DRESS OF MEN.
Luxury in dress—Material used—Popular colours—Everyday
dress—Various garments—Belts of silver and gold—Cloaks—Trailing
gowns—Shoes—Plaids—Gloves—Hats—Moustaches and beards—Hair worn
long—Fashions—Splendour of chiefs’ accoutrements.
The finds as well as the Sagas, which are confirmed by the Bayeux
tapestry, show that from a very early period the people of the North
dressed with great luxury; but, with the exception of the complete
garments of the bog finds, only fragments of wearing apparel belonging
to the iron age have been discovered, which in most instances are
thoroughly discoloured.
In the Sagas we have only partial descriptions of the dress worn by men
and women, and though many names of pieces of clothing are mentioned,
very little light is otherwise thrown upon the subject.
The material used for clothing seems to have been the same for both
sexes—linen, wool, silk, skins, and furs. Among the costly materials
mentioned is “_pell_” which is supposed to be like velvet. The materials
were sometimes seamed with gold and silver thread, or embroidered. It
was the custom to have a border on many of the clothes called _hlad_,
which was either a band, ribbon, or a kind of lace.
Blue, red, green, scarlet, and purple, were the colours most in favour;
grey was the colour for everyday use, and white _vadmal_, a coarse or
thick woollen stuff, was the distinctive clothing for slaves.
The trousers were worn at a very early time, as we have seen from the
Bog finds, and were kept in their proper place by a belt round the
waist, and had the socks knitted on to them, over which were shoes. Over
the linen and woollen shirts was the coat of mail. Over the shoulders a
cloak was worn, resembling that of the Romans or Greeks, with a fringe
or border at the sides. These cloaks were fastened by fibulæ. The
costumes of the Bayeux tapestry agree with the descriptions of the
Sagas.
The everyday dress of Geirmund is thus described:—
“He usually dressed thus. He wore a red scarlet kirtle, and over it a
grey cloak (feld), and on his head a bearskin cap (húfa). He wore in his
hand a large sword. It was not adorned with silver, and its blade was
keen and broad and no rust on it. He called the sword Fótbít
(foot-cutter), and never let it go out of his hand” (Laxdæla, c. 29).
[Illustration:
Fig. 1144.—Cloth with representation of lion or leopard. ⅓ real
size.—Mammen find.
]
Vigaskúta saw “that a large man in a green cloak rode from Thverá (a
farm), and knew that it was Glúm. He alighted from his horse. He had on
a cloak of two colours, black and white” (Viga Glum’s Saga, c. 16).
“Hrút started up in a shirt and linen breeches, and threw over himself a
grey cloak, and had in his hand a halberd adorned with gold, which King
Harald had given him” (Laxdæla, c. 37).
“The king had on a red cloak (möttul)[205] with bands, and a spear in
his hand. He twisted the cloak-pin off, and leaned upon the blade of his
spear. When Heming came down he took hold of the king’s cloak, but the
king bowed down his head, and let go the cloak, so that Heming flew down
off the rock” (Flateyjarbok, iii. 409).
[Illustration:
Fig. 1145.—Piece of cloth found in Bjerringhoi mound at Mammen, near
Viborg.—⅓ real size.
]
[Illustration:
Fig. 1146.—Fragment of woollen cloth, ornamented with hands and human
faces. ⅓ real size.—Mammen find.
]
Helgi, a Norwegian trader, was invited to stay with Gudmund the
powerful, on Mödruvellir, a whole winter. When he left he said to him:—
“‘Now, herra, look at this payment for quarters, though it is less than
you deserve.’ It was a cloak, the fur of which was lined with pell, with
a golden band on the neck-strap, a most costly thing. Gudmund said: ‘I
thank thee for it, I have never received a better gift.’ They parted
good friends” (Ljosvetninga Saga, c. 13).
“Ögmund put on a cloak (feld) of two colours, ornamented with bands
beneath the shoulder; it was very costly” (Fornmanna Sögur, ii.).
[Illustration:
Fig. 1147.—Well preserved bracelet of silk, knitted with gold threads,
found in Bjerringhoi mound at Mammen, near Viborg. Real size.
]
[Illustration:
Fig. 1148.—Piece of woven woollen cloth, brownish colour.
]
[Illustration:
Fig. 1149.—Remnant of brown woollen cloth of thin threads and very
loose weaving.
]
“He (Thormód) had covered himself with a double-furred cloak which he
owned. It was black on one side, and white on the other” (Fóstbrædra
Saga, c. 32).
The different garments were:—
_Skyrta_, or _serk_, the name given to the shirt worn next the body,
which was put on by means of a small opening[206] for the head called
_hofudsmátt_.
[Illustration:
Fig. 1150.—Border of fine woven red silk cloth (1½ inches broad), with
gold and silver threads woven into it, and four-cornered pattern
with representation of Svastica, found in the mound.
]
[Illustration:
Fig. 1151.—Piece of cloth with two lions or leopards facing each
other. ⅓ real size.—Mammen find.
]
The _kyrtil_ shaped like a shirt with sleeves, and put over it. Blue,
red, and brown seem to have been the favourite colours for this
garment.[207] Sometimes the kirtle is called _skyrta_, or shirt; so both
must have been alike in shape. A sleeveless kirtle is mentioned as
uncommon.[208]
The _hjúp_ which seems to have been a short kirtle without sleeves,
sometimes lined with furs, worn sometimes over the coat of mail.[209]
“Sigurd went up on the island. He wore a red kirtle, and a blue cloak
with straps on his shoulders; he was girt with a sword, and had a helmet
on his head” (Fœreyinga Saga, c. 57).
_Linbrækr_ (linen drawers) which seem to have been often worn, and were
kept on at night.
_Breeches_ seems to have been of two kinds:—
_Brækr_ (the more common) were held up round the waist by a belt,
fastened with a buckle, which was usually wide, but considered more
showy when it was narrow.
[Illustration:
Fig. 1152.—Fragment of woollen stuff, ⅔ real size, found in a tumulus
with fragments of a sword, spear points, two axes, a shield boss of
iron, and a large number of pieces of stuffs of different qualities,
pieces of the skin of a horse still having hair adhering to
it.—Norway.
]
“He had strange clothes made—hairy breeches (brækr) and cloak, and he
had them put into boiling pitch and hardened” (Ragnar Lodbrók, c. 2).
_Hosur_[210] were a showier kind of breeches; they seem also to have
covered the feet, and to have been tight, like high stockings. They were
of cloth or skin, and resembled high boots: spurs were often attached to
them. Sometimes the breeches were worn outside the kirtle, and a man was
then said to be “girt in breeches,” the waistband serving as a belt.
“A crowd of men had come to the bœr. Some of these had walked up to
Gaulardal. It happened that a broad-shouldered man walked past them; he
wore a cloak and white hose, and was alone” (Fornmanna Sögur, v.).
_Leistabrækr_ were breeches and stockings in one, and seem to have been
tight-fitting, somewhat similar to those found in the Thorsberg bog,
which were of great antiquity. On the relief ornamentation on a superb
silver vase of Greek workmanship found at Kertch, representing the
capture of wild horses, and the different phases of taming them, the men
are represented as wearing such breeches.
_Hökulbrækr._ Of these there is no description.
[Illustration:
Fig. 1153.
]
[Illustration:
Fig. 1154.
]
Bronze plates found, Björnhofda, parish of Thorslunda, showing man’s
trousers, &c.
_Sokkar_ (socks) were also used.
Thórodd had been wounded in a fight, and his breeches were all wet from
the blood.
“The servant of Snorri was to pull off the breeches, and when he pulled
he could not get them off. Then he said: ‘It is not a lie about you, the
sons of Thorbrand, that you are very showy, as you wear such tight
clothes that they cannot be pulled off.’ Thórodd answered: ‘You do not
pull hard enough.’ Then the man put his feet against the bedside and
pulled with all his strength, and the breeches did not come down. Then
Snorri godi came and touched the leg all over, and found that a spear
was standing through the foot between the tendon and the leg, and had
pierced the foot and the breeches” (Eyrbyggja, c. 45).
The belts worn round the waist were often very costly, and of silver and
gold.
“Thjóf (= Fridthjóf) threw off his cloak; he had on a dark blue kirtle
under it, and wore the good ring on his hand (or arm). He wore a broad
silver belt round his waist, and a large bag with pure silver money in
it, and a sword at his side. He had on his head a large hood made of
skin, for he had weak eyes and was hairy all over his face” (Fridthjóf’s
Saga, c. 11).
These cloaks were the most costly part of their dress; they were made of
materials called _gudvef_, _pell_, and _baldakin_.[211] Among the many
kinds of cloaks mentioned were—
The _Kapa_, or hood-cloak, the usual colour of which for everyday use
was grey; for feasts, scarlet; sometimes lined with fur.
The _Feld_, identical with the Kapa, both sides of which were sometimes
of different colours.
There were also rain or dust cloaks, and cloaks made of reindeer-skin.
The finest were the _skikkja_[212] and _möttul_, which were only worn by
the high-born chiefs, being a characteristic of birth, just like the
paludamentum or military cloak of the Romans, or the chlamys of the
Greeks, which were of scarlet bordered with purple. The cloaks and
mantles (möttul) were fastened round the neck or held up by bands or
straps, which were so long that they could be put on the head.
The cloak seems to have been long enough for a sword to be carried under
it without being seen.
“Then Thorólf put off his strap-mantle (_seilamöttul_), which was of
scarlet, lined with grey fur. He laid it over Thorstein, but it did not
reach lower down than his waist when he rose. He then took it off and
told him to wear it himself, and give him another garment, though it
might not be as fine. Thorólf then fetched a hairy cloak (lod-kápa), and
told him to put it on. He threw it over him, and it was neither too long
nor too short” (Svarfdæla Saga).
“He (Sigurd) wore blue breeches, a shirt, and a mantle (_möttul_) with
straps (_tygil_) for over-garment. He looked down and kept the
mantle-straps in his hands, and by turns put them on and off his head.
When they had passed the cape they had got merry and drunk, rowed hard
and kept little guard. Sigurd rose and went to the gunwale, and his two
guards did the same, and both took his mantle and held it up as was the
custom to do with highborn men” (Magnus Blind, c. 16).
“Halldór had on a cloak on which were long brooches[213] as was then
customary” (Laxdæla, ch. 75).[214]
The Slœdur was a trailing gown of costly stuff embroidered with gold and
ornamented with bands.
In the time of Olaf Kyrri (the Quiet, 1066–93) the men’s gowns had
trains, laced on the side, with sleeves 10 feet long, so tight that they
had to be pulled on with a leather thong, and jerked up to the shoulder.
These gowns were soon considered old-fashioned: it was also customary to
wear gold rings round the legs.
“In the days of King Olaf Kyrri, drinking at the inns and parting-bouts
began in the trading-towns, and the people became fond of show; they
wore costly breeches laced tight to the leg, and some fastened gold
rings round their legs; the men wore trailing gowns (drag-kyrtil), laced
on the sides, with sleeves ten feet in length, and so narrow that they
had to be put on with a running-string and laced tight up to the
shoulder; the shoes were high, sewed with silk, and some of them
ornamented with gold. There was much other display at this time” (Olaf
Kyrri, c. 2).
This sort of sleeve belonged to the old-fashioned kind of clothing.
“He (Arinbjörn) gave Egil as Yule-gift a gown (_slœdur_) of silk,
largely embroidered with gold, and set with gold-buttons all the way
down the front; he had this made so as to fit Egil. Arinbjörn also gave
him a new cut suit of clothes, of many-coloured English cloth” (Egil’s
Saga, 70).
Erling jarl was tall and brawny, somewhat high-shouldered, with a long
and thin face and light complexion; he was very grey-haired, and carried
his head on one side. He was amiable and high-minded, and wore
old-fashioned clothes, high-necked and long-sleeved, kirtles and shirts,
and foreign cloaks (valaskikkja)[215] and high shoes. Thus also he
dressed King Magnus while he was young, but as soon as he had his own
way he dressed very showily (Magnus Erlingsson’s Saga, c. 37).
Shoes made of leather or skins were used, and made fast by strings,
sometimes adorned with fringes: silk strings were wrapped round the leg
to the knees, and sometimes very high shoes were worn, often seamed with
silk and partly covered with gold, but they were old-fashioned.
“It is told about his (Sigurd’s) dress, that he wore a blue kirtle and
blue hose, high shoes laced round his legs, a grey cloak (kápa) and a
grey broad-brimmed hat and a hood over his face, a staff in his hand
with a gilt silver-mounting at the upper end, from which a silver ring
hung” (St. Olaf’s Saga,[216] c. 31).
“Sigurd jarl had a brown kirtle and a red cloak, the skirts of which
were folded up; he wore shoes made of the skin of sheep’s legs; he had a
shield and the sword called Bastard” (Magnus Erlingsson’s Saga, c. 13).
“The king (St. Olaf) and his men went into the bath and laid their
clothes on the ground, and a tent was pitched over it. At that time it
was common to wear silk strings like garters, which were wound round the
leg from the shoe to the knee; the first and high-born men always wore
them, and the king and Björn had the same.... Björn always had these
thongs around his legs while he lived, and was buried with them”
(Bjarnar Saga Hitdælakappa).
Magnus Barefoot (1093–1103) adopted the Scotch custom (then also used in
Ireland) of having _bare legs_ and _plaids_, but this fashion was
antiquated a hundred years later.
“It is told that when Magnus came from _Vestrviking_ (warfare in the
west), he and many of his men adopted the customs in dress that were
common in the western lands (Scotland and Ireland). They walked
bare-legged in the streets, and wore short kirtles and over-garments”
(Magnus Barefoot, c. 18).
On the hands gloves (_glófar_) of skin, especially hart’s-skin,
sometimes stitched with gold, were worn; occasionally they were lined
with down. In the hand a staff was generally carried, with or without an
axe.
“Bard sat in a high-seat; he was bald and dressed in scarlet clothes,
and wore gloves of hart-skin” (Fornmanna Sögur, ii. 148).
On the head a _hött_ (hat) was worn. _Skálhatt_ (a hat formed like a
bowl) is mentioned, also black, grey, and white hats. Another
head-covering mentioned is a silken cap ornamented with lace; those from
Gardariki seem to have been most appreciated.
After a battle at sea between King Ingi and Sigurd Slembidjákn, a
pretender to the crown of Norway, in which Ingi got the victory, Sigurd
jumped overboard and took off his coat-of-mail while swimming under his
shield. The king’s men nevertheless found him.
“Thjóstólf Alason went to him (Sigurd) where he sat and struck off his
head a silk cap ornamented with lace bands.”[217]
“Thorkel Sursson had on his head a hat from Gardariki, a grey fur cloak,
with a gold buckle on the shoulder, and a sword in his hand” (Gisli
Súrsson, p. 55).
Karl and Leif saw a man approaching, “who had in his hand a cudgel
(_refdi_), wore a broad-brimmed hat, and a green woollen cloak; he was
barefooted, but had linen breeches tied (with a band) round his legs”
(St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 153).
“The everyday dress of Án was a white fur-coat, so long that it touched
his heels; a grey short fur-coat over it reached down to the middle of
the calf of his leg; over it was a red kirtle, which reached below the
knee. Over this was a common trading cloth blouse (stakk), which reached
to the middle of his thigh. He had a hat on his head, and a chopping-axe
in his hand” (An Bogsveigi’s Saga, c. 5).
The wearing of moustaches by warriors seems to have been very common
from the earliest time; this is seen from the bracteates and antiquities
belonging to the earlier and later iron age. The custom, which continued
to the end of the Pagan era, and which is also well illustrated in the
Bayeux tapestry, was so common that it is but seldom mentioned in the
Sagas.
Laughed then Jormunrek,
Put his hand on his moustaches;
He did not want tumult,
Was drunk with wine;
Shook his brown hair,
Looked on his white shield;
Let the golden cup
Turn in his hand.
(Hamdismál, 20.)
After the burning of Njal, Skarphedin, his son, was found dead.
“He had been standing at the gable, and the greater part of his legs
were burnt up to his knees, but the rest of his body was not burnt; his
eyes were open and not swollen; he had bitten his moustache, and had
struck with the axe so fast into the gable that its blade went in as far
as its middle, and therefore it was not softened” (Njala, c. 132).
[Illustration:
Fig. 1155.—Man with moustache; reverse of silver coin with ship.
]
A peculiar story is related of Ögmund Eythjófsbani, a famous Viking,
full of witchcraft and devilry, who often fought against Örvarodd.
“When Ögmund left Odd he went into Austrveg (eastern lands) and married
the daughter of Geirröd the Jötun, and made all the kings in Austrveg
pay tax to him; every twelve months they were to send him their lower
and upper moustache. From these Ögmund had a fur cloak made” (Orvar
Odd’s Saga, c. 23).
The men wore their hair long, hanging over their neck; their foreheads
were ornamented with a gold band like a diadem, and from the finds we
learn that they parted their hair in the middle.
“Kjartan, Olaf’s son, grew up at Hjardarholt; he was the handsomest of
men born in Iceland. He had fine and marked features in his face, with
most beautiful eyes and fair complexion; he had much hair as fine as
silk, which fell down in locks. He was large and strong as his mother’s
father Egil (Skallagrimsson), or Thorolf had been. He was better shaped
than any man, so that all wondered who saw him; he also fought better
than most other men; he was a good smith, and swam better than any other
man; he surpassed others greatly in all idrottir; he was better liked
and more humble than any other man, so that every child loved him; he
was merry and open-handed. Olaf (the Irish) loved him most of all his
children” (Laxdæla Saga, ch. 38).
“He (Hakon jarl) was the most handsome man that men had seen, with long
hair, fine as silk, and a gold band on his head” (Fornmanna Sögur, iv.).
“Odd was dressed every day in a scarlet kirtle, and had a _gullhlad_
(gold band) tied round his head” (Orvar Odd, c. 1).
[Illustration:
Fig. 1156.—Fragments of the upper part of a bronze kettle (the eyes
had probably been adorned with stones), showing how men parted their
hair.—Bog find, Fyen.
]
[Illustration:
Fig. 1157.—Ornaments inside the kettle on another plate of bronze.
]
“He (Gunnar of Hlídarendi) looked handsome, and had a light complexion,
a straight nose, slightly turned up, blue and keen eyes, and red cheeks.
His hair was long, thick, and yellow, and sat well” (Njala, c. 19).
Chiefs seem to have often set the fashions.
“One summer a seagoing ship owned by Icelanders came from Iceland. It
was loaded with trade-cloaks (_varar-feld_), and they went with it to
Hardangr, for they heard that many people were there. When they began to
sell none wanted to buy the cloaks. The steersman went to King Harald,
for he had spoken to him before, and told him this difficulty. Harald
said he would come down, and did so. He was a condescending and very
merry man. He came on a fully-manned skúta. He looked at the goods, and
said to the steersman: ‘Wilt thou give me one of the grey cloaks?’
‘Willingly,’ answered the steersman: ‘more than one.’ Harald took one
cloak and put it on, and then went down into the skúta. Before they
rowed away every one of his men had bought a cloak. A few days after
there came so many who all wanted to buy cloaks that not half of them
got any. Thereafter the king was called Harald gráfeld (grey cloak)”
(Harald Gráfeld’s Saga, c. 7).
The fashion in the time of King Sverri is thus described:—
“Thou shalt always choose brown cloth for hose; it is not wrong to use
black skin for hose or other kinds of cloth except scarlet. Thou shalt
also have a brown or green or red kirtle of good and beseeming cloth.
Thy linen clothes thou shalt have made of good linen, but not much of
it; have thy shirt short and all thy linen-clothes light. Always have
thy shirt a good deal shorter than thy kirtle, for no good-mannered man
can make himself look well with flax or hemp. Thy beard and hair thou
shalt have well prepared before thou comest before the king, after the
customs prevailing at the time in the hird.[218] When I was in the hird
it was customary to cut the hair shorter than the lobes of the ears, and
comb it so that each hair would lie flat, and a short lock of hair be
over the eyebrows. It was customary to cut the beard and the moustaches
short and have whiskers like the German custom; it is not likely that
there will be any better or more becoming fashion for warriors” (Konungs
Skuggsjá, p. 66).
[Illustration:
Fig. 1158.
]
[Illustration:
Fig. 1159.
]
Iron tweezers, ⅔ real size, found in a quadrangular stone setting,
with a bent sword, a bent spear head, both of iron, and burnt
bones.—Öland.
From the earlier Edda and the Sagas we find that kings or warriors were
easily recognised by the splendour of their accoutrements. They wore
gilt spurs.
“When the king (St. Olaf) had said this, he sat down and let his shoes
and stockings be pulled off, put cordovan hose on his feet and put on
gilt spurs. Then he took off his cloak and kirtle and dressed himself in
clothes of pell, and over these a scarlet cloak. He girded himself with
an ornamented sword, put a gilt helmet on his head, and mounted his
horse” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 32).
“King Hakon was easily recognized before all others; his helmet
glittered when the sun shone upon it” (Hakon the Good’s Saga, c. 31).
“Kjartan Olafsson took up the scarlet clothes which King Olaf
(Tryggvason) gave him at their parting and dressed himself
magnificently; he girt himself with the sword which was the king’s gift;
he wore on his head a gilt helmet, and had a red shield at his side with
the holy cross marked thereon in gold, and in his hand a spear with a
gilt handle. All his men were in coloured clothes; they were more than
twenty” (Laxdæla, c. 44).
“The king (Hakon) put on his dress of war; he wore a coat of ring-mail,
and was girt with the sword _Kvernbit_; he had on a gilt helmet, a spear
in his hand, and a shield at his side. Then he arrayed in ranks his hird
and the bœndr, and raised his standard” (Fornmanna Sögur, vol. i., pp.
42, 43).
“One day Gilli and Leif (kinsmen) went from their booths to a hill,
which was on the island, and there talked together; they saw many men on
the headland on the eastern side of the island ... there glittered in
the sunshine fine shields and magnificent helmets, axes and spears, and
the men looked very valiant; they saw that a man, tall and bold-looking,
went in front of the rest in a red kirtle, with a shield half blue and
half yellow, a helmet on his head, and a long cutting spear in his hand;
they thought they recognized in him Sigurd Thorlaksson. Next to him
walked a stout man in a red kirtle, who had a red shield; they thought
they recognized him with certainty as Thórd Lági (the low); the third
man had a red shield, with a man’s face painted on it, and a large axe
in his hand; this was Gaut the red” (Færeyinga Saga, c. 48).
While King Olaf was at Stiklastadir a man came to him who was not like
other men.
“He was so tall that no other man reached higher than to his shoulders;
he was very handsome, and fair-haired. He was well armed; he had a very
fine helmet, a coat of mail, and a red shield; he was girt with an
ornamented sword and had a large spear inlaid with gold, whose handle
was so thick that it could scarcely be grasped with the hand” (St.
Olaf’s Saga, c. 22).
It was the custom for those who attended the Thing to put on their best
clothes.
“The champion Gunnar came to the Althing, so finely dressed that none
were dressed as well, and the people came out of every booth to admire
him. He had on the scarlet state[219] clothes which King Harald Gormsson
(Denmark) gave him, and a gold ring on his hand from Hakon jarl” (Njala,
c. 33).
-----
Footnote 205:
Here the word _möttul_ = mantle, the same garment which elsewhere is
called _skikkja_.
Footnote 206:
Laxdæla, 46.
Footnote 207:
Fornmanna Sögur; Harald Hardradi.
Footnote 208:
Magn. Baref., 8.
Footnote 209:
Flateyjarbok, i. 481.
Footnote 210:
In the time of Olaf Kyrri, before 1100, very tight _hosur_ were used.
Blue trousers and blue and grey hosur are mentioned.
Footnote 211:
Baldakin, stuff or skin from Bagdad.
Footnote 212:
It seems to have been the custom to fold up the edges of the skikkja
(Magnus Erlingson, ch. 13, 37; Magnus Barefoot, 8; Flateyjarbók,
iii.).
Footnote 213:
Brooches = fibulæ.
Footnote 214:
Cf. also for cloaks.—Egil’s Saga, c. 77; Eyrbyggja, c. 37; Vigaglum’s
Saga, c. 6; Ljosvetninga Saga, c. 17.
Footnote 215:
Valaskikkja = Welsh (foreign) cloak.
Footnote 216:
Cf. also Eyrbyggja Saga, c. 43.
Footnote 217:
Cf. Svarfdæla Saga, c. 5, and Magnus Barefoot, c. 8.
Footnote 218:
The _hird_ or hirdmen were so called because they guarded their lord
or king; the word being derived from _hirda_, to guard or preserve.
The hird of a king was often very considerable: King Harald Fairhair
sometimes had a hird of 400 men.
Footnote 219:
Fignarklœdi = dignity-clothes; clothes of highborn men.