One,” the pupil

performs the first motion of the hands and legs; when he says “Two,” the

second and third motions of the feet, and the second of the hands.

As soon as the teacher perceives that the pupil begins to support

himself, he slackens the rope a little, and instantly straightens it if

the pupil is about to sink. When the pupil can swim about ten strokes in

succession, he is released from the pole, but not from the rope. When he

can swim about fifty strokes, he is released from the rope too; but the

teacher remains near him with a long pole until he can swim 150 strokes

in succession, so that, should he sink, the pole is immediately held out

to him. After this he may swim in the area of the school, under the

superintendence of the teacher, until he proves that he can swim

half-an-hour in succession, so that, should he sink, the pole is

immediately held out to him; he is then considered fit to be left to

himself.

Such are the outlines of the German plan of swimming; and, much as we

dislike the German educational quackery, we are still obliged to confess

that schools for swimming might be, and ought to be, established in this

country in unison with the above system. No well-conducted

boarding-school ought to be without a swimming-school; and the hints

above given will be exceedingly useful to the swimmer who has to teach

himself, as well as to the gymnastic tutor who has to teach others the

art; and we conclude by earnestly recommending the accomplishment of

swimming to our young readers.

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TRAINING.

It is impossible that any one can indulge to any extent either in

pedestrianism or rowing without going into some sort of training,

however slight it may be. Before either can be thoroughly enjoyed, it is

essential that the body should be brought into condition, and the

constitution prepared for the severe tests to which it is sure to be

put. Until this has been satisfactorily accomplished (and it cannot be

done without much perseverance and self-denial) success at regattas or

in athletic sports is quite out of the question, and the most serious

results will attend any attempt to take part in such proceedings.

Courage and determination to win a race, whether on land or water, are

qualities very much to be admired, yet they are entirely after

considerations; the first and chief endeavour must be to reduce the

superfluous fat without weakening the system, to secure soundness in

wind and limb--in short, thoroughly to prepare the body, so that it may

be equal to the emergencies that may hereafter present themselves.

Training should not, however, be begun hastily. Before it is commenced,

care should be taken to get the stomach into condition for the dieting

it will have to undergo. These preliminary proceedings will be more or

less prolonged, according to the habits of life of the patient. If a boy

has been given to drinking large quantities of beer, eating indigestible

things, or smoking, he does not commence under such favourable

circumstances as those who have not so indulged themselves. Probably he

has injured his digestion and interfered, however slightly, with his

liver; a state of things that he can readily appreciate by the

restlessness of his night’s rest, and a furred tongue, and unpleasant

taste in his mouth in the morning. The first thing he must do is

gradually to lessen his quantity of beer daily, till he can leave it off

altogether if necessary, to eschew the pastry-cook’s and fruiterer’s,

and consign his pipe to the dust-hole. When once he has made up his mind

to go in for a system of training, he should commence by taking a mild

aperient dose, such as some salts and senna, or a rhubarb pill, the

latter followed in the morning, if necessary, by a black dose. He must

avoid going to the extreme, and purging himself too violently--the

medicine is solely intended to clear the stomach preparatory to its new

treatment--and having gone thus far he may, without any fear, put

himself upon the diet which shall presently be set out. He who has been

wise enough to satisfy himself with very little beer, and still less of

raspberry puff or unripe greengages, and has refrained altogether from

tobacco, which to young people is simply poison, may, unless of weak or

sickly constitution, begin to train without any preliminary

preparations. If his heart and soul are really in the contest for which

he desires to get himself into condition, and he possesses a small

amount of strength of mind, he will soon become accustomed to the daily

routine of food and exercise. It is no use beginning, and then yielding

to the temptation for this or that nice thing; when once the ordeal has

been commenced, it must be carried out strictly and accurately, or it

may as well be abandoned altogether. For the desired state of body can

only be arrived at by one means, namely, a large amount of self-denial

and close adherence to the prescribed diet.

There is of course some slight difference in the systems of training to

be pursued for rowing and pedestrianism; at the same time, in the chief

and important points precisely the same course has to be taken. If a boy

has a walking or running race in view, he must remember this, that he

has to suit his daily exercise according to the distance of the

competition in which he is going to take part. For short races he need

do little more than keep his digestion and wind in good order, taking

care to have say a couple of hours’ good exercise in the course of the

day. We would here venture to correct a grave mistake made very often by

young runners, who think that by continual practising and “spurting”

they learn to improve their pace. They can adopt no better means for

defeating their own end than this, as it will tend far more to diminish

their pace than to improve it. On the other hand, if they have a long

course of several miles to get over, speed is not so much a matter of

importance as endurance, and this latter quality can only be obtained by

accustoming the body to long and severe exercise. For young persons,

however, it is extremely injudicious to attempt too great distances, and

we would advise that two miles, and no more, be made the outside limit.

Longer spins than this are seldom, if ever, tried in ordinary amateur

races.

Accordingly as the match that is to be contested is in running or

walking, so must the day’s exercise be regulated. Avoid, if for the

former, taking too much running practice, and that never for a greater

distance than that of the race in which you are to take part. Good

sharp, brisk walking is more serviceable than anything else in getting

the body into order. And now, presuming that a boy is in sound health,

with good lungs and no unpleasant thumpings about his heart, let us see

how he should regulate his training. Six o’clock to get out of bed and

commence the day. No one who intends to train himself really seriously

will wish to lie longer. Then a cold tub with a big sponge and lots of

water, followed by a severe rubbing with a rough Turkish towel, that

leaves you all a-glow. Dress as quickly as you can, and go out for half

an hour’s walk, or run, as you feel inclined. Be sure, however, not to

fatigue yourself, and see that you come in to breakfast, say at

half-past seven, with a good appetite. Those who can eat porridge will

find it a capital thing to commence breakfast with, followed by the lean

portion of a broiled chop or steak, with bread at least two days old.

Tea we believe to be undesirable, and a pint of really sound bitter beer

will be found to agree much better.

There is no need to bind yourself down to a stipulated quantity of food;

eat what you feel to require, and no more. After breakfast get as much

rest as you can, say for a couple of hours; then take yourself off for a

couple of hours’ walking or running, getting back to dinner by about two

o’clock. The programme for this meal is simple enough: a joint of roast

meat, either mutton or beef, a potato, and sometimes a little

cauliflower, or brocoli, just to make a change, bread as before, and

another pint of bitter beer. The liquids are the things in which the

strictest care must be taken, and the daily quantity regulated. Poultry

is sometimes introduced, but we hardly think it good--in fact, as far as

you can, stick to the good plain joint, or chop, or steak, with bread

and beer, and you will be astonished how you will find your condition

improved. After dinner rest again for two or three hours, and then about

six o’clock take yourself off for another hour’s exercise, on your

return from which you will no doubt be fully prepared with an appetite

for supper. This meal should always be a light one, as it is bad at all

times, and especially in training, to go to bed on a full stomach.

Unless you feel you absolutely require it, do not take any meat;

otherwise, a chop is the least objectionable, and a half-pint of beer.

Never, under any circumstances, exceed three pints of beer a day.

Butter, spices, peppers, and sauces should on no account be taken, and,

as we said before, so we again repeat, smoking must be abjured. If the

directions given are followed out, defeat will not be occasioned through

any error in the system of preparation.

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