THE MEN ON THE ISTHMUS
_West Indian Labour._
THE success of sanitation, and the modern facilities for storage of
food, have greatly simplified the task of obtaining an adequate supply
of navvies for the pick and spade work. In the United States the
American-born, particularly the majority who are of Anglo-Saxon stock,
now form an aristocracy of labour, and for the last fifteen years or so
have performed but little of the pick and spade, or ordinary navvy's,
work. In the Southern States the unskilled labour is mainly performed by
the American negro. Elsewhere the pick and spade work is done by new
immigrants, some of whom settle, and some go home with their savings.
They are largely from Southern and Central Europe, many being Italians,
and in the extreme West there are Japanese also.
[Illustration: GANG OF WEST INDIAN LABOURERS.]
[Illustration: GANG OF SPANISH LABOURERS AT CULEBRA.]
The Commission, however, did not recruit in the United States, in order
not to disturb the labour market there, but sought elsewhere for the
supply of unskilled labour.
At first they relied almost entirely upon the West Indian negro, who
formed the majority of the navvies employed under the French Companies.
The Commission, however, were profoundly dissatisfied with the result.
In December, 1906, they reported that--
"Another year's experience with negro labourers from near-by tropical
islands and countries has convinced the Commission of the impossibility
of doing satisfactory work with them. Not only do they seem to be
disqualified by lack of actual vitality, but their disposition to labour
seems to be as frail as their bodily strength."
Nevertheless, they are still employed in undiminished numbers on the
Isthmus, and the tone of the authorities towards them has changed. This
change is noticeable both in the official publications and also in the
conversation of the foremen immediately in charge. With regard to the
latter, I found a great difference of tone between January, 1907, and
April, 1908.
The improved relations with the West Indians is due to two causes,
relating to the alleged lack of vitality and of industry respectively.
The lack of strength was found to be due largely to improper diet, and
most of the West Indians are now provided with proper cooked meals, as
is done in the case of American and European employees. In order to
ensure their profiting by this provision, however, the charge for meals
in the case of West Indians is deducted from wages. The result of
supplying a nourishing diet has been a marked increase in working
strength as shown by output.
In respect of disposition to labour there has also been an improvement.
This is shown both by the absence of animadversion in later official
reports, and also by the changed tone of the foremen and other
Americans in immediate control of the West Indians, when questioned on
the subject. In January, 1907, I heard little but disparagement, while
in April, 1908, a much more favourable account was given. To one who has
seen something of both the United States and of the West Indies, the
reason for the improved state of affairs was easily understood, viz.,
the American foremen and others in charge had begun to understand the
type of men with whom they were dealing. Accustomed to the character of
the American negro, and to the conventions which regulate intercourse
with the coloured man in the United States, they did not at first
recognise that the West Indian was a distinct type, and accustomed, at
any rate in the British Colonies, to very different social relations
towards the white man. The handling of a gang of negroes from the
tropics is an art which has had to be learnt.
The Barbadians are reported to be, generally speaking, the best of the
West Indian workmen, except the men from some of the country districts
of Jamaica, who are their equals. Although the climate and products of
the Isthmus are so similar to those of their own islands, comparatively
few of these employees settle there, but return to the homes they love
so well. It cannot but be gratifying to an Englishman to find that those
who come from the British islands are proud of their citizenship and
pleased to greet him as a fellow-subject.
There are about ninety negro policemen on the Zone, most of whom were
originally trained by English officers in the Jamaica Constabulary. They
are highly spoken of by the Chief of Police, who finds that they know
both when to arrest and when not to arrest. They are also of much
service to the new arrivals of their own colour, who refer to them for
all information.
The ordinary West Indian labourer receives 10 cents gold (about 5d.) per
hour and free quarters. Deducting the 30 cents _per diem_ charged for
meals, he receives 50 cents (2s. 1d.) for an 8-hour day, besides food
and lodging.
[Illustration: STEAM SHOVEL EXCAVATING SOIL AT CULEBRA.]
[Illustration: STEAM SHOVEL UNLOADING INTO A DIRT CAR.]
The total number actually at work on the Isthmus has been--
June 30, 1907.
On the Canal Works 14,606
On the Panama Railroad 4,979
------
Total 19,585
and on June 30, 1908, the number on the Canal Works alone was 16,078.
The total number on the roll is, of course, considerably more than
20,000, as there are necessarily absentees every day owing to sickness,
accident, or other cause.
_European Labour on the Isthmus._
In 1906 the number of European labourers on the Isthmus was
insignificant, and the Commission, at that time profoundly dissatisfied
with the West Indians, issued invitations for proposals to furnish 2,500
Chinese labourers, with the privilege of increasing the number to
15,000.[23] Nothing came of this scheme, however, while, on the other
hand, the already improved, and still improving, conditions on the
Isthmus enabled the Commission to obtain a largely increased supply of
European labour. While the supply of West Indians was maintained
constant, or only slowly increased, the additional force required was
therefore obtained from Europe. The following figures show this:--
_European Labourers actually at Work on_
June 30, 1906 500
June 30, 1907 4,317
June 30, 1908 4,913
[23] Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission, 1906, p. 14.
A few Russian and Baltic folk came, but appeared unable to stand the
work, and the few French who arrived did not take to pick and spade. The
majority were from Greece, Italy, and Spain, each of these countries
sending at first about the same number. The Greeks proved to be
physically inferior to the Italians and Spaniards, and their number in
April, 1908, was only about 300.
The Italians, physically excellent, and standing the climate well, were
found somewhat intractable. A large proportion were migrant labourers,
who had become somewhat prone to collective action when dissatisfied,
and their numbers in April, 1908, had been reduced to 500 or 600.
The Spaniards, mainly Galicians and Castilians, were found to be quite
equal to the Italians in physique and health, and to give far less
trouble, a fact which is attributed partly to the circumstance that most
of them came directly from their villages. They are reported to be
sober, patient, civil, and quick to learn. The number employed in April,
1908, was about 5,000, so that the Spaniards constituted about
five-sixths of the European force, which numbered in all slightly over
6,000. The figures given above for those at work on certain days are
considerably less, there being always a number absent from one cause or
another.
That the Spaniard is not oppressed by the tropical heat was apparent to
me when watching gangs at work near mid-day at about the hottest time
of year, viz., the last weeks of the dry season, towards the end of
April. Clothed in European kit, wearing velveteen trousers and with only
a cap for head-covering, these men showed no signs of distress, or even
discomfort. They showed, in fact, less sign of being heated than
Americans of apparently British or other Northern descent engaged upon
less laborious work.
The ordinary European labourer, in addition to free quarters, receives
20 cents gold per hour, or $1.60 per 8-hour day; more when working
overtime. He is charged 40 cents _per diem_ for his three meals, served
in the European mess, which leaves $1.20 as a _minimum_ net wage _per
diem_, or a little less than 30s. per week; but many earn more, and it
should not be difficult under these conditions for a labourer to save L5
a month. I was informed of one instance of a Spanish labourer saving L10
per month, but such virtue must be rare.
The Spaniard shows no sign of settling upon the Zone. Sometimes he goes
on to railway work in Brazil; more often he returns home with his
savings.
_Skilled Labour on the Isthmus._
The skilled labour on the Isthmus has from the outset been mainly done
by white Americans, but there are still on the "Gold Roll," as it is
termed, some Europeans. New rules reducing the maximum length of leave
have, however, made these posts less attractive to those whose homes are
at a greater distance, and by an order of February 8, 1908, all future
appointments on the Gold Roll shall be American citizens, if the special
services required can be obtained in the United States; and in the event
of any reduction of force, preference shall be given to American
citizens.
The duties being various, the pay necessarily differs, but, taking free
quarters into account, is higher than in the United States, as is of
course necessary in a distant and tropical land. Since the industrial
difficulties of 1907-8 there has been considerable competition for these
billets. An 8-hour day is established by law for employees on the Gold
Roll, the quarters are excellent, and the three meals a day provided at
a fixed charge are up to the standard of a good hotel. Indeed, the
opportunity to share these meals, supplied in large airy rooms, screened
by gauze but open to the breeze, made my task on the Isthmus much
lighter. From almost any part of the Canal I could reach one of the
Commission "hotels" for meal-time, and for 50 cents (2s. 1d.) obtain
better food than I have generally been able to get in the tropics at a
much higher price. I took pleasure also in my company, for, if I may be
permitted to say so, the skilled mechanic of the United States has
always seemed to me a most attractive representative of his nation; and
here particularly so, where one is in touch with his work. Moreover,
each man's job on the Isthmus is part of a vast undertaking, the
progress of which he can watch, which fires his enthusiasm, and makes
him feel that he has a reward beyond his wage in the privilege of
participating in national achievement.
[Illustration: STEAM SHOVEL NEAR END OF STROKE.]
[Illustration: STEAM SHOVEL, STROKE FINISHED, LOADED WITH SOIL.]
I should like in this place to add a word of tribute to the great
courtesy and kindness which they show towards ladies, a circumstance
which did much to render pleasant the excursions which my wife took on
the Isthmus, sometimes in my company and sometimes alone.
The number of Americans on the Gold Roll in January, 1908, was about
6,000, the total number of employees on the rolls of the Commission and
of the Panama Railroad being then approximately 43,000. The total number
of employees actually at work on January 29, 1908, was
On the Canal works 25,367
On the Panama Railroad 6,557
------
Total 31,924
_The Responsible Officials and the Scheme of their Organisation._
The responsibility for Canal construction under the conditions laid down
by Acts of Congress is vested in the President of the United States,
within the limits of the money which has so far been voted. The
President appointed a Commission in 1905 to carry out the work. The
first chief engineer appointed was Mr. John F. Wallace, who arrived on
the Zone June 28, 1904, accompanied by Colonel Gorgas, U.S.A., head of
the Sanitation Department. Mr. Wallace was in favour of a tide-level
canal. In April, 1905, the President appointed a second Commission in
place of the first, with a changed _personnel_,[24] but Mr. Wallace was
retained as chief engineer, and, moreover, became a member of the second
Commission.
[24] Colonel Gorgas, head of the Department of Sanitation, has remained,
however, through all changes. See _post_, Chapter V.
He, however, resigned, June 26, 1905, and his place was taken by Mr.
John F. Stephens, who arrived on the Zone July 27th. At this time there
was panic throughout the Isthmus[25] owing to the prevalent sickness,
and resignations were so numerous that it was difficult to carry on work
at all, and engineering operations were partly suspended for a time.
When the sanitary conditions improved, however, work was resumed with
vigour. This second Commission proposed that the work should be put out
to contract, and bids were invited. It was under this Commission that
the 85-foot-level canal became law. Mr. Stephens was in favour of this
form. He resigned early in 1907, his resignation taking effect on April
1st, and at the same time the President for the second time reorganised
the Commission.
[25] See Report of the Governor of the Canal Zone, 1905, p. 30, and
"Sanitation in the Canal Zone," by W.C. Gorgas, M.B., Colonel, _Journ.
Am. Med. Assoc._, July 6, 1907, vol. xlix.
The third Commission, appointed April 1, 1907, which is that under which
the work was being carried on at the time of my second visit, differs
from its predecessors in that its members are resident on the Zone. Thus
the members of the Commission are the actual executive, the chairman of
the Commission being himself chief engineer. The other important
difference between the present and the former organisations is the fact
that almost all the important departments are now under officers of the
United States Army, and in one instance of the Navy. The chairman and
chief engineer, Lieutenant-Colonel George W. Goethals, of the Corps of
Engineers, had previous experience of the Isthmus, having been engaged
upon work connected with fortification. With respect to the other
officers of engineers, the significance of the appointments lies not in
their being military men, but in their being permanent Government
servants. The Government of the United States, unlike that of his
Britannic Majesty, does not possess a large Civil Service whose members
remain in the public employment through all changes of political
parties. In the absence of any considerable body corresponding, for
instance, to our Indian Civil Service, the Government of the United
States frequently relies upon the Corps of Engineers for the supervision
of great public works.
At the time of my second visit the scheme of organisation was as shown
in the following table:--
GENERAL ORGANISATION OF DEPARTMENTS.
-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------
| Men |
Excavation and Dredging | 12,359 | Major D.D. Gaillard
Locks and Dams | 9,340 | Major Wm. L. Sibert
Machinery and Buildings[26] | 2,164 | H.H. Rouseau, U.S.N.
Labour, Subsistence, and } | |
Quarters } | 2,048 | Jackson Smith (resigned)
Material and Supplies | 1,220 | W.G. Tubby
Sanitation | 2,449 | Colonel W.C. Gorgas
Civil Administration | 451 | J.C.S. Blackburn
Panama Railroad | 6,619 | W.G. Bierd
-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------
[26] Now merged in other departments.
[Illustration: STEAM SHOVEL AT CULEBRA.]
[Illustration: SHOVEL-MEN AT CULEBRA.]
Technically the Panama Railroad is not a department, but practically the
construction of the Canal and the reconstruction of the Railroad are
worked as parts of a single scheme.
In addition to the above are some smaller divisions, reporting directly
to the Chairman, such as that of Accounts. The office of the Purchasing
Officer is situate in Washington, practically all the supplies being
obtained in the United States. This officer also reports to the Chairman
resident on the Zone.
The numbers given above are subject to continual fluctuation, and are
quoted more for the purpose of showing the general proportions of the
different parts of the undertaking than to give an exact total of the
force employed.
Some account has already been given of the activities of the men
employed on excavation, on locks and dams, and on the railway. Those
entered under the Department of Machinery and Buildings are charged not
only with this work in the Zone, but also with the paving and other
improvements in the cities of Colon and Panama. The Department of
Sanitation also undertakes the hygiene of these two cities, no small
part of its responsibilities. The Republic of Panama provides the cities
with police, who are Panamanians. The police force of the Isthmian Canal
Commission (Department of Civil Administration) numbers 200, of whom 88
are the West Indians already mentioned and the remainder white
Americans. The force is numerically small, but the power to deport all
undesirable persons is of great assistance. Moreover, as the Zone is
practically inaccessible except from the ports of Colon and Panama, a
fairly complete watch can be kept on all entries. After making due
allowance for all these advantages, however, one cannot but be
impressed, not only by the order, but by the respectability of the
Isthmus, which is singularly free from anything unseemly.
A scattered force of 200 would be insufficient to deal with tumult among
so large a population of men, but there is maintained at Obispo, a
central point, a force of about 350 United States Marines.
The work of the Department of Sanitation is of such primary interest and
importance, especially to geographers, that I deal with it separately in
the next chapter.