bars, place the legs backwards, the heels close to the upper part of the
thigh. From this position, come gently down, till the elbows nearly meet
behind the back, then rise up gently without any impulse or touching the
ground with your feet.
_To kiss the bar behind the hands._--In the same position as before,
bring the body gently down between the bars without touching the ground
with your knees; kiss the bar behind each hand alternately, and then
rise up in the first position.
_Jumping on the Bars._--Keep the knees straight and jump along the bars
backward and forward. Afterwards, do the same with the fingers turned
inside. These will be learned easier, if the young gymnast tries them
first with bent knees.
[Illustration: WALKING ON THE BARS.]
_Walking on the Bars._--Walk on the hands to the end and back again. In
walking backwards, take care to keep the elbows straight, or you will
come down. When this is done with ease, do the same, only keep your
fingers inside the bars.
[Illustration: L.]
L.--Sit on the ground between the bars; take hold of the bars with your
hands and raise your body still in the sitting position, and stay there
as long as you can. When that is learned, jump along the bars in the
same attitude. Keep your knees straight, and don’t mind if your limbs
ache a little.
[Illustration]
_The Arm Swing._--Rest the fore arms on the bars, and swing. When tired
of swinging, let the body hang straight, and then rise on the hands. Not
easy at first, but soon done with practice.
_The Roll._--Rest on the fore arms, swing backward, and turn completely
over, catching the bars under the arms. It looks difficult, but is easy
enough, only wanting a little nerve.
_The Janus._--Sit astride the bars, having your hands rather behind. Now
raise the feet, swing through the bars, and come up astride on the other
side. Your arms will then be twisted, and your face will be looking in
the opposite direction. Swing boldly, or the shins will be knocked
against the bars.
[Illustration]
_The Sausage._--Kneel on the bars. Stretch the hands as far forward as
possible, and hitch the toes over the bars behind, at the same time
stretching them backwards as far as possible. Now let the body sink
between the bars, being supported by the hands and insteps. Now rise
again. Difficult, but soon learnt.
[Illustration]
_To stand on a bar._--Sit astride one of the bars. Place the heel of the
right foot on the bar, hitching the left instep under it. Draw yourself
up by means of the left instep. Take care of your balance. This is a
very useful accomplishment, and may possibly stand the gymnast in good
stead.
_The Drop._--Stand on the bars with each foot over one of the posts.
Spring slightly into the air, put the feet together, and come down
stiff, catching yourself by your hands. This should be done over the
posts, as the bars might be broken, were the weight of the faller to
come in the middle.
[Illustration]
_The Spring._--Swing at one end, and with a sudden impulse leap to the
other on your hands. Take care of the balance of the body, or you will
come on your back between the bars.
[Illustration]
_The Barber’s Curl._--Hang on one end of the bars as in the L. Keep the
knees straight, and turn over slowly, not letting the feet come to the
ground. Stay there while you count ten, and come back the same way.
THE HORIZONTAL BAR.
Let two strong upright posts be firmly fastened into the ground, about
six feet apart, and let a wooden bar be strongly mortised into their
tops. The bar should be made of white deal, about two inches and a half
in diameter. The bar must have no knot in it, or it will break. It
should be so high from the ground that a spring is required to reach it
with the hands. The surface of the bar should be free from all
roughnesses, but not polished.
_The Grasp._--The fingers should be hooked over the pole, keeping the
thumb on the same side as the fingers. Hang as long as possible, first
with both hands, then with each hand by turns.--See p. 244.
_The Walk._--Hang by the hands, and walk by them from one end of the
pole to the other, backwards and forwards. Do not slip. Do it first with
both hands on the same side of the pole, afterwards with a hand at each
side.--See p. 244.
[Illustration: THE GRASP.]
[Illustration: THE WALK.]
[Illustration: BREASTING THE BAR.]
_Breasting the Bar._--Hang by the hands, and draw up the body slowly
until the chest touches the bar. Practise this as often as
possible--knees straight.
[Illustration]
_Kicking the Bar._--Hang by the hands and draw up the feet very slowly
until the instep touches the pole. Do it several times. Difficult at
first, but soon learned. Do not kick about, or jerk yourself upward, or
you may strain yourself.
[Illustration]
_Swinging._--Hang by the hands and swing backwards and forwards.
Practise this until your heels are considerably above your head each
way. After a while, let go of the pole as you swing back, and catch it
again as you come down. An inch or two at first is enough, but do not be
satisfied until the hands can have a space of eight or ten inches
between themselves and the bar.
[Illustration]
_To sit on the Bar._--Hang by the hands, and pass one of your feet
through them, hitching your knee over the bar. Then give a good swing
backwards, and come up sitting on the bar with one leg. Now draw the
other leg over, and do not tumble off.
_Circling the Bar._--Hang by the hands, and curl the body gently over
the bar. If it is too difficult, stop for a minute or two, try something
else, and after an interval try it again. It will be soon learned.
_The true Lover’s Knot._--Grasp the bar; pass the left knee through the
right arm, so as to let the knee rest in the elbow; pass the right knee
over the instep of the left foot; let go with the left hand, and with it
grasp the right foot. You will now be suspended by the right hand, and
will be packed up in a remarkably small space. Take care of the right
wrist, or you will spin round and twist off.
[Illustration: CIRCLING THE BAR.]
[Illustration: TRUE LOVER’S KNOT.]
[Illustration: PASSING THROUGH THE ARMS.]
_Passing through the Arms._--Hang by the hands, and bring the feet
between them, permitting them to pass through until they can nearly
touch the ground; now return in the same way. This cannot be done
properly without practising, as the muscles of the shoulder blades must
be capable of great relaxation, together with great power.
[Illustration: THE GRASSHOPPER.]
[Illustration: HANGING BY THE LEGS.]
_The Grasshopper._--Sit on the pole, grasping it with the fingers to the
front. Slide gradually off, until the small of the back rests against
the pole, while the arms are elevated at the elbows like a grasshopper’s
legs. Now draw yourself up again.
_Hanging by the legs._--This is easy enough, and a capital preservative
against determination of the blood to the brain. First practise it with
both legs over the pole; then take off the left leg and hitch it over
the right instep; then learn to hang by one leg only, while you try to
carry a weight in your hands. When you are perfect and confident, sit on
the pole, and drop off backwards, catching yourself by the legs. This
must be done with a fall like a plummet, or the body will swing, and
probably unhitch the legs from the pole.
[Illustration: THE ARM-CHAIR.]
_The Arm-chair._--Hang on the bar by the arms just below the elbows,
keeping the elbows firmly pressed to the side. The hands should be lower
than the bar, to counteract the swing of the body.
[Illustration: HANGING BY THE FEET.]
_Hanging by the feet._--Hang by the hands, and curl up the body, until
the insteps are well hitched over the bar. Let go the hands cautiously,
and permit the body to hang at full length. The best way to reach the
bar again is to seize one of your legs, and pull yourself up by it.
_To leave the Bar._--Never get on the bar or leave it in a clumsy
manner; there should be art about everything. To leave the bar
effectively is well worth practising. Here are six modes:--
1. Sit on the bar; drop and hang by the legs, at the same time giving
the body a swing forwards which will loosen the hold of the legs. Alight
on the hands, and get gently on the feet. This is rather a brilliant
finish, and not so difficult as it appears.
2. Sit on the bar, place both hands on one side, and vault over.
3. Sit astride, place both hands on the bar in front, bring up both
feet, at the same time springing upright; run along the bar and jump off
the end, or slide down the post if it is too high to jump.
4. Hang by the hands, draw up the body until the chest touches the bar;
spring off backwards by the force of the arms.
5. Hang by the hands, and swing completely round once, letting the
impetus hurl you forward. Take care to cross the feet and come down on
the toes.
6. If you are tired and cannot perform any of these things, merely hang
by the hands, and come round through them, but never merely loose the
pole.
THE HORSE.
There is not a more graceful or more interesting series of exercises
than those performed on the Wooden Horse. They are very useful also, as
they give exceeding pliancy to the limbs, and teach the gymnast how to
take advantage of the weight of each member. They have also the
advantage of requiring some daring, and a spirited lad will always
surpass at these exercises.
The horse is made of a great cylinder of wood mounted on four legs,
which are firmly fastened into the ground--their ends should be charred
as was directed for the Giant Stride.
Nearer one end than the other a piece of stout rough leather is firmly
nailed, to represent the saddle, and two curved pieces of wood bound the
saddle and represent the pommels. The hind pommel should be nearly half
an inch higher than the other. They may be covered with leather also.
On the off side of the horse a pit about a foot deep and four feet
square should be dug and filled with sawdust, while on the near side the
paving should be either very fine gravel, or, if possible, sand.
There should be several horses, adapted to the different sizes of boys
who are to practise on them. When a boy can place his chin on a level
with the saddle, he should change to a higher horse, as the top of the
saddle ought to be on a level with the nose of the gymnast.
_Mounting._--Stand by the horse, place one hand on each pommel, spring
up, so that the body is supported by the hands, while the legs rest
lightly against the horse. Keep the body upright and knees straight.
Down and up again several times. Always come down on the toes.
[Illustration]
Now do the same thing; but, in springing up, throw out the right leg
until it is nearly at right angles with the body, then the left.
Afterwards spread both legs as widely as possible.
When this can be done with ease, spring up as before, rest a moment,
then throw the right leg easily over the saddle, removing the right
hand, and there you are.
_Dismounting._--Put the left hand on the fore pommel, right hand on the
saddle, spring off and come to the ground, keeping your right hand still
on the saddle. Be sure in all these exercises to come down on the toes.
[Illustration]
_Sustaining the body._--1. Spring up as in mounting, and throw the body
away from the horse, bringing it back again without coming to the
ground.
2. Mount, and putting both hands on the front pommel, raise the body as
high as you can. Don’t be afraid of going too high.
3. Do the same, but swing the body backwards and forwards. Hard work,
but capital exercise.
4. Do the same, and slap the soles of your shoes together.
_Knee practice._--1. Put your hands on the pommels, spring up, and lodge
your right knee on the saddle. Down, and then the left knee. Then both
knees. Practise these well.
2. Hands on pommels, leap up and touch the saddle with both toes.
[Illustration: KNEE PRACTICE.]
[Illustration: TOUCH SADDLE.]
[Illustration: JUMPING OFF.]
3. Kneel on the saddle with both knees; now lean well forward and jump
off. Very easy, but requires confidence.
_Swinging practice._--1. Sit behind the saddle, put the left hand on the
front pommel, and the right hand on the other. Raise the body and swing
round the horse, seating yourself on his neck, _before_ the saddle.
Change hands, and swing round until you regain your former position.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
2. Put both hands on the front pommel, raise the body, and suddenly
swing boldly upwards, turning round and crossing the legs, so that you
will sit on the saddle with your face to the tail. Keep the hands in
their places, and swing back again in the same manner.
_Miscellaneous Exercises._--Hands on pommels, spring up and put the
right leg through the arms, letting the left hang straight. Withdraw the
right leg, and spring up again, using the left leg, and letting the
right hang down.
Hands on pommels, spring up, and seat yourself like a lady behind the
saddle; spring down to the ground, and seat yourself in a similar manner
before the saddle.
Hands on pommels, spring up, cross your feet, pass them through the
hands, and come to the ground on the opposite side.
[Illustration]
Take a short run, place the hands on the pommels, and vault completely
over the horse, keeping the knees straight.
[Illustration]
Sit behind the saddle, put both hands on the hind pommel, and throw
yourself off over the horse’s tail.
Hands on pommels, spring up, make the body into an L, let the feet pass
through the hands and rest suspended without touching the saddle. Knees
quite straight.
[Illustration]
A good one for a finish.--Take a run, put both hands on the very top of
the pommels, and throw yourself over in a regular somerset. That is not
bad, but you can do better after the somerset has been well learned.
[Illustration]
Throw the somerset as before, only do not let go the hands. You will now
be standing with your back to the horse, the spine considerably bent,
and your arms thrown over your head. Wait so for a few seconds, and then
with a powerful effort throw yourself back again, so as to come on the
ground on the same side of the horse from which you started. This is
really difficult, as it requires practice, strength, and confidence, but
it looks so well that it is worth learning. The writer of these few
instructions has often astonished the natives with it, and has lately
repeated it after two years’ absence from any gymnasium.
THE SWING.
Let no one despise this exercise. It is worth learning, if only as a
preservation against sea sickness. If any one can stand a twenty-feet
swing for half-an-hour, the sea may toss its worst, for he will come off
unscathed. Now, I do not mean to say that merely sitting on a board and
getting swung by some one else is any great object: far from it. But
there are some very graceful exercises to be managed on the swing. Here
are some:--
1. The way to get into the swing is as follows:--Take one rope in each
hand, just above the seat; walk backwards until the ropes are freely
stretched. Now run sharply forwards, letting the hands glide up the
ropes as far as possible, and the instant that you feel a check, grasp
the rope tightly, and spring into the seat standing. When there, work
easily up by alternately bending and straightening the knees. (See 1.)
[Illustration: _Fig. 1._]
2. When in good swing, slip the feet off the seat (which should not be
more than four inches wide); let the hands slide down the ropes, and
come down sitting. To recover the standing position, reach upwards with
the hands as high as possible, and draw yourself upwards as the swing is
going forwards, when the seat will place itself exactly under your feet.
3. Now for some feats.
Let the swing go very gently. Place both hands at the level of the
shoulders, and suddenly extend them, keeping the arms straight. Take
care, as there will be a violent vibration, and you will be shot out of
the swing before you know where you are. Practise it first while the
swing is still, but do not be satisfied until you can do it while in
strong swing, and without closing the hands, merely letting the palms
rest against the ropes. (See 2.)
[Illustration: _Fig. 2._]
Swing still. Stand up on the seat, and grasp the rope with the hands as
low as possible, without bending the body or the knees. Now lean
forward, making your hands the pivot, and do not be astonished at
finding your heels in the air, and your head downward. To recover
yourself, the body must be bent a little. (See 3.)
[Illustration: _Fig. 3._]
Stand sideways on the seat, grasp one rope with both hands leaning your
back against the other, taking care to have the rope well between the
shoulder blades. Put the inner centre of the left foot against the
opposite rope, and fix the right foot in the same manner against the
left heel. Now let go both hands, and lean well backwards, when you will
be exactly balanced. When you are secure with a quiet swing, practise it
while the swing is moving, until you can lie securely against the rope
while you are moving freely. The balance is entirely kept by the
shoulder blades against the rope, and the arms must be folded in order
to throw the shoulder blades well back. If the gymnast gets alarmed, and
puts his hands out to save himself, the rope slips off his back, and out
he goes. (See 4.)
[Illustration: _Fig. 4._]
While the swing is working, suddenly hang out at one side, supporting
yourself by one hand on the rope, and one foot on the seat. Practise
this on both sides. (See 5.)
[Illustration: _Fig. 5._]
Seize the left rope with both hands, press the feet firmly against the
ropes where they join the seat, and fall out forwards. The ropes will
now cross, and when the swing is in full operation, the curves described
are most elegant. To recover the ordinary position, wait until the swing
is going backwards, and a powerful twist of the body will uncross the
ropes, when the right hand should take hold of the right rope and steady
the swing. (See 6.)
[Illustration: _Fig. 6._]
When the swing is in motion, grasp the ropes as tight as possible, and
raise the feet until they are high in air between the ropes. Take care
of the balance in the back swing, as, if the body is suffered to bend
backwards, the hands will hardly bear the strain. Now slide slowly and
carefully down the ropes until the head rests on the footboard.
To make a telling exit from the swing, two ways may be adopted. First
way:--Get the swing into a firm, steady movement, sit down, and bring
both hands inside the ropes; and just as the swing has passed its
centre, strike the seat away with the hands and you will shoot forward
several yards. Take care to come down on the toes, and to lean well
backwards as you leave the swing, as the impetus will bring you upright
as you touch the ground. (See 7.)
[Illustration: _Fig. 7._]
The second method is, to seat yourself in the same manner, and as the
swing crosses its centre backwards, lean well forwards and strike away
the seat. You will then be hurled backwards, and if your balance is
good, will come to the ground in a very elegant attitude. Be sure to
lean well forward, cross the feet, clasp the hands, and come down on the
toes. (See 8.)
[Illustration: _Fig. 8._]
Great care must be taken to lean well backwards if you shoot out
forwards, and well forwards as you shoot backwards, or in the one case
you will come with your nose on the ground, and in the other you will
find the back of your head rather damaged. So practise with gentle
swings at first, and then increase. I have often done it with the swing
at full speed, and in one instance in a public gymnasium, I shot so far
forward that the spot was marked by a row of iron nails driven into the
floor.
In a volume of this nature, it is impossible to give more than a
comparatively slight sketch of any subject. I am sure, however, that if
the reader will master even these short instructions in gymnastic
exercises, he will be able to realize that great blessing, the sound
body, in which only a sound mind can reside. His trained eye will be
accustomed to measure instinctively any obstacle in his way, and the
training of his body will enable him to put forth the full power of his
muscles to overcome the obstacle. Danger will lose half its perils to
him who thus knows how to meet it. A strong rope will be as safe as a
staircase to him; it will be perfectly indifferent to him whether his
head or his heels be uppermost, and he will be enabled by the presence
of mind which such studies engender to think out calmly modes of escape
from danger which would instantly overwhelm those whose bodies are
uninstructed.
But even to pass by the question of utility, it is a duty of man to
preserve his body in health, and to develop its powers. Every man would
think himself wrong to neglect the mind; surely then, every man ought no
less to think it wrong to neglect the body, which is made by the same
mighty Hand that implanted the mind within it. Indeed, the neglected
body is sure to injure the mind, and therefore those who improve their
bodies are at the same time improving their minds.
I know one young man, who owes all his health, and probably his life, to
gymnastic exercise. From his earliest childhood he was always ailing,
and through the whole of his childhood was never suffered to sleep
unwatched. When he entered upon manhood, the childish illness changed
into annual fevers, which held their sway until he had been for some
time at one of the Universities.
His medical attendant advised him to take regular exercise, and
recommended the study of gymnastics. He rapidly improved in health and
strength, his fever has not attacked him for eight or nine years, and he
actually led the gymnasium for a whole year.
Were I to have the charge of a school, I should consider the gymnasium
as part of the regular school discipline, and take care that the boys
were exercised as carefully in their bodily as their mental powers.
THROWING THE JAVELIN.
[Illustration]
This play is very interesting, and gives strength to the arm, and
exactness to the eye. In playing it, a square target must be procured,
made of thick wood, about four feet in diameter, and on which should be
marked concentral circles, the same as those of a target in archery.
This should be well supported behind by two stout back pieces, resting
in the ground, so as to prevent the target from being easily overturned.
The circles may be several in number; the centre should be black, and
about six inches in diameter, and count ten; the second circle should be
red, and should count five; and the third should be light blue, and
count three. The other parts of the target to count as may be agreed.
The javelins should consist of poles of ash or fir, about an inch and
half in diameter, and should be five feet six inches in length. They
should have a spike in one end, which should be surrounded with a rim of
iron; the spike should be about two inches long, thick, and strong, so
as to enable it to become fixed in the target without splitting it. The
game may be played by any number of boys, and is commenced as follows:--
One player takes a javelin in his right hand, and walking to a distance
from the target, previously agreed upon by the players, he poises his
javelin, by holding it in the hollow of his hand, between the ball of
the thumb and the fleshy part at the side, and his elbow is at the same
time bent, and his arm elevated so that his hand is a little above his
ear, the javelin being at the same time nicely balanced with the smaller
fingers, touching it so as to direct its course; it is then launched
forward at the target, and, if properly poised, directed and thrown,
will go to it in a direct line. The point at which it strikes the target
is then marked, and then the other players follow in the same way for
twelve times in succession: the person who scores the most marks being
the victor.
[Illustration]
The javelin will fly better and straighter if a rotatory movement is
communicated to it by a slight pull of the little finger as it leaves
the hand. When some skill has been obtained in darting, blunt javelins
with padded ends should be procured, and the players should accustom
themselves to avoid, parry, or catch a javelin thrown at them. When they
can do so with certainty, they may storm a fort. The best fort is a
hedge with gaps. The players divide into two parties, one defending and
the other attacking. Each player should be furnished with three javelins
at least, well padded and nicely balanced. The art of catching and
returning a javelin is exceedingly useful in this game. We well remember
an occasion when, on storming a fort, one of our opponents, whose frame
was larger than his soul, had prudently retired into the background
until all our spears were exhausted, but, on seeing us weaponless, he
with great courage ran up to the hedge and hurled his spear, as we were
running forward to pick up a fallen lance. The moment he had thrown the
javelin he ran away as fast as he could, but was overtaken by his own
weapon, which took him in the rear, and toppled him over in beautiful
style. We have only known one accident at this game, and that was caused
by the impetuosity of one of the garrison, who on seeing an enemy
crawling up through the gap, and finding himself without a spear,
snatched up a _bow_ that was lying near, and made a thrust at him, which
sent the sharp horn tip of the bow through his under lip.
THE TRAPEZE: SINGLE AND DOUBLE.
Should the intending gymnast possess a strongly-built barn or outhouse,
which is large enough to permit the trapeze to have fair play, and
strong enough to endure the stress of the swinging weight, the ropes can
be suspended from a beam, either belonging to the building or inserted
for the express purpose, and resting at each end on strong brackets. But
as such buildings are very seldom to be obtained, we here give a sketch
of a plan invented, we believe, by Messrs. Snoxell, the well-known
furnishers of gymnasia. Although its structure may appear to be light
and flimsy, it is in reality possessed of strength which renders a
fracture impossible, and is indeed far more fitted to resist the
enormous strain which is laid upon it, than if it were made of massive
beams morticed.
[Illustration]
In the first place the upright poles (_a_) do not pass into the ground,
but are supported upon stone slabs, so there is no fear of that terrible
enemy of the gymnasium--rotting wood, which silently decays and suddenly
snaps off level with the surface of the ground. The cross piece (_b_) is
affixed to the uprights by a simple cap, bent at right angles, as is
seen at _f_. The cross piece is permanently secured into the cap, but
the uprights can be slipped in and out without difficulty. At _c_ may be
seen four slender wire ropes, the upper ends of which are fastened to
the uprights, and the lower ends are furnished with hooks. These hooks
are intended to be slipped into the staples (_e_), which are firmly
secured into the ground, just as the old bull-rings were fixed. At _d_
are seen the tightening screws, which are simply turned by hand, and
shorten the wire ropes just as the connecting screws of a railway train
draw the carriages together.
The apparatus is so perfectly simple that it can be set up or taken down
by two boys in five minutes, or by one boy in rather a longer period.
The process is as follows:--
The uprights are slipped into the caps, and the hooks at the ends of the
wire ropes or stays are hitched into the staples of one side, say at
_e_. The uprights are then reared, and their bases set on the stones.
The hooks of the opposite stays are then hitched into the staples at _e
e_, and the screws at _d_ turned until the stays are quite tight and the
uprights are perfectly perpendicular.
It seems rather a complicated process to read about, but it is
remarkably simple when reduced to action. We have mounted and dismounted
one of these ingenious contrivances in a wonderfully short space of
time, and without any assistance.
For practising the feat of passing through the air from one trapeze to
another a double set of apparatus is required; but for most useful
purposes one set is sufficient. The ropes by which the bar is suspended
must be thoroughly stretched before they are attached to the bar, or
there will be no certainty in the swing. Few persons who have not had
practical experience on this subject would imagine how greatly the
length of a rope is increased by the process of stretching, and how
absolutely necessary is this precaution.
The ropes are passed at each end over an iron eye, the upper one of
which is hitched over a hook on the cross bar, and the other receives
the hook which suspends the bar. On looking at the illustration the
reader will notice these hooks just above the bar. They are useful,
because, when needed, a pair of rings can be substituted for the bar,
and permit certain variations in the performances, Still, their presence
or absence is quite optional, and the only remark that need be made is,
that they should be furnished with springs like the fastening of a
breguet chain, so as to guard against the possibility of slipping. The
bar itself must be very heavy, or otherwise it will not have sufficient
weight to keep the cords at full stretch, and in consequence will not
swing truly. Those which were employed by Leotard were iron, with a mere
shell of wood, so as to give a pleasant hold for the hands, and we have
seen them made of iron, coated with leather. The last point that needs
notice is the perch or stand from which the performer launches himself.
This may be fixed at any convenient elevation, and its centre should
exactly coincide with the centre of the bar. Having now the apparatus
ready, let us commence the performance.
Set the bar swinging boldly; ascend the perch quickly, and seize the bar
in both hands. Wait for a moment, until the ropes are fully stretched,
and then launch yourself for a swing. Now there are two ways of doing
everything--a right and a wrong way; and the present instance affords no
exception to the rule. The wrong way--and the usual way--is to fall
forwards from the perch. Now this is quite wrong; and if you act in such
a manner you will bungle your sway, and will not retain sufficient
impetus to enable you to return to the perch.
The right mode of starting is as follows: Stand as seen in the
accompanying illustration--the spine well bent backwards, the body
tolerably stiff, and leaning well against the heavy bar. Now draw
yourself up gently by the arms, as if you were trying to lift your chin
above the bar, and you will find yourself started without any trouble.
Keep the back still bent, and as you descend allow the arms gradually to
assume a perfectly straight position. You will then swing out fairly and
boldly, and by the least possible sway at the end of the swing will
retain sufficient impetus to enable you to resume your stand on the
perch.
Even in this there is an art. If you merely allow yourself to swing back
as you swing forward, you will be disagreeably reminded of your error,
by hitting the back of the leg smartly against the edge of the perch. In
order to avoid this misfortune, draw up the legs sharply just before you
reach the end of the return swing, and you will find them come down on
the perch with perfect ease.
If you are using the rings instead of the bar, you can vary this part
of the performance by turning round in the air, and crossing the ropes
so that you alight on the perch with your back towards the trapèze,
though it is necessary to give a sharp twist as your foot touches the
perch, and so to turn in the direction in which you started.
[Illustration]
Take notice that the arms are always at full length during the swing,
and that the illustrations which represent the performer swinging with
bent arms are entirely erroneous. There is another fault into which the
artists mostly fall. Thinking that they are obtaining pictorial effect,
they represent the ropes which sustain the bar as forming an angle with
the arms of the performer, whereas the arms, body, and ropes are, or
ought to be, all in the same line.
The real attitude in the trapèze is given in the accompanying
illustration, wherein it will be seen that the ropes, the arms, and the
body are all in the same line; and, indeed, a little reflection will
prove that they must be so. Note the position and action, or rather the
non-action of the body, and be careful to imitate it. During the swing,
let the body and limbs hang at full length, and be sure to keep the feet
nearly together, and the toes pointed. The illustrations are all wrong
in this respect. They always _will_ show the performer in an attitude
which the draughtsman is pleased to think a graceful one; but it is
inexpressibly graceless and ridiculous in the eyes of a gymnast.
[Illustration]
When you have accomplished the swing and return satisfactorily, you may
advance another step. Swing off as usual; and, when you have reached the
extremity of the swing, you will find yourself balanced for a moment
motionless, the attraction of gravitation being balanced by the impetus
of the swing. Just at this important point, shift your hold on the bar,
and change sides, as you would do if the bar were hanging quietly.
You will then face the spot whence you started, and in landing on the
perch you must be careful to give yourself a twist as you place your
feet on the perch, and with a slight exertion of the arms you will draw
yourself upright without difficulty, and without running the risk of
falling off the perch again--a frequent and ignominious misfortune.
It will now be time to practise the descent from the swinging trapèze to
the ground. Begin by sitting on the bar, grasping it with the hands, and
falling off backwards, taking care to come to the ground with pointed
toes and crossed feet. The reason of this precaution is that, if the
feet are crossed, the knees are separated, and that when the body
yields--as it must do when it touches the earth--there is no danger of
hitting the chin against the knee, and thereby receiving a momentary
shock to the brain by the teeth striking together.
When you can manage the “fall-back,” as it is called, with tolerable
ease and certainty, seize the bar with the hands, set it swinging,
keeping your face to the perch, and when you are nearly at the full
extent of the swing loosen your hold, and allow yourself to come to the
ground. Be very careful to point the toes, as has already been
described, and continue the practice until you can stand on the perch,
launch yourself backwards, and fly off at the highest point of the
swing.
Always leave the bar while you are swinging _backwards_, because the
attitude of the body is then such as to insure your coming to the ground
in the correct position; whereas, if you do so while swinging forward,
you are nearly certain to overbalance yourself, and either fall on your
nose, or go staggering along in a very ignominious style.
The next process is to start as usual, raise yourself in a sitting
position on the bar, and ask some one to remove the perch. Fall back as
before, only, instead of coming on the ground, hang by the legs, and
accustom yourself to swing in this attitude. When you can accomplish
that feat without difficulty, and feel no nervousness at your strange
position, remove one leg from the bar and hang by the other. Practise
this with both feet. It is not nearly so difficult as it looks, and is
an important feat to perform, because it gives such perfect presence of
mind.
The next feat looks positively awful, but, as usual in gymnastic
performances, is perfectly easy, requiring no skill at all and only a
little courage. Sit on the bar when it is still, and do the “fall-back.”
But, instead of allowing the feet to pass between the ropes, spread the
legs as far apart as possible, and bend up the feet rigidly. The
consequence is, that the insteps hitch in the ropes, slide down them,
and the body becomes suspended by the feet, which are firmly hitched
between the ropes and the bar, as seen in the accompanying illustration.
[Illustration]
If you possess a second trapèze, you may now proceed to the beautiful
series of performances which are achieved upon them.
Let them at first be set moderately near each other, so that when the
bar of the first trapèze is at full swing, it passes within a yard or
four feet of the second. Start off as usual, and just as you are well on
the rise, after passing through the upright, loose your hold of the bar,
and you will pass through the air towards the second bar which you catch
rapidly.
If you perform the feat nicely, you will have so much impetus to spare
that you will be carried along on the second bar, and may either attempt
to return or quietly drop to the ground at the end of the swing. If you
prefer the latter course, be sure to turn through your arms and come
down on your toes.
You will find that the return to the perch, simple as it looks, is by
far the most difficult feat that has yet been mentioned. Make but the
least mistake and failure is certain. If you do not catch the bar
exactly at the right moment, you lose your impetus, and if you do not
seize it exactly in the right place you do not swing truly between the
uprights, and consequently cannot land on the spot at which you aim.
The method of performing this feat is as follows: Swing off the perch,
pass to the second bar, and while at the full extent of the swing,
change sides, and give yourself a slight impulse with the feet. You will
now meet the first bar swinging towards you, and if you can seize it
just at the right moment, you will find yourself with sufficient impetus
to reach the perch. If not, swing once more, give yourself a hearty
impulse with the legs and try it again. Failure is certain at first, but
after a little practice the feat becomes easy.
Here we must protest against the totally erroneous ideas of artists
respecting the attitude of the body while the performer passes from one
bar to another. We think that without an exception they all represent
him as shooting horizontally through the air, with his hands stretched
out, and with one leg bent and the other straight. Now, if any one will
watch a performer on the trapèze, he will see that the attitude is
nearly perpendicular, and that any other position is really absurd and
impracticable.
[Illustration]
In the accompanying illustration, we have given a sketch of the real
attitude of the performer, wherein it will be seen that the body is
nearly perpendicular, and that the arms are kept bent, with the hands
close to the shoulders, ready to be darted out in a moment when the
trapèze swings within distance.
We are the more particular in giving these illustrations, because they
are needed in order to correct the very false notions which are
prevalent respecting this beautiful exercise. Parents especially are apt
to form their judgments from the illustrations which are seen upon
advertising bills and in illustrated journals, and thinking that the
exercise must be attended with great danger, do not like to give their
permission for their sons to learn it.
Let our readers be assured that there is no more danger in this
beautiful exercise than in jumping over a chair--perhaps not quite so
much--while the manner in which it develops the muscular powers of the
arms, shoulders, and loins, is unapproachable by any other system.
One caution is, however, needful. Take care that every loop and splice
be perfectly secure, look over the whole of the apparatus daily, and
never venture upon the trapèze until you have ascertained that nothing
is likely to give way. If you perceive the slightest feeling of
insecurity, the whole enjoyment of the exercise is lost, and no benefit
can be expected from it.
TRICKS AND FEATS OF GYMNASTICS.
_The book._--Fix a book between the toes of the feet, and, by a jerk,
throw it over the head.
_The chalk line._--Draw a line with chalk on the floor; against this
place the toes of both feet; then kneel down, and rise up again without
leaving the line, or using the hands.
_Stepping through._--Take a small piece of cane about a foot long, and
holding it between the hands, leap through it. Afterwards take a
tobacco-pipe, and perform the same feat without breaking; after this,
join the hands together, and leap through them, which is not very
difficult of accomplishment.
_Armless._--Lying upon the back with the arms across the chest, the
attempt must be made to rise on the feet again.
_Hop against the wall._--Stand with one toe close against the wall,
about two feet from the ground, and turn the other over it, without
removing the toe from the wall.
_Stoop if you can._--One boy having placed his heels against the wall,
another must place near his toes a shilling, and tell him he may have it
if he can pick it up. This he will find to be impossible for him to do
while his heels touch the wall, as there is no room for his back to
balance the other parts of his body.
_The spring from the wall._--Placing yourself at a proper distance from
the wall with your face opposite to it, throw yourself forward until you
support yourself by one hand. Then spring back into your former
position. Begin this feat at a short distance from the wall, and
increase the distance by degrees. The “athlete” will, in a short time,
be able to stand at nearly the length of his body from the wall. This
feat is sometimes called the palm spring, but the palm has really
nothing to do with it. The thumb spring is similar, but dangerous, and
many have sprained their thumbs in attempting it.
[Illustration]
_The long reach._--This is a somewhat difficult feat, and requires great
caution in its performance. A line is chalked on the floor, at which the
toes must be placed, and from which they are not to remove. The left
hand is then to be thrown forward in a long reach until the body
descends upon it, without any part touching the floor in its descent;
the right hand is now to be stretched out as far forward as possible,
and with a piece of chalk, a mark is made on the floor at its fullest
extent, the body being sustained by the left hand during the operation.
The boy should now recover the upright position on his legs, by
springing back from the left hand without touching the floor in any way.
The length reached, and the perfection with which the body recovers
itself, distinguishes the winner of the game.
[Illustration]
_The stooping stretch._--In this feat a line is drawn on the floor, at
which the outer edge of the left foot is placed, and behind this, at a
short distance, the right heel. Taking a piece of chalk in the left
hand, the youngster passes it between the legs, and under the bend of
the left knee, chalking the floor with it as far forward as he can. He
then recovers his position without moving his feet from the line at
which they had been fixed.
[Illustration]
_The chair feat._--Place three chairs in the situation indicated in the
cut (p. 264), and lay down upon them, the head resting on one, the heels
upon another, and the lower part of the body on the third or middle
chair, which should be much lighter than the others. Then, by stiffening
the body and limbs, and throwing up the chest into a state of rigidity,
it will not be difficult for a boy to remove the middle chair, and to
pass it quite over on the other side of him.
[Illustration]
_The poker feat._--Take a common poker and hold it the lower end
downwards, in the manner shown in the cut, _i. e._ by the fingers,
thumb, and ball of the palm. Then, by the mere motion of the fingers and
thumb, and the fulcrum of the palm, work the poker upwards till you
raise it through the whole length to that part of it which goes into the
fire. This trick depends mainly upon the strength of the muscles of the
hand and fingers, combined with a certain knack to be acquired by
practice.
[Illustration]
_The stick feat, or from hand to mouth._--Take a piece of stick of the
length of the fore arm, measuring from the elbow to the end of the
middle finger. Hold it in the hand horizontally before you, the knuckles
being down and the nails upwards, and the elbow being on a line with the
hand. Then raise the left end of the stick from the breast to the mouth,
without any other movement of the hand than the arm at the wrist. This
is a difficult feat, but may be easily acquired by practice.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
_Walking on stilts._--Among the Swiss, and in several districts in the
South of France, walking on stilts is not only an amusing, but a useful
practice, as by means of these crane-like legs men and women transform
themselves into the order of “Waders,” emulating the long-legged storks
and herons, and can cross over marshes and flooded grounds without
wetting their feet. Stilts are easily made, being nothing but a pair of
poles, with a wooden step at the sides for the feet to stand on. The
poles are kept in their proper place by the hands. A little practice
will soon render a youth “easy on his stilts,” and they may be made an
amusing and healthy exercise.
HOCKEY.
In all the general principles, hockey bears a great resemblance to
foot-ball, the game consisting in driving a ball through a goal. The
ball, however, is of much smaller dimensions, even where a ball, and not
a bung, is used; and it is impelled, not by the foot, but by certain
sticks, or clubs, called hockeys, or hookeys, because the end with which
the ball is struck is more or less hooked.
The shape and dimensions of the hockey-stick are entirely arbitrary,
being left to the peculiar taste of the owners. Some like their hockeys
to be sharply hooked, while others prefer them merely bent over at the
end. Some players like a very thick, heavy stick, which can be put down
in front of the ball in order to neutralize the blows of the opposite
side, while others can play best with a slight and springy weapon, that
can be used with one hand, and is employed to tap the ball away just as
an opponent is about to strike, and to coax it, as it were, towards the
goal through the mass of adverse sticks.
[Illustration]
The four sticks shown in the engraving are very good samples of the
forms best adapted for use. Fig. 1 is much in favour with some players,
and is therefore given; but for our own part we never could play to our
satisfaction with it, the large and deep curve deceiving the eye and
causing the player to let the ball pass through the hook, besides
running the risk of entanglement in the opponent’s stick.
Fig. 2 is usually a favourite, but the angle of the head with the handle
is arranged according to the fancy of the player. Some like the head to
be made of horn, backed with lead like a golf-stick; but this formation
is hardly necessary, costing a rather large sum, and not conveying
correspondent advantages.
Fig. 3 is a queer and eccentric form, which is not suitable to every
player on account of its weight and generally large proportions. We
have, however, seen it employed with extraordinary effect by a player
who was accustomed to drive his opponents into a state of considerable
excitement by his faculty of stopping the ball with this overgrown
weapon, and then planting it so firmly that all the opposing sticks
could not get at the ball in spite of their battering. In this way he
would save many a game that had well-nigh been given up as hopeless, and
by thus checking the ball on its way to the goal, would give time for
his own side to come up and turn the tables. The great hooked end of
this club was bound with very strong iron wire.
The same player was equally successful with a stick the exact reverse of
the preceding, and represented as fig. 4. This was a very slight ashen
stick, with a small, but rather heavy head, so that when shaken it would
bend and spring like whalebone. This little stick was used for darting
among the struggles and clatter of contending weapons, and giving the
ball just a wee pat now and then at critical moments, so as to edge it a
little nearer the goal, and at the same time to knock it away just as
the blow of the opponent descended.
[Illustration]
The ball used for this game is sometimes an ordinary cask bung. As this
would speedily be knocked to pieces, it is generally quilted with
string, as shown in the illustration, for the better preserving its
integrity. Sooner or later, however, it goes to pieces, for the string
is sure to be cut or worn through, and the cork soon gives way. Balls,
too, are apt to get their jackets knocked off, and if struck hard will
sometimes fly in the face of a player, who cannot avoid it at so short a
distance, and do no small damage. A hollow india-rubber ball is very
good; but the best that we have yet seen, was a common globular
india-rubber bottle, such as can be procured at any stationer’s, with
the neck cut off, and partly filled up by leaving a strip of the neck
and securing it by the proper varnish.
It made a capital ball. Nothing could hurt it, and it could hurt no one.
We have had it driven into our face at two yards’ distance, and felt
little the worse for it five minutes afterwards. It would not roll very
far by itself, but required to be edged carefully by the sticks; it
never could get cut against flints, or spoiled by thorns or splinters;
it was big enough to be easily seen if knocked into a ditch or over a
hedge, and if struck into water it would not sink but come to the
surface at once, bobbing about as if to draw attention to its presence.
It remained in constant action for two years to our knowledge, had been
employed for several seasons before we made its acquaintance, and for
aught we know may be in use now. In fact, if it were only kept out of
the way of a fire or an ostrich, we know nothing that would hurt the
ball except burning or swallowing. Even in the latter case we fancy that
the ostrich would be the sufferer rather than the ball.
Having now described the instruments, we will proceed to the method of
playing the game.
As has already been mentioned, this game is in principle similar to
foot-ball. Two goals are set up, at a convenient distance from and
exactly opposite to each other, as in foot-ball. The same goals indeed
will answer as for that game, only the cross pole should be lashed to
the uprights at a much lower elevation, say three feet six inches or
four feet from the ground, and the uprights should be within six feet of
each other. Very good and simple goals can be made by taking long
osiers, willow branches or brambles, pointing the two ends, bending them
over and sticking the pointed extremities into the earth, so as to make
an arch. A peg is driven exactly half-way between the goals, goal-lines
are drawn as at foot-ball, and the ground is then laid out.
The players, having previously chosen their sides, arrange themselves
between the goals, facing each other, and always having their left sides
towards the enemy’s goal and their right towards their own. The ball is
then thrown in the air, so as to fall on or near the wooden peg, and
each party try with their sticks to drive it through the goal of the
enemy.
The rules of this fine game are few and simple.
1. The game is won by the ball passing through the enemy’s goal.
2. The ball must be struck through the goal with the stick, not thrown
or kicked.
3. Each player shall strike from right to left, and any player
infringing this rule is liable to the penalty of a blow on the shins
from any of the opposite side.
4. Each player shall remain on his own side, and if he crosses to that
of the opponents is liable to the same penalty.
5. No player shall raise the head of his stick higher than his shoulder,
on pain of the same penalty.
6. The ball may be stopped with the stick, or with any part of the
person, provided that the intervening player is on his own side.
7. If the ball be kicked or thrown through the goal, or if struck beyond
the goal-lines, it is to be fetched by the junior player of the side who
struck the last blow, and gently thrown towards the centre peg.
8. Any player wilfully striking another, except when inflicting the
penalty contained in rules 3, 4, and 5, is immediately to be excluded
from the game.
By means of these rules, the game of hockey is shorn of the danger
consequent on the loose and unrestrained play that is sometimes seen,
the sticks brandished in all directions, and the two sides so intermixed
that it is hardly possible to discriminate between them. Many a person
has been seriously damaged by such undisciplined play, and teeth have
been struck out, or even eyes lost in the contest. By strict adherence,
however, to the above rules, there is no fear of incurring any
injuries, and this really fine game is rendered as safe as it is
exciting.
As a general rule, a good player seldom if ever strikes the ball with
any violence, but keeps it well in hand, trundling it along rather than
knocking it forcibly, and endeavouring, if he finds it likely to pass
out of his control, to strike it gently towards another of his own side,
who may keep it in its course towards the enemy’s goal.
A bad player, on the contrary, rushes about without any definite
purpose, shouts continually at the top of his voice, brandishes his
stick to the danger of other persons’ eyes and the detriment of his own
hands, which are sure to be painfully blistered in half an hour, and
exhausts his strength and breath so early in the game, that he fails
just at the critical moment, and sees the ball driven past him without
being able to check it.
As a parting word of advice, let us recommend to our readers to play
this game as quietly as they can contrive to do, and as a golden rule,
always to keep the head of the hockey-stick close to the ground.
Above all, keep your temper intact, and don’t lose it even if one of
your own side should make some stupid mistake, and lose you a winning
game. Take especial care to keep strictly to the rules, and if your
opponent should break them and render himself liable to the penalty, be
merciful to his shins, and inflict the punishment as a warning to deter
from future transgression, and not as a spiteful opportunity for giving
a blow which cannot be returned.
RACKETS.
This game is not easily played without what is called a racket ground,
which consists of a large space of ground, a parallelogram, of not less
than fifty yards long, by twenty-five broad. Where such an advantage
presents itself, the game may be easily attempted. Sometimes the high
dead wall of a garden may be made into a racket wall, by fixing up some
boards and net-work along the top, supposing there is space enough
below, when the game may be played in a small way. The wall should be
painted black, and the ground be divided into four equal divisions,
which should be distinctly marked either by chipping a groove in it by a
spade, or by chalk. It is very essential, however, that the flooring of
the court should be paved. These divisions are, two close to the wall,
as A and B, and two in front of them, as C and D, which divisions are
occupied by those who play the game. The wall should be marked by a
broad line of white paint at forty-two inches from the ground, and above
this line every ball must strike. The ball is, according to law, only to
weigh one ounce, and is either white, or made so from time to time by
dipping into a bag of chalk, that it may be the better seen against the
black wall by the players. The ball is made of pure white and
tightly-sewn leather. The bat used to propel the ball is of a legal
make, and its lower end of a spoon form, over which is placed a strong
net-work of silk-wire, or catgut. The bat is called a racket.
[Illustration]
_How the game is played._--Rackets is a very simple game, and may be
played either by two or more players. When it is played by four persons,
one stands in each of the compartments, A, B, C, D; those near the wall
being called in-hand, and those furthest from it out-hand players. When
two play, each player takes two of the divisions, and the one who takes
the A first from the wall is called in-hand player, and the other
out-hand player. Having determined by lot who is to begin the game, the
in-hand player nearest the wall strikes his ball against it; if it
strikes under the line, goes over the wall, does not rebound into the
out-hand spaces, or goes beyond the racket ground, the striker is out,
and the out-hand player takes his place; but if the player is more
successful, and the ball rebounds into the out-hand spaces, and hopping
from the ground is sent back to the wall again, to rebound into one of
the in spaces, the game goes on. In a close-court game the “server” who
serves the ball properly above the line but not accurately into his
adversary’s court is allowed three trials before his “hand” is out. The
play of the game is, that the in-player should send the ball in such a
manner against the wall that, on its rebound, the opposite party, or
player, shall be able to pick it up or hit it. Whenever this happens, he
who struck the ball counts one point, or an ace, and the play is
continued until one player or party scores eleven, or, as is sometimes
and now more frequently played, fifteen.
This capital game, so conducive to health and affording such excellent
exercise, may be played either in an open court--that is, a court with
only one wall, against which the game is played--or in a closed court
which is surrounded by four walls. Sometimes a compromise is made by the
employment of the ordinary high front wall, and a smaller back wall,
omitting the side walls altogether. The closed court game is the best
and far the most scientific, but the great expense necessary for
erecting a proper court compels many to content themselves with an
ordinary old-fashioned open court game, for there seems little doubt
that the open court game is the oldest and the one which in old days was
held in highest favour.
[Illustration]
RIDING.
“Fleet as the wind, he shoots along the plain,
And knows no check, nor heeds the curbing rein;
His fiery eyeballs, formidably bright,
Dart a fierce glory, and a glowing light;
Proud with excess of life he paws the ground,
Tears up the turf, and spurns the sand around.”--_Blacklock._
A boy on horseback is a king on his throne; he feels more than “boy” the
moment he gets astride of anything in the shape of a nag. Boys have an
instinct for riding, an impulse they cannot resist, like the instinct
for eating, breathing or moving. In his earliest days, in the very
“boyhood of being,” “Ride a-cock horse to Banbury Cross” is a ditty of
infinite delight, and long before the days of corderoys the equestrian
exercise of “Grandfather’s Stick” affords him “joy ineffable.” Then
comes the noble game of Hippas, or the wooden “Bucephalus,” on which he
feels greater than Alexander; and last, though very little, yet still
not _least_, the “pet Shetland,” which adds to the bliss of being
mounted, a positive progressive locomotion, and the “greater than
Alexander” is made greater still. Considering, therefore, that all boys
love riding, it is for us to tell them how they may “mount the fiery
Pegasus,” and ride with elegance and safety,
“To witch the world with noble horsemanship.”
[Illustration: RIDING.]
THE HORSE.
The horse is one of the most beautiful and graceful animals in nature,
and perhaps the most useful to man, though in this respect it would be
difficult to say which of the four or five domesticated quadrupeds bears
the palm. During life, the horse and the dog would each contest the
point; while in relative value after death, the bullock, sheep, and
swine, are fairly entitled to an equal share with them. But there is
something very captivating in the appearance of the horse, whether used
for the purposes of war, or for racing, or for hunting, or road-work;
and in all these several capacities the readers of this book may
possibly admire him, though it is chiefly as the riding-horse, or hack,
that he usually attracts their notice.
In the animal kingdom, the horse belongs to the division VERTEBRATA, and
class MAMMALIA, he having a back-bone composed of vertebræ, and his
young being suckled. His broad and undivided hoof places him among the
_ungulata_; and lastly, his teeth are as follows, viz. six front teeth,
above and below, called “nippers;” two canine in each jaw, called
“tusks;” and the remainder, consisting of grinders, having flat surfaces
opposed to each other, with rough ridges on them, by which the grass,
hay, and corn are rubbed or ground down to a fine pulp, adapted to the
stomach. These teeth are moved or rolled on each other by a peculiar
action of the muscles of the jaw, so as to aid the process.
THE MARKS OF AGE IN THE HORSE.
By means of the gradual wearing down of the front teeth, or nippers, the
age of the horse may be known. Each of the nippers has a hollow in its
upper surface, which is very deep and black when the tooth first rises
above the gum, and is gradually effaced by the friction caused by the
cropping of the grass, or by biting at the manger, or other kinds of
rubbing; but as these vary a good deal according to circumstances, so
the precise degree of wearing away will also be liable to fluctuations;
and the rules laid down only approximate to the truth, without positive
accuracy as to a few months. There are also two sets of teeth; a milk
set, which first rise, beginning at once after birth, and a permanent
set, which replace the milk-teeth as they fall out. The milk-teeth come
up two at a time, but all are up by the end of the first year. The
permanent teeth, also, make their appearance by twos, the first pair
showing themselves in the place of the two middle milk-teeth in the
third year, and being generally level with the other milk-teeth by the
end of the fourth year, by which time the next pair have fallen out, and
the permanent teeth have shown themselves in their places. At five years
of age the horse has lost all his nippers, and his corner permanent
teeth have nearly completed their growth. The tusks are also above the
gums. The centre nippers are now much worn, and the next are becoming
slightly so. At six years old the “mark” in the centre nippers is quite
gone; at seven years of age this disappears from the next pair, and at
eight from the corner nippers; after which, none but a professed judge
is likely to make out the age of the horse by an inspection of his
mouth; and, indeed, at all times the tyro is liable to be deceived by
the frauds of the low horse-dealer, who cuts off the top of the teeth,
and then scoops out a hollow with a gouge; after which a hot iron gives
the black surface which in the natural state is presented to the eye.
This trick is called “bishoping.”
THE PACES OF THE HORSE.
The natural paces of the horse are the walk, trot, and the gallop; to
them are added by man the canter, and sometimes the amble and the run.
In the walk, each leg is taken up and put down separately, one after the
other, the print of the hind foot in good walkers generally extending a
few inches beyond that of the fore foot. The order in which the feet
touch the ground is as follows: 1st, the off fore foot; 2d, the near
hind foot; 3d, the near fore foot; and 4th, the off hind foot.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
The gallop consists of a succession of leaps, during a great part of
which all the feet are off the ground. As the feet come to the ground
they strike it in regular succession; but the exact order will depend
upon the lead, which may be either with the off or near fore leg. When
in action and the horse is leading with the off fore foot (which if
well broken he would do), the off hind and near fore feet touch the
ground simultaneously next the near hind foot, and lastly, the off fore
foot which he leads with. In the trot, the two legs of opposite sides
are moved exactly together, and touch the ground at the same moment;
whilst in the amble the two legs of _each side_ move together, and the
horse is supported for the instant upon the half of his usual and
regular foundation. To counteract this deficiency in the centre of
gravity, the body is balanced from side to side in a waddling manner.
TERMS USED BY HORSEMEN.
The left side is called the “near side,” the right the “off.” Four
inches make “a hand.” The upper part of the horse’s neck is called his
“crest;” the bony ridge in front of the saddle the “withers,” the part
between the saddle and the tail the “croup;” the bony points, one on
each side the bosom, the “shoulder points;” and the line between these
and the back of the withers, corresponding with the shoulder blade, is
the “line of the shoulder.” The body between the hip and shoulder line
is called the “middle piece.” In the fore legs, the two divisions are
called the “arm” and “cannon;” above which is the “elbow-joint,” and
between them the “knee-joint.” In the hind leg, the two parts are called
the “thigh” and “cannon;” and the joints are the “stifle” and “hock.”
Below these, in both the hind and fore legs, are the upper and lower
“pasterns,” then the “coronet,” or ring between the leg and foot, and
lastly, “the hoof.”
FORM OF THE HORSE.
It is a common observation of the horseman that the horse can go in all
forms; and this is borne out by the fact, that he does occasionally do
so; but nevertheless, it is well known, that among a large number it
will be found that those whose form is most in accordance with the shape
considered the best by good judges, will turn out the best movers. In
technical language, the horse whose “points” are the best will be the
best horse. These points are considered to be: a neat head well set on a
lean wiry neck, the latter with a very gentle curve, whose convexity
looks upwards (the opposite form to this makes the “ewe neck”);
moderately high withers; a sloping shoulder, wide in the blade, which
should be well furnished with muscles; strong muscular loins; a croup
not too straight nor too drooping, with the tail set on with an elegant
sweep; ribs well rounded, and carried back near to the hips, so as to
make the horse what is called “well ribbed;” circumference or girth of
good dimensions, indicating plenty of “bellows’ room;” thighs and arms
muscular; hocks and knees bony and large, without being diseased; cannon
bones large and flat, with the suspensory ligament and tendon large,
strong, and clearly defined; fetlock joints strong, but not round and
inflamed. The eye should be full, clear, and free from specks; and the
ears should be moderately small and erect; the feet should be round, and
not contracted at the heels, with a well-formed frog.
VARIETIES OF THE HORSE SUITABLE FOR BOYS.
Besides the several kinds of horses suitable for grown people, those for
boys are the galloway, the cob, and the pony. The first of these may be
considered either a small horse or a large pony, and is usually about
fourteen hands high; and though strong and capable of carrying weight,
yet of a moderately light and active make. He is so called from the
district where he was originally bred in large numbers. The cob is a
thick and very strong pony, or galloway, frequently made to look still
more so by cutting his tail and mane short, called “hogging” them,
thus--
[Illustration]
Correctly speaking, a pony is understood to be under thirteen hands in
height, a galloway between thirteen and fourteen and a half, anything
over that a horse.
Many ponies are now bred almost of pure Arabian blood, and they are well
suited for lads who have mastered the early difficulties connected with
keeping the seat under all ordinary circumstances; but as they are
generally very high-spirited, they are scarcely suited for the beginner,
and he had better content himself with an animal of more plebeian
pedigree and sluggish temperament.
THE ACCOUTREMENTS AND AIDS
Required by the young amateur, are either a pad or saddle, according to
his age, together with a bridle and a whip or stick. Spurs are seldom
desirable for any but the accomplished rider, as they are apt to
irritate the pony if not used with discretion, and it is rather
difficult to put an old head upon young shoulders. If the learner is
very young, a pad which is made without any tree affords a better hold
for the knees than a regular saddle, and will also enable him to ride
without stirrups, which feat he will hardly manage on an ordinary smooth
saddle. The stirrups are of the following form, but are often, for boys,
made much lighter. They ought always to be used with strong stirrup
leathers, and these should be attached to the saddle by spring-bars,
which release the stirrups in case of the leg being entangled in them
after a fall. The groom should always remove the leathers after the
ride, and replace them on the opposite side of the saddle, by which
means their tendency to hang as shown at (_a_), is rectified, and they
assume the position indicated by the one marked (_b_), both representing
the left, or near, side.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
The bridle is either a single or a double-reined one, according to the
mouth of the pony ridden. A single-reined bridle is usually a snaffle,
it being very improper to allow any one to ride with a curb alone,
unless he has very steady and light hands. The snaffle bit is merely a
jointed bar of iron (5 5) in the accompanying sketch, but when used
alone it has a light cross-bar as well as the ring there shown, in order
to prevent the bit being pulled through the mouth. This, however, in the
double-reined bridle is omitted, since it would interfere with the
action of the curb. Snaffles are either smooth or twisted, and are made
of all sizes, the smallest being only adapted for occasional use, and
not for the hands of the learner, who should have a large smooth one.
The curb-bit consists of three parts; the mouthpiece (1), which usually
has a bend in it called the port, for the purpose of pressing against
the roof of the mouth; secondly, of the cheek-piece (2), which has a
ring (3) at the lower end for the attachment of the rein, and another at
the upper end for the head-piece of the bridle; and thirdly, the
curb-chain (4). This chain is pressed against the outside of the lower
jaw, by the upper arm of the curb used as a lever, and it should be
hooked up sufficiently tight to act upon it by pulling the rein, whilst
at the same time it should be loose enough to prevent its fretting the
jaw. This delicacy of adjustment requires some little practice, and the
young rider should always ask his teacher to show him the proper mode of
applying the curb-chain. Sometimes a martingale is needed, in order to
keep the pony’s head down, but generally the young rider is better
without it, if he will keep his hands well down, and avoid all jerking
of the mouth.
MOUNTING.
[Illustration]
The rider, even at the earliest age, should first examine the girths and
the bridle, and see if they are properly adjusted; for though when
leaving home he may be able to depend upon a steady and experienced
groom, yet, after putting up at strange stables, he is liable to be led
into an accident by careless servants, and therefore it is better to get
into the habit of always inspecting these essentials to safety and
comfort. If there is an attendant groom, he should hold the rein with
his right hand, standing by the off shoulder of the horse, so as with
his left hand to hold the stirrup iron for the rider’s right foot as he
throws it over the horse’s back. The next thing to be done is for the
rider to stand at the shoulder of the pony with his left side towards
that part. He then lays hold of the reins with his left hand, drawing
them up so short as to feel the mouth, and at the same time twisting a
lock of the mane in his fingers so as to steady the hand. Next, the left
foot is placed in the stirrup when the accompanying attitude is
presented, exactly as here shown. At this moment a spring is given from
the right foot, the right hand reaches the cantle of the saddle, and the
body is raised till the right leg is brought up to the level of the
left, when the slightest imaginable pause is made, and then the right
leg is thrown over the back of the pony, keeping the toe down and heel
elevated, or with the spur on mischief may happen, while the right hand
leaves its hold, and the body falls into its position in the centre of
the saddle; after which, the right foot has only to be placed in the
stirrup to complete the act of mounting.
DISMOUNTING
[Illustration]
Is exactly the reverse of the last process, and requires, first, the
reins to be shortened and held in the left hand with a lock of the mane;
secondly, the right leg is taken out of the stirrup, and is thrown over
the back of the horse until it is brought down to the level of the other
leg. After this, if the pony is of a small size, suitable to that of the
rider, the body is gently lowered to the ground, and the left leg is
liberated from the stirrup; but if the horse is too high for this, the
foot is taken out of the stirrup by raising the body by means of the
hands on the pommel and cantle of the saddle, and then the body is
lowered to the ground by their assistance.
[Illustration]
THE MANAGEMENT OF THE REINS
Is of great importance to the comfort of the rider, and also to his
appearance, for unless they are held properly, the body is sure to be
awkwardly balanced. When the single rein is used, the best position is
to place the middle, ring, and little fingers between the two reins, and
then to turn both over the fore-finger, where they are tightly held by
the thumb. In all cases the thumb ought to point towards the horse’s
ears, by which the elbow is sure to be kept in its place close to the
side, and a good command of the reins is insured. If a double-reined
bridle is employed, the middle finger separates the two snaffle reins,
and the little one those attached to the curb, all being turned over the
fore-finger, and firmly held by the thumb. In both cases the ends of the
reins are turned over the left, or near, side of the pony’s shoulder.
When it is intended to turn the horse to the left, it is only necessary
to raise the thumb towards the chest of the rider; and on the contrary,
when the desire is to turn him to the right, the little finger is turned
downwards and backwards towards the fork. In many well-broken ponies the
mere moving of the whole hand to the right or left is sufficient, which,
by pressing the reins against the neck, indicates the wish of the rider,
and is promptly responded to by the handy pony. This action, however, is
objected to by some good horsemen, though, in my opinion, most
erroneously, as it is capable of being made highly effective in
practice.
[Illustration]
THE SEAT
Should always be square to the front, without either shoulder being in
advance; the loins moderately arched inwards without stiffness; the
elbows close to the side, but held easily; the knees placed upon the
padded part of the flat _in front_ of the stirrup-leathers; toes turned
very slightly outwards, and the foot resting on the stirrup, the inside
of which should be opposite the ball of the great toe, and the outside
corresponding with the little toe. In hunting, however, it may be placed
“home,” that is, with the stirrup close to the instep. The heel should
be well lowered as far as possible beneath the level of the toe, which
gives a firm seat. But the great point is to obtain a good grasp of the
saddle by the knees, which should be always ready to lay hold like a
vice, without however constantly tiring the muscles by such an effort.
The left hand is now to be held very slightly above the pommel of the
saddle, and the right easily by the side of it, with the whip held in a
slanting position, as at page 273, in which however both hands are much
too high above the withers. In order to show the effect of an incorrect
mode of holding the reins, the rider has only to place his hands with
the knuckles in a horizontal position, and the elbow is sure to be
turned out in a most awkward manner.
THE CONTROL OF THE HORSE
Is effected by the reins, heels, voice, and whip, variously used
according to his disposition and temper. Some require only the most
gentle usage, which in fact is almost always the most efficacious,
especially by young people, for whom the horse and dog seem to have an
especial affection, and to be always more ready to obey them than might
be expected, when their want of strength to enforce their wishes is
considered. The young rider will therefore generally find it to his own
interest, as well as that of the noble animal he bestrides, to use his
whip and heel as little as possible, and to effect his object solely by
his voice and the gentlest pressure of the bit. In this way the most
high-couraged horses are kept in order by young lads in the racing
stables, and the amateur will do well to follow their example. It is
astonishing how fond horses and dogs are of being talked to by their
juvenile masters, and it is right to gratify their love of society by so
doing on all occasions. The reins serve, as already explained, to turn
to the right or left, or by drawing tight to stop the horse, and on the
contrary, by relaxing them to cause him to proceed, aided if necessary
by the voice, heel, or whip. When it is desired that the right leg
should lead in the canter or gallop, the left rein is pulled and the
left leg pressed against the flank, by which means the body of the pony
is made to present the right side obliquely forwards, and by consequence
the right leg leads off. On the other hand, if it is wished to lead with
the left leg, or to change from the right, the right rein is pulled, the
right leg pressed to the side, and then the left shoulder looks forwards
and the left leg leads off.
MANAGEMENT OF THE WALK.
When it is wished to make the pony walk, he must be quieted down by
soothing him with the voice if he has been excited by the gallop or
trot; and then, by sitting very quietly in the saddle, and loosing the
reins as much as will allow the head to nod in unison with the action of
the body and legs, the walk is generally at once fallen into, and there
is no farther difficulty except to prevent a stumble. A tight rein is
not desirable in this pace, since it prevents that liberty of action
which is required, and leads to a short walk, or very often a jog-trot;
and yet there should be such a gentle hold, or preparation for a hold
rather, as will suffice to check the mouth in case of a mistake. This is
a very difficult art to acquire, and is only learnt by long practice;
but as few ponies fall at this pace, great liberty may generally be
allowed to their mouths. Besides this, little is necessary, more than to
sit steadily, _but not stiffly_, in the saddle, and not to sway about
more than is sufficient to avoid the appearance of having swallowed a
poker.
THE TROT AND CANTER
Are effected by rather different methods, but both require a very steady
hand, and a quiet treatment. In order to cause the pony to trot, the
reins are taken rather short in the hand, and the mouth is held somewhat
firmly, but taking great care not to jerk it. The animal is then
slightly stimulated by the voice, and the body, if necessary, rises from
the saddle, as in the trot, so as to indicate what is wanted. This
seldom fails to effect the purpose, and the horse at once breaks into a
trot; or, if very irritable, he may be compelled to do so by laying hold
of an ear and twisting it, to avoid which he drops his head, and trots
as a natural consequence. The canter is also an acquired pace, and for
its due performance a curb-bridle is required. In order to make the pony
begin this pace, the left rein is pulled, and the rider’s left leg
pressed against the side, by which the horse’s right leg is made to lead
off, this being the most usual, and certainly the most comfortable
“lead” for the rider. The hands must make a very gentle and steady pull
on the curb-rein, and the body generally must be very quiet in the
saddle, whilst, at the same time, a very gentle stimulus is given by
the voice, which must be repeated at short intervals, or the canter will
be changed to a trot, or walk, both of which are preferred to it by most
ponies and horses. Young riders should avoid cantering long upon one
leg, as it leads to inflammation of the joints, and they should either
change the lead or alter the pace to a trot or walk.
[Illustration]
THE MANAGEMENT OF THE GALLOP
Requires little instruction, practice being the main agent in effecting
a good seat during this pace. The seat is either close to the saddle,
with the body inclining backwards (p. 275), or standing in the stirrups,
in which position the knees and calves only touch the saddle, and the
body is bent forwards over the withers (p. 273). It should be the
endeavour of the rider, while he bends his shoulders forwards, to throw
his loins well back, so as to avoid straining the horse’s fore-quarters,
by bearing too much weight upon them. This is done by the hold of the
knees on the saddle, and by keeping the feet back, also by rounding the
loins backwards, and thus throwing the centre of gravity as far as
possible behind the stirrup leathers. The object of standing in the
stirrups is to save the horse when at his full gallop, as in racing, or
in hunting, when he is going over ploughed ground or up hill. In either
of these cases, this attitude allows the horse to exert himself without
feeling the weight of the rider impede his movements more than can be
avoided.
LEAPING
Is only an extra exertion added to the ordinary spring of the gallop,
the attitude being exactly the same. It is best learnt by beginning with
small ditches, which the rider is soon able to clear without difficulty.
He may next try sheep-hurdles, or very low stiles; but the latter being
strong and firmly fixed, are dangerous to the rider, unless the pony is
very sure of clearing them. A leaping-bar, if procurable, should always
be adopted in preference to either, as a fall over it is not attended
with any bad consequences. The groom should place it at the lowest
notch, and the pony then may be suffered to clear it at a moderate
gallop; after which, if the young rider is able to sit pretty closely,
he may be indulged with a higher notch, and gradually it may be raised
until the limits of the pony’s powers are reached. In riding at a bar,
the learner should lay hold of a snaffle-rein in each hand, taking care
to keep them close together, by the right rein being held also in the
left hand. The pony is then to be urged to a smart canter or hand
gallop, and held straight to the bar in this way, so that he is obliged
to leap; or if disliking the act, being urged by the whip down the
shoulder, or the spur, or the groom’s voice and whip behind. Young
riders, however, should never be put upon a bad or reluctant leaper, but
should be taught upon one which is fond of the amusement. At the moment
of rising into the air for the leap the reins are relaxed, but should
not be left quite loose; while the pony is in the air the body becomes
upright, and as he descends it leans well back, until, after a high
leap, it almost touches the croup. During this period the reins should
be suffered to remain nearly loose, the hand barely feeling the mouth;
but as the pony reaches the ground a stronger hold is taken, in order to
guard against a mistake, which might require the aid of the rider to
prevent a fall. It is not that he can keep the animal up, but that he
checks him, and makes him exert himself in a double degree. There are
various kinds of leaping; as the flying leap, the standing leap, the
leap in hand, &c. The flying leap is merely one taken at a fast pace,
and when the rider can maintain a good seat in the gallop, it is the
easiest of all to sit. The standing leap is effected from a state of
quiescence, and is much more difficult to sit, because the horse rises
and falls more suddenly and abruptly. Between the two is the slow or
steady leap, which is only effected safely by the clever hunter or
well-broken pony; but when perfect it is almost as smooth as a
rocking-horse. This is the mode in which the young rider should be
taught to leap. Leaping in hand is necessary for most ponies in the
hunting field, which would otherwise never be able to compete with
full-sized hunters in the way they do. The young hunter, when he meets
with a gate or other strong fence, which he knows is too much for the
powers of his pony, at once gets off and leads him over by the rein; and
when well taught, these little creatures will often tilt themselves over
high timber, &c. in a marvellously clever manner, so that I have known
them in this way obtain a good place in long and severe runs. If,
therefore, my readers are allowed to partake in this exciting sport
during their Christmas holidays, they should teach their ponies to leap
in hand, or they will be sure to be thrown out.
[Illustration]
TREATMENT OF VICES.
The chief vices which are met with among ponies are--1st, Obstinate
Stopping; 2d, Stumbling from Carelessness; 3d, Rearing; 4th, Kicking;
5th, Shying; and 6th, Running Away.
[Illustration]
_Obstinate Stopping_, which in its worst forms is called “jibbing,” is a
very troublesome vice, and even in the saddle is sometimes attended with
danger, whilst in driving it is so to a dreadful degree.
The rider should never attempt to force his pony forward with the whip
or spur, which only aggravates the bad-tempered brute; but should
patiently sit quiet in the saddle, and keep his temper, until the pony
chooses to move forward again. In this way sometimes very vicious
animals are cured when they find that their stable is not the sooner
reached by their device; on the other hand, if the whip is used, the
pony, especially if of Welsh breed, is very apt to lie down and roll his
rider in the dirt, or even sometimes to bolt into a river, or pond, and
leave him in danger of his life. My young friends will therefore
remember my advice when being mounted upon an obstinate pony, and having
lost their tempers, they have proceeded to use their whips, and are
bemired or half drowned in consequence.
_Stumbling_ is more a defect of conformation than a vice; but
nevertheless, it greatly depends upon a want of spirit to keep up a
steady action of the fore legs. It often happens that a pony trots along
for a mile or two safely enough; but after going that distance he
becomes lazy and careless, and trips with one foot and then with the
other, a sure prelude to such a fall as the following, which would be a
very bad one, and sufficient to cut both knees to the bone, and to cause
serious damage to the rider. The only way to avoid such accidents is to
keep the pony at a steady pace, fast enough to keep him alive, but not
enough so to tire him. Loose stones and broken ground should be avoided,
and a careful hold should be kept upon the mouth, without being so tight
as to gag it. When a stumble actually takes place, the body should be
well thrown back and the mouth forcibly jerked, so as to make the pony
exert himself to keep his legs. An unsafe animal of this kind is,
however, wholly unfit for young riders, and they should never be allowed
to ride one.
[Illustration]
_Rearing_ is a very dangerous vice, and not very common among ponies
after they are once broken in. If the rider should, however, be placed
upon a rearer, he should be careful to avoid hanging upon the bit when
he rises in the air, but on the contrary should loose the reins
entirely, and clasp the neck, if the pony should rise very high in the
air. The accompanying sketch shows this vice in a very trifling degree,
and in such a case the seat thus represented is sufficiently forward to
prevent accidents.
[Illustration]
The rider will, however, observe that the reins are quite loose. It
often happens that this vice is produced by too tight and severe a curb
in a tender mouth, and that upon changing the bit, or letting out the
curb chain, the tendency to rise is entirely gone. Whenever, therefore,
the young rider finds his pony inclined to rear, let him look well to
his bit, and at once drop the curb rein if he has one. If, however, he
has only a snaffle, he may rest assured that it is a regular habit, and
at once make up his mind either to battle with it or to change his pony.
[Illustration]
_Kicking_ is much more common among ponies than rearing, and very many
of these little animals are given to practise it. It is perhaps partly
owing to the teasing of their young masters that it is so common; but
whatever the cause, there can be no doubt that it is too prevalent among
them. Sometimes it exists as a regular attempt to unhorse the rider,
which is a very troublesome habit, and one very difficult to break,
because it so often succeeds that the pony is tempted to try again. When
this vice is met with, the rider should do all in his power to keep his
pony’s head up, by jerking the bit, and at the same time he should sit
well back, with his feet well forwards, with heels down, and trust to
his knees in holding on. When kicking is only the result of high spirits
and “freshness,” the best remedy is a smart gallop, which soon stops all
these pranks, and makes the most riotous animal quiet.
_Shying_ is also very common among ponies, and in them is often the
result of cunning, which leads them to pretend a greater degree of
shyness than they really possess. The best mode of treatment is to take
as little notice as possible of the shying, but carefully to make the
pony pass the object at which he is looking, without regarding how this
is effected. The whip should seldom be used at all, and never _after_
the object is passed.
_Bolting, or Running Away_, is often the result of want of exercise, but
sometimes it is a systematic vice. A powerful bit and a steady seat,
with good hands, are the best means of grappling with this habit, which
is sometimes a very dangerous one. If the pony really runs away, the
rider should not pull dead at his mouth, but should relax his hold for a
short time, and then take a sharp pull, which is often effectual. A good
gallop until he is tired will often cure a runaway for the rest of his
life. There are a variety of bits intended expressly to counteract this
vice, such as the Hanoverian Pelham, the curb with a high port, &c.; but
nothing is perfectly effectual where there is a determination to run
away. A nose-band has lately been invented for the purpose, which
answers better than anything hitherto brought out; it consists of a long
nose-band which crosses behind the jaw and then hooks on to the bit in
the same way as the ordinary curb-chain. When the rein is pulled hard,
this nose-band is drawn tight round the jaw, by which the mouth is
closed, and the port is pressed strongly against the roof of the mouth,
causing a great degree of pain, sufficient to stop most horses. This
powerful remedy, which has been named the Bucephalus nose-band, should
not lightly be used; but in the case of a runaway horse, or pony, it is
the only really efficacious one.
[Illustration]
ROWING.
“A boat, a boat, is the toy for me,
To rollic about in on river and sea;
To be a child of the breeze and the gale,
And like a wild bird on the deep to sail,
This is the life for me!”--_Procter._
HISTORICAL MEMORANDA.
The sea service is the glory of Old England, notwithstanding all the
glorious land service of ancient and modern days. A country having
nearly ten thousand miles of sea-coast, with numerous ports, harbours,
estuaries, river mouths, and capacious bays, must ever be a maritime
nation, and look for its supremacy to the sea--to her sons being
amphibious; and nothing is better calculated to develop the inherent
instinct for sea duties than the amusements of boating, of rowing, of
sailing, and other aquatic sports. Every young gentleman in England
should know how to manage a boat, and to sail a cutter; and it will be
our duty to initiate him into the methods of doing so.
The origin of ships must be traced to the ark of Noah; but this was not
a sailing or a rowing vessel, but simply a large floating house or
receptacle for Noah and his family, and the various types of animated
nature. The first navigators were the Phœnicians, who sailed in various
seas. They were succeeded by the ships of Carthage, Egypt, Venice,
Genoa, Holland, and Portugal. The Saxons under Alfred, and the Danes
under Canute, had formidable navies. Alfred, who ascended the throne in
872, commenced the first English fleet in person, and is said to have
suggested a variety of improvements in the structure, as well as greatly
to have increased the size of the vessels, some of the largest of which
carried sixty oars. After the death of Alfred, the naval power of
England seems to have lain dormant; and this, no doubt, tempted the
Norman invasion in 1066, under William the Bastard, who sailed for the
coast of England with a fleet of 900 vessels; and so sensible was he of
the importance of the naval service, that he gave certain privileges to
certain towns on the sea-coast, which were from their number called the
Cinque Ports. Richard I. fitted out large fleets; and his successor,
John, asserted the exclusive right of the English nation to the dominion
of the seas. The reign of Edward I. was also distinguished for successes
at sea. Henry VII., on gaining the throne, in 1485, put the navy into a
respectable condition; and a large ship, called the “Great Harry,” which
may properly be termed the first _ship_ of the British navy, was built
at a cost of 14,000_l._ The discovery of America, about the period of
the accession of Henry VIII., gave a new stimulus to our navy, and many
ships were then built of large tonnage, some of a thousand tons. But
Queen Elizabeth, deeply impressed with the maxim, that “whosoever
commands the sea, commands the trade of the world,” and that “whosoever
commands the trade, commands the riches of the world,” and consequently
the world itself, so encouraged and restored the marine, that she may be
called the “Restorer of the naval power of England;” and, in a few years
after, the invasion of the Spanish Armada put our naval power to the
proof. Charles I., the great and courageous Cromwell, and even the
pleasure-loving Charles II., were all impressed with the great
advantages of a formidable navy; and in the reign of Anne, fifty-two
French ships, containing more than 3,000 guns, were captured. And during
the reign of George III. the naval superiority was placed by a series of
glorious successes beyond all dispute; and it is to be hoped that the
reign of our beloved Queen Victoria, who is herself a sailor, and full
of every generous aspiration that belongs to a British Tar, will,
notwithstanding the “mistakes of the Admiralty,” prove that England
still retains the sovereignty of the ocean, and on that element she will
defy the world.
CONSTRUCTION OF ANCIENT SHIPS AND GALLEYS.
The Egyptian vessels are the earliest of which any well-authenticated
graphic illustration has been preserved. We here give a view of one of
their earliest sailing vessels. The celebrated Egyptian vessel called
the “Isis” is said to have been in length 180 feet, in breadth 45 feet,
and in height, from the upper edge of the deck to the bottom of the
well, 43 feet. The well-known ship of Hiero, king of Syracuse, was
nearly 400 tons burden.
[Illustration]
ROMAN GALLEYS, SHIPS, ETC.
[Illustration]
They were in length about 125 feet, and in breadth 10 feet. Their first
requisite was swiftness, and no part of the side was left vacant where
an oar could be put out; hence they had often three banks of oars, one
above the other. In most ancient ships, there was placed at the prow an
image called “the sign.” The part of the vessel that cut the water was
called the “goose.” At the stern, which generally resembled a shield,
was set or some way delineated a representation of the deity to whose
tutelary favour the ship was committed, and to which daily prayer and
sacrifice were offered. War ships were chiefly rowed with oars, that
they might be able to tack about. The first long ships were rowed with
fifty oars, but afterwards a larger number was used. In the more perfect
condition of ancient navigation, there were some ships that had as many
as five tiers of oars, and three hundred rowers. Two large holes at the
prow of the vessel, occasionally used for oars, were called the ship’s
“eyes;” and a wooden projection at the prow, covered with brass, was
called a “beak;” and pieces of wood placed on each side of the prow of a
vessel, to ward off the force of the enemy’s beak, were called the
ship’s “ears.” Over these vessels were certain raised platforms, and on
their forecastles were towers on which the soldiers stood, whose shields
were usually hung upon the railings which begirt the ship. The sides of
the prow were called “cheeks.” The anchors at first used were often
large stones, or even bags of sand; afterwards, however, the ancient
ships carried anchors with one, two, and four flukes. The larger anchor
was called the “sacred anchor,” and reserved for the most trying
occasions. Among the ancients, ships were usually termed “horses,” which
explains many ancient fables. The elder Pliny, for instance, tells us of
a boy who was carried by water some miles every day on the back of a
dolphin to school; the vessel, in all probability, having a dolphin at
the prow. Arion, the famous musician of Lesbos, having made great wealth
in foreign parts by his profession, was returning home by ship, when the
sailors resolved to kill him, and seize upon his riches. Playing once
again, at his last request, a favourite tune, he leaped into the sea. A
dolphin, attracted by his melody, received him safely on its back, and
carried him again to the coast where Periander lived. Arion, doubtless,
escaped by a boat, the fore-part of which consisted of a dolphin.
Having thus given the young reader a notion of ancient boats and ships,
we shall now proceed to make him acquainted with the modern practices of
rowing, boating, sailing, &c.
OF BOATS.
A _Boat_ is properly a vessel propelled by oars. In a more extensive
sense the word is applied to other small vessels, which differ in
construction and name, according to the services in which they are
employed. Thus they are light or strong, sharp or flat-bottomed, open or
decked, according as they are intended for swiftness or burden, deep or
shallow water, &c.
The _Barge_ is a long, light, narrow boat, employed in harbours, and
unfit for sea. The _Long Boat_ is the largest boat belonging to a ship,
generally furnished with two sails, and is employed for cruising short
distances, bringing the cargo and bales on board, &c.
The _Launch_ is more flat-bottomed than the long boat, which it has
generally superseded. The _Pinnace_ resembles the barge, but is smaller.
The _Cutters_ of a ship are broader and deeper than the barge or
pinnace, and are employed in carrying light articles, single passengers,
&c. on board.
_Yawls_ are used for similar purposes to the barge and pinnace. A _Gig_
is a long, narrow boat, used for expedition, and rowed with six or eight
oars. The _Jolly Boat_ is smaller than a yawl, and is used for going on
shore. A merchant ship seldom has more than two boats,--a long boat and
a yawl.
A _Wherry_ is a light, sharp boat, used in a river or harbour for
transporting passengers. A _Punt_ is a flat-bottomed boat, chiefly used
for fishing on a fresh water river. A _Skiff_ is a small sharp-nosed
boat, used in rivers. A _Dingy_ is a very small stiff boat used by
yachts. A _Yacht_ is a pleasure sailing-boat. A _Lugger_ is a boat
which is furnished with sails of a peculiar cut. A _Funny_ is a small
light boat used in river rowing, and made with her bow and stern nearly
alike.
THE COMPONENT PARTS OF BOATS.
[Illustration]
Rowing boats consist of the bows (1); the stem, or entrance (2); the
stern (8), where are the rudder and the lines for steering; the rowlocks
(3), for giving purchase to the oars; and the thwarts, or seats (4). At
the bottom are the foot-boards (5), which are easily removed, in order
to bail out any water which may leak into the boat. Besides these parts
there is a board placed across the boat for the feet of the rower,
called a stretcher. The whole boat is composed of one or more planks,
called streaks, nailed upon a light oak framework, called the timbers,
or ribs; and the upper streak, upon which the rowlocks are placed, is
called the wale-streak. Boats with two rowlocks opposite each other are
called sculling boats, and are propelled by a pair of light oars called
sculls, the art being called “sculling.” When a boat is fitted with a
pair of rowlocks not opposite each other, it is called a pair-oared
boat. If with two in the middle opposite each other, and two others, one
before and the other behind, but not opposite each other, it is called a
_randan_. When a boat has four rowlocks, none of which are opposite one
another, it is called a four-oared boat, and so on up to ten oars, which
is the utmost limit in common use for any kind of boat but the pleasure
barge, which sometimes has twenty-four oars, as in the City barges of
London. The rowlock nearest the bow is called the bow rowlock, or No. 1;
the next No. 2, and so on; and the oars used in them receive the same
number, the one nearest the stern being called the “stroke oar.” The
rowlocks in river and sea boats are somewhat different in shape though
identical in principle, both consisting of a square space of about the
breadth of a man’s hand, and both lying on the wale-streak; but in river
boats being generally bounded before and behind by a flat piece of oak
or ash called, respectively, the thowl-pin and stopper; whilst in sea
boats they are merely common round wooden pins dropped into holes made
in the wale-streak, but still receiving the same names. The thowl-pin is
for the purpose of pulling the oar against, whilst the stopper prevents
the oar from slipping forwards when the rower is pushing it in that
direction after the stroke.
THE OARS AND SCULLS.
[Illustration]
A scull is a small oar used with one hand, and requiring a pair, as in
the case of oars, one being placed in the rowlock on each side the boat,
and the pair being used by one person with his right and left hands.
Oars are used by both hands, and a pair-oared boat consequently requires
two oarsmen; a four-oared boat four, and so on. Both sculls and oars
consist of the same parts, except that the handle of the _oar_ is made
long enough for both hands, as at (_b_). In every case there is a
rounded handle (_a b_), a loom, square in form, and extending from the
handle to the button, or about one-third of the length of the oar; and
beyond the button is the blade, which is first nearly round, and then
gradually widens, until it assumes the form best adapted for laying hold
of the water, which is now found to be broad rather than long, as was
formerly thought to be desirable. The button is a piece of leather
nailed on to prevent the oar from slipping through the rowlock, but only
used in river rowing, as it is not adapted for the rough work which is
often met with in sea rowing.
SEA ROWING.
This is necessarily less elegant than river rowing, because of the rough
nature of the element on which the exercise is pursued. The oar must be
held firmly in the hands, the inside hand being placed at (_b_), and the
outside at (_a_), and both hands grasping the oar between the thumbs and
fingers. The whole art consists in the crew moving backwards and
forwards together, called “swinging,” and laying hold of the water as
well as they can, taking care to avoid pulling in the air with great
force when there is a trough or interval between two waves, and on the
other hand equally avoiding a heavy wave, which has a tendency to dash
the oar out of the hand. All this requires practice in the rowers, and
also in the steersman, called the coxswain, who should watch for the
high waves, and warn his men when a heavy one is coming. He should also
take care to cross the roll of the sea as much as possible, so as to
avoid being struck on the side of the boat called “the counter,” which
would either swamp her, or else knock the oars out of the rowlocks. In
this kind of rowing, the “feathering” of the oar, to be presently
described, is not attempted, on account of the roughness of the water,
but it merely is pulled steadily, but strongly, backwards, and is then
pushed forwards in the rowlocks.
RIVER ROWING.
The art of river rowing is capable of a high degree of elegance, and few
sights are more pleasing to a lover of graceful forms than that of a
crew of fine lads, or young men, rowing well together and in good style.
To do this requires great practice, and attention to a few essential
points, which I will here endeavour to describe.
MANAGEMENT OF THE OAR.
The rower should, as far as possible, take some good oarsman for his
model, and endeavour to imitate him in every respect, which is the only
mode of acquiring a good style. Description is useful in putting the
learner in the way of acquiring what is to be taught, but it is not
all-sufficient for the purpose. In the first place, the learner should
place himself square on the seat, with his feet straight before him, and
the toes slightly turned out. The knees may either be kept together, in
the Newcastle or Clasper style, or separated considerably, as practised
generally in England, the latter being in my opinion the better mode, as
it allows the body to come more forward over the knees. The feet are to
be placed firmly against the stretcher, which is to be let out or
shortened, to suit the length of the individual; and one foot may be
placed in the strap which is generally attached to the stretcher in
modern boats. The oar is then taken in hand, raising it by the handle,
and then either at once placing it in the rowlock, or else first
dropping it flat on the water, and then raising the handle it may gently
be lowered to its place. The outside hand is placed upon the handle at
(_a_), with the thumb as well as the fingers above it, while the other
hand firmly grasps it lower down at (_b_), keeping the nut towards the
person. The arms are now quickly thrust forward till they are quite
straight at the elbows, _after which_ the back follows them by bending
forward at the hips, carefully avoiding any roundness of the shoulders.
When the hands have reached their full stretch they are raised, and the
blade quietly and neatly dropped into the water; immediately after
which, and with the water just covering the blade, the body is brought
back with a graceful yet powerful action, till it reaches a part a
little behind the perpendicular of the back of the seat, when the hands
are brought back to the ribs, the elbows gliding close by the hips; and
at the last moment, as the hand touches the rib, the wrist of the inside
hand is depressed, the knuckles being at the same time brought against
the chest, and the oar is made to rotate in the rowlock, which is called
“feathering” it, and by which it is brought cleanly out of the water.
The next action is to push the oar rapidly forward again, first however
restoring it to its original position in the rowlock, which is effected
by raising the wrist, and then darting the arms forward till the elbows
are quite straight, which brings the rower to where we started from in
the description. In “backing water” the reverse of these actions takes
place. The oar is first reversed in the rowlock, and then it is _pushed_
through the water with as much power as is needed, and _pulled_ through
the air. When the oars on one side are pulled, and those on the other
are backed, the boat is made to turn on its own water. “Holding water”
is effected by the oars being held in the position of backing without
moving them.