RACES AND PEOPLES OF AMERICA.
The four ethnic elements of the New World--_Origin of the
Americans_--/Ancient Inhabitants of America/--Problem of
palæolithic man in the United States--Palæolithic man in Mexico and
South America--Lagoa Santa race; Sambaquis and Paraderos--Problem
of the Mound-Builders and Cliff-Dwellers--Ancient civilisation of
Mexico and Peru--_Present American Races_--_American languages_.
/Peoples of North America/--I. _Eskimo_--II. _Indians of
Canada and United States_: _a._ Arctic--Athapascan group; _b._
Antarctic--Algonquian-Iroquois, Chata-Muskhogi, and Siouan
groups; _c._ Pacific--Northwest Indians, Oregon-California and
Pueblo groups--III. _Indians of Mexico and Central America_:
_a._ Sonorian-Aztecs; _b._ Central Americans (Mayas, Isthmians,
etc.)--Half-breeds in Mexico and the Antilles.
/Peoples of South America/--I. _Andeans_: Chibcha, Quechua, and
other linguistic families; the Araucans--II. _Amazonians_: Carib,
Arawak, Miranha, and Panos families; unclassed tribes--III.
_Indians of East Brazil and the Central Region_: Ges linguistic
family; unclassed tribes (Puri, Karaya, Bororo, etc.); Tupi-Guarani
family--IV. _South Argentine_: Chaco and Pampas Indians, etc.;
Patagonians, Fuegians.
At the present day about six-sevenths of the population of the two
Americas are composed of Whites and Half-breeds of all sorts. The
remainder is made up almost equally of Negroes and natives, the
latter improperly called Indians.[578] Notwithstanding the relatively
small number of these last (about 10 millions), I shall deal almost
exclusively with them in this chapter, as they are especially
interesting from the ethnological point of view, besides having been
the best studied from this point of view. A few words will suffice
in regard to the Whites and Negroes. The white colonists and their
uncrossed descendants belong for the most part to Anglo-Saxon or
Germanic peoples in North America, and to Neo-Latin peoples in South
America. Nine-tenths of the population of the United States owe their
origin to the Anglo-Scotch, to the Irish, Germans, and Scandinavians,
the fusion of which with other European types and with half-breeds
tends to produce the _Yankee_ type, which, if not a physical, is at
least a social type. In Canada two-thirds of the white population are
Anglophones, and the rest Francophones. In Mexico, in the Antilles,
and in South America, nearly all the “white” population is made up
of Neo-Latins--in Brazil descendants of the Portuguese, in Argentine
of Italo-Spaniards, and elsewhere of Spaniards. The Latins have also
contributed to form the half-breeds of America, of which several
varieties exist. Half-breeds are especially numerous in Mexico and in
the countries where the three elements, White, Indian, and Negro come
together, as in the Antilles, in Columbia, Venezuela, and in Brazil.
I shall give some particulars of the Half-breeds in connection with
the populations of these lands (pp. 542 and 545). As to the Negroes
of America, they are the descendants of slaves imported, during more
than three centuries, almost exclusively from the West African coast,
and particularly from Guinea. (See p. 452.) The Negroes are especially
numerous in the south of the United States and in the Antilles, as
well as in the north and on the east coast of South America, as far as
Buenos Ayres.[579]
_Origin of the Americans._--To-day the existence of an _American race_,
or rather a _group of American races_ (p. 291), is generally conceded,
a group to which all the native populations of the New World belong;
but as to the origins of these races unanimity of opinion is far from
being reached. According to some authorities, the New World is a
special centre of the manifestation of species, the _Homo Americanus_
having developed on the spot; according to others, the ancestors of
the present Indians came from neighbouring countries--a few from
everywhere: from Siberia and China (by Behring’s Straits), from
Polynesia (driven by currents), from Europe (failing Atlantis, by the
table-land which in the quaternary period probably stretched between
England and Greenland). Unfortunately, almost all these hypotheses are
based on a confusion both of time and space. It may without difficulty
be conceded that occasional Chinese and Japanese junks may have been
driven towards America, although the existence of this continent
remained unknown both to China and Japan till quite recent times. We
know positively that the Northmen visited the shores of North America
long before Christopher Columbus. And there is reason to suppose that
the Polynesians, who are excellent navigators, may have ventured, urged
forward by currents, as far as the South American coast. But all these
occurrences would be too recent, and such migrations would be in fact
both too insignificant and too isolated, to account for the peopling of
a vast continent. The origins of American man are much more distant in
the past, and the migrations, if migrations there were, must have taken
place in the quaternary epoch, and probably as much from the coast of
Europe as from the coast of Asia.
ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF AMERICA.
Just as is the case with Europe, it is not certain that man existed
in America during the tertiary period,[580] but it is certain that he
appeared there during the quaternary age. This period, in the New World
as in the Old, had its glacial epochs. According to Dawson, Wright,
and Chamberlin, there were two or three great movements of invasion
and withdrawal of the American glaciers. It is not known if these
movements were synchronous with those of Europe, but it is established
that, as in Europe, the first invasion of glaciers was also the more
widespread.[581]
Chipped argilite tools, similar to the quaternary quartz tools of
sub-Pyrennean countries, have been found by Abbott in the gravels of
the Delaware, near Trenton (New Jersey), side by side with quaternary
animals (probably of the second glacial period, notably the fragment
of a jaw-bone). Other implements have been gathered on the spot by
Haynes in New Hampshire; by Dr. Metz in the gravels of Little Falls
(Minnesota), regarded by W. Upham as more recent than those of
Trenton; by Cresson at Medora (Indiana), and at Claymont (mouth of
the Delaware), in a more ancient deposit than the Trenton one; by
Wright and Volk at Trenton (in 1895); without reckoning the thousands
of finds either on the surface or in lesser-known beds, which have
been enumerated in a special memoir by Wilson. If I dwell on these
details, it is because all these finds have latterly been vigorously
attacked in the United States, since Holmes, who had studied the
ancient quarries of the Indians, pointed out the great resemblances
between the spoiled or waste argilite axes and arrowheads which he
had found in these quarries, and the supposed palæolithic implements,
particularly those of Trenton. Several authorities, such as Chamberlin,
MacGee, Brinton, have, like Holmes himself, come to the conclusion
that all the so-called palæolithic tools of America, and perhaps even
those of Europe, are only spoiled or waste tools of the same kind,
and relatively modern. This conclusion seems to overshoot the mark,
seeing that specialists like Wilson, Boule, etc., are almost unable
to distinguish undoubted quaternary tools of Europe from those of
Trenton, and that the beds of many American prehistoric tools have been
perfectly well ascertained not to have undergone any rehandling, and
have been established as quaternary by competent geologists.[582]
Outside the United States palæolithic finds in the New World are not
very numerous, and often are questionable.
Palæolithic tools of the Chellean and Mousterian type have been found
in Mexico by Franco and Pinart;[583] other quaternary tools, together
with a fragment of a human jaw-bone, have been described in the valley
of Mexico by S. Herrera.[584]
In Brazil, on the shores of Lake Lagoa-do-Sumidoro (province of Minas
Geraes), Lund exhumed human skeletons and flint objects, together
with remains of animals which, if not quaternary, at least exist no
longer in the country. Ameghino[585] also has collected in quaternary
layers of the Pampas of the Argentine Republic remains of primitive
human industries. I will only mention the numerous neolithic objects
found almost everywhere in America. Among these objects it is necessary
to give special attention to the “grooved axes” which are entirely
characteristic of the New World (Wilson).
As to prehistoric human bones, investigation reduces them to little. I
have already said that the tertiary or quaternary skull of Calaveras
(brachycephalic) is classed as doubtful. The skeleton of Pontimelo
(with dolichocephalic skull), found by Roth under the carapace of
the glyptodon, an enormous armadillo of the Pampas regions of the
Rio Arrecifes, a tributary of Rio de la Plata, also inspires but a
limited confidence in many authorities. Lastly, the skulls and bones of
Lagoa Santa, if not quaternary, at least very ancient, afford special
characters (dolichocephaly, short stature, third trochanter), on the
strength of which De Quatrefages has established a special race,[586]
whose probable descendants constitute my _Palæ-American sub-race_. (See
p. 292.)
Side by side with finds of stone objects and bones in very
ancient strata, it is necessary to note also the shell-heaps and
kitchen-middens scattered along all the coast of both Americas, from
Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Louisiana to Brazil, to Patagonia and
Tierra del Fuego. In this last country the present inhabitants, who
subsist especially on molluscs, contribute to the piling up of these
heaps or to the formation of new ones. This is enough to indicate that
all the kitchen-middens are not synchronous; and if there be some
which go far back into antiquity, on the other hand there are some
which are quite modern. The “Sambaquis,” for instance, of the mouth of
the Amazon and of the province of Parana must be very ancient; some of
the skulls which have been found in them recall the Palæ-American or
Lagoa Santa race.[587] The _paraderos_, or elongated hillock graves,
discovered in the province of Entre Rios, in the valley of the Rio
Negro (Argentine Republic), by Moreno and R. Lista, enclose flint tools
(neolithic?) and numerous skulls, among which a certain number also
exhibit likenesses to those of Lagoa Santa.[588]
In North America, the _Mounds_, fortified enclosures or tumuli of the
most varied appearance, round, conical, and in the shape of animals,
have also for long attracted the attention of archæologists. But if
the discoveries and excavations made in these monuments have been
many, an exact explanation of their meaning was lacking till recent
times. The groups of mounds are scattered over an immense tract of
country, from the great lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, from the Rocky
Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean; but they abound particularly in the
valley of the Mississippi, along its left tributaries, in Arkansas,
Kansas, etc., as well as in the basin of the Ohio. Farther west,
towards the Rocky Mountains, as well as towards the Atlantic coast,
they become less frequent. Till recently, the construction of these
hillocks was attributed to one and the same people, called by the not
very compromising name of “Mound-Builders.” This people, tillers of the
soil and relatively civilised, must have lived from the most remote
antiquity in the region planted with these mounds, and must have been
destroyed by the nomadic and wild hordes represented by the present
Indians. Such, at least, was the prevailing hypothesis. However, an
attentive study of these mounds and the objects they covered has led
little by little the most competent authorities (Cyrus Thomas, Carr,
H. Hale, Shepherd, and the numerous members of the “Mound Exploring
Division”) to distinguish several “types” of mounds, the geographical
distribution of which would serve to indicate the settlements of
diverse tribes. E. Schmidt, in a comprehensive work, has brought
together all these investigations, and, by the light of linguistic data
furnished by Hale, Brinton and others, has been able to state precisely
who these various tribes were.[589]
It may be said at once that these investigations have by no means
confirmed the great antiquity of the mounds; on the contrary, objects
of European origin (iron swords, etc.), found in certain mounds, the
tales of the early explorers which tell us that the Indians raised
these mounds, and the traditions of the natives themselves, all force
us to the conclusion that the builders of these funereal monuments or
fortified enclosures were no other than the various Indian tribes whose
remaining descendants exist to-day in the reservations. These tribes
were tillers of the soil at the period of the discovery of America, as
indeed the tales of contemporary explorers bear witness, as do also the
traces of irrigation canals and other agricultural operations around
these mounds. But the invasion of the country by Europeans from the
seventeenth century onward, and the introduction of the horse, hitherto
unknown, brought so much confusion into the existence of these tribes,
that such of the Indians as survived the wars of extermination changed
their mode of life and became hunters or nomadic shepherds. If the
distribution of the mounds be studied, three parallel archæological
zones may be distinguished, extending from west to east, between the
Mississippi and the Atlantic Ocean, each such zone presenting great
differences in regard to the type of mound it circumscribes.[590] On
comparing this distribution with the ancient settlements of the tribes
the following result is arrived at: the mounds of the north have been
built by the Iroquois and Algonquians, except the mounds of animal
shape, which are due to Dakota-Siouan tribes; the mounds of the south
may be attributed to tribes of the Muskoki or Muskhogi family; and,
as regards the numerous monuments of the basin of the Ohio, there is
a strong presumption in favour of their having been raised by the
Shawnies and the Leni-Lenaps in the south, and by the Cherokis in the
north. The study of these mounds, in connection with historic data,
suffices to determine very satisfactorily the migrations of all these
tribes, to which I shall refer later.
West of the Rocky Mountains no more mounds are met with. Their place
is taken by other monuments, structures of stone erected among the
rocks and along the cañons. A large number of these are found in the
valley of San Juan, in that of Rio Grande do Norte, of the Colorado
Chiquito, etc. These monuments are still more modern than the mounds.
The peoples who erected these structures, the “Cliff-Dwellers,” are
still represented by the Moqui, Zuñi, and other tribes who inhabit the
high table-lands of Arizona and New Mexico.
Tribes probably related to the Cliff-Dwellers erected in Central
America those immense phalansteries in stone or adobe of several
storeys, constructed to shelter the whole clan, which the conquering
Spaniards called pueblos.[591] Adobe pueblos are still occupied by Zuñi
people, descendants of the Cliff-Dwellers.
While in North America among the Mound-Builders only rude attempts at
civilisation are found, in Central America and Mexico there flourished
up to the period of the conquest a relatively advanced civilisation.
Various peoples, whom many authors have sought to identify with the
Mound-Builders, formed more or less well-organised states in Mexico.
Such were the Mayas in the Yukatan peninsula; the Olmecs, and, later,
the Aztecs, on the high table-land. And on the west of South America
there developed a corresponding civilisation, that of the Incas of
Peru. The Incas were none other than one of the tribes of the Quechua
people, who, after having brought into subjection the Aymara aborigines
founded in Peru a sort of communist-autocratic state. To the north,
in present Columbia, lived the Chibchas, who have equally attained a
certain degree of civilisation. Lastly, to the south flourished the
civilisation of the Calchaquis.
_Existing American Races._--The natives of America, cut off from the
rest of the world probably since the end of the quaternary period,
form, as we have already seen, a group of races which may be considered
by themselves, in the same way as the Xanthochroid or Melanochroid
groups of races (see Chap. VIII.). It must be borne in mind that there
exists but a single character common to these American races, that is
the colour of the skin, the ground of which is yellow. This appears
to conflict with the current opinion that the Americans are a _red
race_, and yet it is the statement of a fact. None of the tribes of
the New World have a red-coloured skin, unless they are painted,
which often is the case. Even the reddish complexion of the skin,
similar, for example, to that of the Ethiopians, is met with only among
half-breeds. All the populations of America exhibit various shades of
yellow colouring; these shades may vary from dark-brownish yellow to
olive pale yellow.[592] By the yellow colour of the skin, as well as
the straight hair common to most, but not to all, Americans, they have
affinities with the Ugrian and Mongol races; but other characters,
such as the prominent, frequently convex nose, and the straight eyes,
separate them widely from these races.
As to the characters peculiar to the five races which I adopt
provisionally for the New World: Eskimo, North American, Central
American, South American, and Patagonian, with their sub-races, they
have been given in Chapter VIII., to which I refer the reader.
[Illustration: /Fig./ 157.--West Greenland Eskimo.
(_Phot. Sören Hansen._)]
_American Languages._--Several authors are of opinion that, as regards
America, a more satisfactory classification of the peoples may be
obtained from linguistic than from ethnic and somatological characters;
they even think that these linguistic characters afford indications as
to the _races_ of the New World.[593] But opinions are divided on this
point, as well as on the question whether all the American dialects
belong to one and the same family. Brinton affirms that there exists,
in spite of diversity of vocabulary and superficial differences of
morphology, a common bond of union among all the American languages.
This bond is to be looked for in the inner structure of the dialects,
a structure characterised especially by the development of pronominal
forms, the abundance of generic particles, the more frequent use of
ideas based on actions (verbs) than of ideas of existence (nouns), and
as a consequence the subordination of the latter to the former in the
proposition.[594] The latter feature characterises the process called
_incorporation_, all American languages being polysynthetic (see p.
131). Does the similarity of structure of the American languages
(which might further extend to other groups of agglutinative languages)
warrant the opinion that they all have sprung from a single stock?
Competent philologists like Fr. Müller and L. Adam think it does not,
and Powell,[595] attributing much more importance to similarity of
vocabulary than to similarities of grammatical form, arrives at the
conclusion that the tribes of North America do not speak languages
related to each other and springing from a single original stock;
on the contrary, they speak several languages belonging to distinct
families, which do not appear to have a common origin.
The number of languages spoken by the natives of both Americas
certainly exceeds a hundred, even without counting the secondary
dialects. Brinton estimates the number of linguistic families known in
the New World at 150 to 160; this figure is probably not far short of
the truth, for Powell admits, merely for that part of the continent
north of Mexico, 59 linguistic families, some of which comprise several
dialects.[596]
PEOPLES OF NORTH AMERICA.
The greater part of the native population of North America is composed
of tribes called _Indians_ or _Red-skins_ of the United States and
Canada. They touch on the north the Eskimo and Aleuts, and on the south
the Mexican and Central American Indians. I shall briefly review these
three great divisions, going from north to south.
I. The _Eskimo_,[597] or _Innuit_ as they call themselves (about
360,000 in number), afford the remarkable example of a people occupying
almost without a break more than 5000 miles of seaboard, from the
71st degree N. lat. (north-east of Greenland) to the mouth of the
Copper river or Atna (west of Alaska). A section of this people has
even crossed Behring’s Strait and inhabits the extreme north-east of
Asia (see p. 370). Over the whole of this extent of country nowhere
do the Eskimo wander farther than thirty miles from the coast. It is
supposed that their original home was the district around Hudson’s
Bay (Boas) or the southern part of Alaska (Rink), and that from these
regions they migrated eastward and westward, arriving in Greenland
a thousand years ago, and in Asia barely three centuries ago. Their
migrations northward led them as far as the Arctic Archipelago.[598]
Physically, the pure Eskimo--that is to say, those of the northern
coast of America, and perhaps of the eastern coast of Greenland--may
form a special race, allied with the American races, but exhibiting
some characteristics of the Ugrian race (short stature,
dolichocephaly, shape of the eyes, etc.). They are above average
stature (1 m. 62), whilst the Eskimo of Labrador and Greenland are
shorter, and those of southern Alaska a little taller (1 m. 66), in
consequence perhaps of interminglings, which would also explain their
cranial configuration (ceph. ind. on the living subject, 79 in Alaska,
against 76.8 in Greenland), which is less elongated than among the
northern tribes (average cephalic index of the skull, 70 and 72). Their
complexion is yellow, their eyes straight, and black (except among
certain Greenland half-breeds); their cheek-bones are projecting,
the nose is somewhat prominent, the face round, and the mouth rather
thick-lipped. The Eskimo language differs little from tribe to tribe.
Fishers and peaceful hunters, the Eskimo have no chiefs, and know
nothing of war; they cultivate the graphic arts, are always cheerful,
and love dancing, singing, story-telling, etc.
I have already given, however, in the preceding pages (see especially
pp. 137, 151, 160, 245, 263 _et seq._) several characteristics of
Eskimo life.[599]
The Aleuts, about 2000 in number, inhabiting the insular mountain-chain
which bears their name, speak an Eskimo dialect, but differ from the
true Eskimo in some respects, having brachycephalic heads and several
peculiarities of manners and customs. Besides, the majority of them
have adopted the habits and religion of the Russians.[600]
[Illustration: /Fig./ 158.--Gahhigué-Vatake (chief), a Dakota-Siouan
Indian with tomahawk, 38 years old.
(_Phot. Prince Roland Bonaparte._)]
II. The _Indians_, improperly called _Red-skins_,[601] occupy a
territory of such vast extent that, in spite of a certain common
likeness, considerable differences are noticeable among them,
according to the countries they occupy, the climate, configuration,
and fauna of which vary in a marked degree. We can in the first place
distinguish the _Indians of the Arctic and Atlantic slopes_ of Canada
and the United States, belonging to a taller and less brachycephalic
race than that which predominates among the _Indians_ in the northern
part of the Pacific slope. In the southern part of the Pacific
slope we note the appearance of the Central American race, short
and brachycephalic, and in the Californian peninsula perhaps the
Palæ-American sub-race.[602] Each of the slopes in turn afford several
“ethnographic provinces,”[603] the boundaries of which approximately
coincide with those of the linguistic families now about to be rapidly
passed in review.
[Illustration: /Fig./ 159.--Siouan chief of Fig. 158, front face.
(_Phot. Prince Roland Bonaparte._)]
_a. The Indians of the Arctic slope_--that is to say, of the
low-lying country watered by the Mackenzie and the Yukon--belong to one
and the same linguistic family, called Athapascan.
The best known tribes are the _Kenai_ in Alaska, the _Loucheux_ on the
lower Mackenzie, the _Chippewas_, the numerous Tinné clans between
Hudson’s Bay and the Rocky Mountains, the _Takullies_ to the west of
these mountains, etc. All these _Athapascans_, of medium height (1 m.
66), and mesocephalic, are skilful hunters; they traverse the immense
forests of their country hunting fur-bearing animals in winter on their
snow shoes, in summer in their light beech-bark canoes. The Athapascan
linguistic family is not, however, confined to the wooded region of
Alaska and western Canada. Members of this tribe have migrated to a
far distant part of the Pacific slope, where they have settled in
two different districts. The Athapascans of the West, or the Hupas
who dwell in southern Oregon and northern California, differ but
little physically from the Athapascans properly so called, but they
are already Californians in ethnic character. The _Athapascans of the
south_--that is to say, the _Navajos_ or _Nodehs_ and the _Apaches_
(Fig. 161), taller (1 m. 69), more brachycephalic (ceph. ind. 84) than
their northern kinsfolk[604]--live in the open country of the Pueblo
Indians (Arizona, New Mexico), from whom, however, they differ in
regard to manners and usages. They are husbandmen relatively civilised,
fierce warriors and bold robbers, whose name has been popularised by
the novels of Gustave Aimard and Gabriel Ferry. They are more numerous
(23,500 in the United States)[605] than the Athapascans of the north
(8,500) and the Hupas (scarcely 900).[606]
[Illustration: /Fig./ 160.--Woman of Wichita tribe, Pawnee Nation,
Indian Territory, U.S.]
_b. The Indians of the Atlantic slope_ are divided into three great
linguistic families: Algonquian-Iroquoian, Muskhogean-Choctaw, and
Siouan or Dakota.
1. The _Algonquians_ and _Iroquoians_ occupy the “ethnographical
province” which bears their name and extends over the east of Canada
and the north-east of the United States, between the Mississippi and
about the 36th degree of N. latitude. This province is characterised
by a temperate climate, abundance of prairies, and broad water-ways;
it affords facilities for the chase and the gathering of wild rice
and tobacco; certain usages are common to all the tribes inhabiting
it (tattooing, colouring the body, moccasins similar to those of the
Athapascans, etc.).
The original home of the Algonquians was the region around Hudson’s
Bay, where the _Cree_ tribe, which speaks the purest Algonquian
language, still exists. Leaving this region, they spread as far as the
Atlantic, the Mississippi, and the Alleghany Mountains, driving back
the Dakotas into the prairies of the right bank of the Mississippi. The
_Abnakis_ of Lower Canada, the _Micmacs_ of Acadia and Newfoundland,
the _Leni-Lenapé_ of the Delaware, who fought so valiantly against the
European immigrants; the _Mohicans_, idealised by Cooper; the warlike
_Shawnees_, the _Ojibwas_ or _Chippewas_ (Fig. 30), who, together with
the Lenapé, are alone among the Red-skins in possessing a rudimentary
writing; the _Ottawas_, the _Black Feet_, the _Cheyennes_, and so
many other tribes besides belonged to this great Algonquian people.
It has left traces of its existence in the “mounds” as well as in a
great number of the geographical names of the region which it formerly
occupied. It is estimated that at the present day there are not more
than 95,000 Algonquians, of whom two-thirds inhabit Canada. The most
numerous tribe is that of the Chippewas (31,000), while the “last” of
the Mohicans were only 121 in the census of 1890. Among the Algonquians
ought probably to be included a tribe which became extinct in 1827,
that of the Beothucs of Newfoundland, whose affinities with other
tribes have not yet been definitely established.[607]
At the time when the Algonquians held a large part of modern Canada and
the United States, an isolated portion of their territory was peopled
with Iroquoians around Lakes Erie and Ontario, as well as on the lower
St. Lawrence. The Iroquoians, sprung from the same common stock as the
Cherokis, the ancient mound-builders of the Ohio basin, have dwindled
down to a few thousand families in the upper valley of the Tennessee
(H. Hale). They are divided into _Hurons_ (between Lakes Ontario and
Huron) and _Iroquois_ or _Iroquoians properly so called_. The latter
formerly comprised five nations: _Mohawks_, _Oneidas_, _Onondagas_,
_Senecas_, and _Cayugas_, united into a democratic confederacy by the
famous chief Hiawatha, of whom Longfellow has sung. At a later date the
_Tuscaroras_, who dwelt farther to the south-west in Virginia, were
also admitted into the confederacy.[608]
The wars in which the Iroquoians have been engaged have singularly
reduced their number; to-day there are only about 43,000, of whom 9000
are in Canada.
2. The _Muskhogean group_ comprises several tribes: _Apalachi_,
_Chata-Choctaw_, _Chicasaws_, _Creeks_ or _Muskhogis_, who formerly
dwelt between the lower Mississippi, the Atlantic, the Tennessee
River, and the Gulf of Mexico. To these we must add the _Seminoles_
who formerly occupied the Florida peninsula.[609] The habits of the
Muskhogean tribes, of which Hernando de Soto drew so vivid a picture
in 1540, were those of husbandmen somewhat advanced in civilisation;
they had a hieroglyphic writing (Brinton), but were unacquainted with
the use of metals, gold excepted. The southern portion of the United
States which these tribes occupied is a region with a sub-tropical
climate, favourable to the cultivation of the sugar-cane, maize, and
tobacco. The ancient Muskhogis wore garments of special texture,
and daubed their bodies like the Algonquians, but were unacquainted
with tattooing. At the present day they have dwindled down to 25,500
individuals. Certain tribes, like the _Yamasis_, have completely
disappeared; in 1886 there were only three _Apalachi_ women left. We
include among the Muskhogis the tribes who formerly lived in the lower
valley of the Mississippi, and whose dialects have not been classified:
the _Natchez_, idealised by Chateaubriand, a score of whom still dwell
among the Creeks and Cherokis; the _Atacapas_, reduced in number to a
dozen individuals, in the Calcasieu Pass (Louisiana), etc.
3. The _Siouans_ or _Dakotas_ (Figs. 158 and 159) occupied at the time
of the discovery of America the whole country extending to the west
of the Mississippi, between the river Arkansas on the south and the
Saskatchewan on the north, as far as the Rocky Mountains. For a long
time this was believed to be their original home; but it has been
found necessary to modify this opinion since the discovery by Hale and
Gatschet of tribes speaking a Siouan tongue with archaic forms east of
the Mississippi. These tribes are the _Tutelos_ of Virginia, of whom
but a score of individuals are left; the _Biloxis_ of Louisiana, and
the _Winnebagos_. It is now admitted that the original home of the
Siouans was the Alleghany Mountains and the surrounding country; thence
they were doubtless forced back by the Algonquians into the prairies to
the west of the Mississippi, where they became buffalo-hunters.
[Illustration: /Fig./ 161.--Christian Apache Indian.]
The principal Siouan tribes are: the _Assinaboins_ on the Saskatchewan,
the _Minnetaris_ on the Yellowstone river, the _Ponkas_ and the
_Omahas_ in Nebraska, the _Osages_ of the borders of Arkansas, the
_Hidatsas_ of Dakota, the _Crows_ of Montana, the _Siouans_ or
_Dakotas_ properly so called (Figs. 26, 158, and 159) in the upper
basin of the Missouri, etc. The total number of the Siouans is
estimated at 43,400 individuals, of whom 2,200 are in Canada.[610]
The Indians of the four groups just enumerated all resemble each
other in physical type: stature very high (from 1 m. 68 among the
Cherokis of the east, to 1 m. 75 among the Cheyennes and Crows), head
sub-dolichocephalic or mesocephalic (ceph. ind. on the liv. sub.,
from 79.3 among the Iroquoians to 80.5 among the Cheyennes), face,
oval.[611] Near the Siouans, in the same ethnographic region of the
plains of the Great West, dwelt the _Pawnees_ or _Caddoes_, one of the
tribes of which, the _Aricaras_ or _Rikaris_ (450 individuals at the
present day), emigrated north towards the sources of the Mississippi.
As to the _Pawnees properly so called_ they were established in the
valley of the Plata, whence they were transferred in 1878 into the
Indian Territory; they numbered 820 individuals in the census of 1890.
The rest of the nation, the _Wichitas_ (Fig. 160), the _Caddoes_, etc.,
have abandoned the predatory habits of the true Pawnees and become good
husbandmen distributed over different reservations.
The _Kiowas_ form a small linguistic group by themselves. The
neighbours formerly of the Comanches and the Shoshones, these
ex-robbers are at the present day installed, to the number of 1,500, in
the Indian Territory.
The Pawnees and Kiowas are tall and mesocephalic, with a tendency
towards brachycephaly.
_c. Indians of the Pacific slope._--The coast tribes of the Pacific
might be united into a single group in spite of the great diversity
of language existing among them.[612] In fact, most of these Indians
belong to one and the same sub-division of the North American race, the
_Pacific sub-race_. They are above medium height (from 1 m. 66 among
the _Utes_ to 1 m. 69 among the _Chahaptes_), sub-brachycephalic (mean
ceph. ind. from 82.7 to 84.7, except the Utes, whose index is 79.5),
with rounded face (Tsimshians and Haidas), or elongated (Kwakiutls);
they have straight eyes and their pilous system is well developed
(Boas). It is only in the region of the Pueblos that we can detect the
admixture of the short, brachycephalic Central American race.[613]
Ethnic characters enable us to divide the Indians of the Pacific into
three groups: Indians of the north-west, Indians of Oregon-California,
and Pueblo Indians.[614]
1. _The Indians of the north-west_[615] are divided into two slightly
distinct groups by their ethnic characters. In the north, on the
indented coast of Alaska and British Columbia, as well as in the
innumerable rocky islands lying off it, dwell tribes of fishers and
hunters who form a very characteristic group by their ethnic traits,
of which the following are the principal: garments of woven wool or
of bark (before the arrival of the Whites); communal barracks, near
which are raised “totem posts,” usually of slate, ornamented with
anthropomorphic sculptures, grotesque or horrible, representing totems;
plated armour, composite bow of wood and bone, tattooing, etc. The
Pacific coast to the south of Vancouver and the Columbia drainage
area is occupied by another group of populations, which, while having
some traits in common with the former (communal barracks but without
“totem post,” cooking by means of heated stones, zoomorph masks, etc.),
exhibits a multitude of characters (garments of raw hides, cranial
deformations, absence of tattooings, plain bow, etc.) which keep them
widely separate.
The first group comprises the following tribes, beginning at Cape St.
Elias and going towards the south: the _Tlinkits_ or _Kolushes_ as far
as the 55th degree of N. lat. (6,437 individuals in 1880, according
to Petroff); the _Haidas_ or _Skittagets_ of the Queen Charlotte
Islands (2,500), skilful carvers in wood; the _Tsimshians_ of the
coast situated opposite to these islands; the _Wakashes_, sub-divided
into _Nootkas_ of Vancouver Island and _Kwakiutls_ of the adjacent
coast. The second group is composed of the remnants of the _Salishans_,
_Selish_, or Flat-heads (12,000 in Canada, 5,500 in the “reservations”
of the United States); of the _Shahapts_ or “_Nez-percés_” (300), to
the south of these; and lastly, the _Chenooks_, well known for their
cranial deformations (p. 176).
2. _The seaboard of Oregon and California_ is a succession of short,
isolated valleys, abounding in fibrous plants, fruit, and fish. These
are excellent conditions for the formation of little isolated ethnic
groups; thus it happens that the Indians of this coast are divided into
twenty-four or twenty-six distinct linguistic families.
Of these the principal, as we go from north to south, are: the _Copehs_
of the right bank of the Sacramento; the _Pujunnas_ or _Pooyoonas_ of
the left bank of the same water-way; the _Kulanapans_ to the north of
San Francisco; the _Costanos_ to the south of that town; the _Salinas_,
who formerly inhabited the valley bearing the same name, but of whom
there remain but a dozen individuals; the _Maripos_ or _Yokuts_ (145
individuals) to the east of the last-named tribe; the _Chumashes_
around the mission of Santa-Barbara, 35° N. latitude, of whom scarcely
two score individuals still speak the language of their fathers;
the _Hupas_, very primitive in their habits. Among most of these
populations are found vestiges of the ancient custom of tattooing and
the use of garments fashioned from vegetable fibres.
It is probably in this group that we must include the _Yumas_ of
the lower valley of the Colorado (Arizona) and of the Californian
peninsula, of whom the principal tribes are as follows: the _Mohaves_
(Fig. 4) and the _Yumas_ properly so called, in the valley of the
Colorado; the _Maricopas_ of the valley of the Gila; the _Soris_ or
_Seris_ in Mexico, opposite to the Californian peninsula; lastly, in
this peninsula itself the _Cochimis_ in the north and the _Periquès_,
now extinct, at the southern extremity of the peninsula; there is not,
however, any direct evidence that these last spoke a _Yuma_ tongue;
further, they burnt their dead while all the other Yumas buried
theirs. The population of lower California was very scattered (10,000
individuals in all); they gained a miserable existence from hunting
and fishing, and could not even make canoes. To-day but few are left.
To judge from the bones gathered at the extreme end of the Californian
peninsula, the Indians who dwelt there (the ancestors of the Periquès?)
were if anything of short stature; by this characteristic, as well as
by their dolichocephaly, they would appear then to be allied to the
Palæo-American sub-race.[616]
3. The name _Pueblo Indians_ is sometimes given to the populations
inhabiting the caves hollowed out of the sides of the deep cañons and
the “pueblos” of the warm and arid table-lands of Arizona, New Mexico,
and the adjacent parts of Utah, California, and Mexico.
Some of these populations, the _Moquis_ (2000) for example, belong to
the Shoshone linguistic family,[617] others perhaps to the _Pima_ stock
(see p. 535); but there are three small groups of these cliff-dwellers
whose languages present no analogy with one another nor with any other
dialect. These are the _Keres_ (3,560 individuals) and the _Tanos_
(3,200 individuals), both in the upper basin of the Rio Grande, and the
_Zuñis_, who to the number of 1,600 occupy the “pueblo” of the same
name in the west of New Mexico.
In spite of the diversity of their dialects all the cliff-dwellers
have certain physical characters in common, such as stature above the
average, brachycephaly, etc.[618] It must not be forgotten that the
cliff-dwellers are surrounded on all sides by immigrant populations of
the Athapascan stock (see p. 524).
III. _The Indians of Mexico_[619] _and Central America_ may be divided,
from the ethnographical point of view, into two great groups: the
Sonoran-Aztecs, inhabiting the north of Mexico or what is improperly
called the Anahuac plateau; and the Central Americans of Southern
Mexico and the states situated more to the south as far as the Costa
Rica republic.[620]
_a._ The _Sonoran-Aztecs_ are allied by language to the Shoshones,
and by manners and customs to the true Pueblo Indians of the United
States, while they exhibit some divergences as regards physical type.
Physically the Sonorans are allied to the North Americans of the
Atlantic slope, while the peoples of the Aztec group show a great
infusion of Central American blood.
The _Pimas_ and their congeners the _Papajos_ constitute one of the
principal tribes of the Sonorans. They dwell in pueblos or “casas
grandes,” and expend a prodigious amount of labour in drawing their
subsistence from the infertile soil of the Gila valley. However, they
are fine tall men (mean height 1 m. 71, according to Ten Kate), slim
and nimble, having the head a trifle elongated (ceph. ind. on the liv.
sub., 78.6), the nose prominent, etc. Their neighbours the _Yakis_ and
the _Mayas_, included in the _Cahita_ linguistic group, 20,000 strong,
have the same type as the Pimas. They inhabit the sterile regions
through which flow the rivers Yaki and Mayo, and have preserved their
racial purity almost intact,[621] unlike their kinsmen the _Opatas_
and the _Tarahumaras_ of Chihuahua and Sonora, in whom there is a
powerful strain of Spanish blood.[622]
Under the collective name of _Aztecs_ or _Nahua_ are comprised several
peoples and tribes who formerly occupied the Pacific slope from Rio
de Fuerte (26th degree of N. lat.) to the frontiers of Guatemala,
with the exception of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec; their colonies even
extended farther into Guatemala and Salvador (example, the _Pipils_).
On the other side, on the Atlantic slope the Nahua tribes inhabited
the regions around Mexico. There they had formed, probably two or
three centuries before the arrival of the Europeans, three confederate
states: _Tezcuco_, _Tlacopan_ and _Tenochtitlan_, under whose dominion
were ranged tribes of the same origin scattered along the coast,
among the _Totonac_ people in the existing province of Vera Cruz;
one of these tribes, the _Nicaraos_ or _Niquirans_, migrated into
Nicaragua.[623]
At the present day the Aztecs, about 150,000 in number, are dispersed
over the whole Mexican coast from Sinaloa in the south to Tepic,
Jalisco, Michoacan on the west. Very peaceful, sedentary, with a veneer
of civilisation, they are nominally Catholics, though at bottom they
are animists, and full of superstition. In many of the Aztec villages
the ancient Nahua language is still spoken.[624]
Side by side with the Aztecs there exist in Mexico three other ethnic
groups which may be designated by the name of _Mexicans properly so
called_. These are:--
1st. The _Otomis_, presumably the aboriginal inhabitants of the Mexican
table-lands, now settled in the state of Guanajuato, and the basin of
the upper Moctezuma between Mexico and San Luis de Potosi. They afford
a unique example of an American people speaking an almost monosyllabic
language. They are below the average height, brachycephalic as a
general rule, with a tendency towards mesocephaly.[625]
2nd. The _Tarascos_, formerly spread over the whole of the state of
Michoacan, in Guanajuato and Queretaro,[626] have been absorbed by
the half-breed population. Lumholtz, however, states that nearly
200,000 uncrossed Tarascos are still living (1896) in the mountains
of Michoacan. They had a form of pictography peculiar to themselves,
and must have come, according to their traditions, from the northern
regions, like the Nahuatlans.
3rd. The _Totonacs_ of the province of Vera Cruz, formerly very
civilised, resemble physically their neighbours on the north-east, the
_Huaxtecs_; the latter, however, belong to the Maya linguistic group
(see below).
_b. The Central Americans._--They may be divided into three
geographical groups, the Indians of Southern Mexico, the Mayas, and the
Isthmians.
I. Among the numerous aboriginal peoples of Southern Mexico the
_Zapotecs_ of the state of Oajaca are the most numerous (about 265,000
individuals). These are the descendants of a once powerful people who
had attained to nearly the same degree of civilisation as the Aztecs.
The _Miztecs_ (Figs. 163 and 164), who occupy the eastern part of the
state of Oajaca and the adjacent regions of Guerrero, have dwindled to
a few thousand individuals. They appear to be of fairly pure Central
American race, are very short, brachycephalic, and have a dark brown
skin and projecting cheek-bones.[627]
[Illustration: Fig. 162.--Young Creole woman of Martinique.
(_Phot. Coll. Anthr. Soc. Paris._)]
In the east of Oajaca and in Chiapa, on the frontier of Guatemala, are
found the _Zoques_, the _Mixes_, and the _Chapanecs_, with whom it is
customary to connect the _Chontals_ and the _Popolucas_. But these two
vocables signify in Nahuatlan merely “stranger” and “one who speaks
badly or stammers.”[628] Among the tribes of Oajaca and Tabasco,
described under the name of Chontals, some speak a dialect peculiar to
themselves, the Tequistlatecan, allied to the Yuma language (Brinton),
while others speak the Maya dialects.[629]
[Illustration: /Fig./ 163.--Miztec Indian (Mexico), Central American
race.
(_Phot. D. Charney, Coll. Mus. Nat. Hist. Paris._)]
II. The peoples composing the _Maya group_ appear to have come in
post-quaternary times (by sea?), and in a state of civilisation already
well advanced,[630] into the Yucatan peninsula. Thence they spread into
Guatemala and the surrounding regions of Salvador and Honduras, where
at the present day they form the bulk of the population. The ancient
Maya civilisation resembled that of Mexico, the sanguinary creeds of
the latter excepted; their writing was of a perfect hieroglyphic type.
Besides the _Mayas properly so called_ of Yucatan, the principal tribes
of this group are: the _Tsendals_ or _Chontals_ of Mexico, already
mentioned above; the _Mopans_ of Northern Guatemala; the _Koïtches_
or _Quichés_ farther south, the only Indian people possessing an
aboriginal written literature; the _Pokomams_ of the district around
the town of Guatemala; the _Chortis_ on the territory where the
ruins of Copan stand; and a long way off, isolated from the rest of
their kinsmen, in the Mexican province of Tamaulipas, the _Huaxtecs_
(p. 537). In spite of linguistic differences, all the Guatemalans
or Indians of Guatemala resemble each other physically; they are
short, thick-set, with high cheek-bones, prominent and often convex
nose.[631] Some characteristic habits, as for instance geophagy, are
common to all these populations.
III. _The Isthmians._--We include under this name the native
populations of Central America, scattered between Guatemala and the
Isthmus of Panama, whose dialects do not fit into any group of American
languages.[632]
These are the _Lenkas_ of the interior of Honduras; the _Xicaks_ or
_Sihahv_ in the north of this country; the _Chontals_ of Nicaragua,
formed from the _Matagalpes_, speaking a language peculiar to
themselves; and the tribes adjoining the _Lenkas_, the _Guatusos_ or
_Huatusos_, who inhabit the forests surrounding San Juan. The latter
were formerly classed, without adequate reason, with the Nahua, and
they were represented as having dark complexions, whereas they are as
yellow as the rest of Americans. In number they scarcely exceed 600
individuals.[633]
[Illustration: /Fig./ 164.--Miztec women (Mexico).
(_Phot. D. Charney, Coll. Mus. Nat. Hist. Paris._)]
To all these peoples there must be added certain uncivilised tribes
of the _Ulva_ group (Soumoo of the English),[634] on the coast of
Mosquito, who are sometimes called Caribs, although they have nothing
in common with the true Caribs (p. 552); then the _Micas_, the
_Siquias_ of the Rio Mico, the _Subironas_ of the Rio Coco, etc., who
are all distinguished by the colour of their skin, which is darker than
that of Indians in general.
The _Moscos_ or _Mosquitos_ who inhabit the neighbourhood of the
Blewfields lagoon (Mosquito reservation) are still darker, indeed,
almost black like Negroes, without, however, exhibiting other points of
resemblance with the latter. They are short in stature, having a fine,
prominent nose, etc., and it is not difficult to distinguish those who
are the offspring of Mosquitos crossed with true Negro blood. About
6000 in number, the Mosquitos are relatively civilised, and make use
of the Latin alphabet, introduced by missionaries, for writing their
mother-tongue. In an island of the Blewfields lagoon, between the Rio
Mico and the Rio San Juan, have been found the _Rumas_, of very high
stature, but their language is as yet unknown.
_Half-breeds of North America._--In the United States and Canada the
half-breeds of Indians and Whites, as well as Mulattos, form but a
very slight portion of the population. This is not the case in Central
America and Mexico. The aboriginal populations of Central America
are reduced to a few thousand individuals; on the other hand, the
half-breeds, produced by the crossings between them and the Europeans,
form almost the whole of the population.
In Mexico the half-breeds form a little less than the half of the
population, and in a general way they increase in number as we go from
north to south and from west to east. Their nomenclature is somewhat
complicated.[635] On the other hand, Negroes and Mulattos are not very
numerous in Mexico and Central America. The Negro element exhibits a
marked predominance only in the Antilles. The population of the island
of Haiti is almost wholly Negro or Mulatto; that of the other islands
has sprung from the manifold crossings between the ancient Carib or
Arawak aborigines (see p. 552), and between Negroes and Europeans. The
children of a white man and a mulatto woman are called Quadroons in
the Antilles, but most of the half-breeds among whom European blood
predominates prefer the name of _Creoles_. The Creole type of the
Antilles is indeed very fine, especially among the women (Fig. 162),
who sometimes have a vivacious look and a bewitching smile unique of
their kind.
PEOPLES OF SOUTH AMERICA.
Accepting, with Brinton, the northern political frontier of Costa Rica
as the ethnological limit of South America, I propose to pass in review
the native populations of the continent, grouping them according to the
four great natural regions: the Cordillera of the Andes; the plains of
the Amazon and the Orinoco, with Guiana; the table-lands of eastern
and southern Brazil; lastly, the Pampas of the southern part of the
continent, with Tierra del Fuego.
This division corresponds pretty well with the distribution of races,
languages, and ethnographic provinces.[636] In fact, the substratum of
the Andean populations is formed of the Central American race, while
that of the Amazonians and Guianas is composed of the South American
race with its two sub-races, South American properly so called, and
Palæo-American; the latter predominates also in east Brazil and Tierra
del Fuego, while there are mingled with it Patagonian and other
elements in the south of Brazil and among the Pampeans.
As regards language there is the same difference. In the Andean
dialects the pronominal particles are suffixes, while in the Amazonian
dialects these particles are prefixes, but both groups allow of a
limitative form of the personal pronoun in the plural. As to the
Pampean dialects, they are without the limitative form in most cases,
and sometimes make use of prefixes, sometimes of suffixes.[637]
The ethnological differences of the three groups are manifold. This
subject will be briefly dealt with further on. For the present let us
observe that, in a general way, the Andeans are husbandmen, and have
had a highly-developed native civilisation, while the Amazonians and
the Brazilians of the east are for the most part fishers or hunters,
often in the lowest scale of civilisation. As to the Pampeans, they
are typical pastoral nomads. Before the arrival of the Europeans, the
Andeans were acquainted with the weaving of stuffs; they worked in
gold, silver, and bronze, manufactured fine pottery, had houses of
stone and fortified towns, and employed as their chief weapons clubs
and slings. The Amazonians and their congeners, on the other hand,
still go almost naked, and adorn themselves with feathers; they were
unacquainted with metals on the arrival of the Europeans, and some are
ignorant even now of the art of pottery; they dwell in shelters or
huts of branches and leaves, and their weapons are the blow-pipe and
poisoned arrows. The Pampeans, before being influenced by the Andean or
European civilisation, clothed themselves with skins, were acquainted
neither with metals nor pottery, dwelt in huts, and used the _bollas_
as their principal weapon.
Before beginning a rapid review of the South American tribes, it must
again be remarked that their nomenclature often leads to confusion.
A great number of terms are only qualifications applied by Europeans
to the most different peoples, in no way akin one to the other. Such,
for example, is the term “Bougres,” which is given in the east of
Brazil to savages in general; or that of “Jivaros,” employed in the
same sense in Peru; such also are the appellations of _Coroados_
(crowned or tonsured), of _Orejones_ (pierced ears), of _Cherentes_,
_Caribs_, etc., without taking into account those relating to the
half-breeds.[638]
I. _The Andeans._[639]--By this name we shall describe the principal
populations which are stationed in the Cordilleras, and on the high
table-lands shut in by these mountains from Costa Rica to the 45th
degree of S. latitude. Most of them belong to the Chibcha and Quechua
linguistic families; but there are also several whose linguistic
affinities have yet to be determined.
1. _Chibcha Linguistic Family._--The _Talamancas_ of Costa Rica,
sub-divided into several tribes (_Chirripos_, _Bribris_, etc.), form
the most northern tribe of this group; they dwell partly on the
Atlantic slope, partly on the Pacific. By certain ethnic characters
(feather ornaments, use of the blow-pipe) they are related to the
Amazonians.[640] Farther away the _Guaymis_ inhabit the region of
Chiriqui (Panama), where such beautifully ornamented ancient pottery
(Figs. 63 and 64) has been found in the tombs of a still mysterious
population. They are short, thick-set, and flat-faced, resembling
the Otomis of Mexico. There may be about 4000 of them, according to
Pinart; but some of their tribes had dwindled to such an extent, that
of the _Muoi_, for example, there were only three individuals in 1882.
They organise feasts among the tribes, to which invitations are sent
by means of a staff sent round (a portion of a liana-stem, having as
many knots as there are days remaining before the feast). With their
bodies daubed with red or blue, the Guaymis give themselves up during
these feasts to drinking and the game of _balza_, which consists in
throwing a sort of club at the legs of their adversaries. There are
also lesser feasts, feasts of initiation called here _urotes_.[641]
The _Chibchas_ of Columbia, whose civilisation is no whit behind that
of the _Nahuas_,[642] have been under Spanish influence since the
conquest, and to-day but a few tribes are met with who still speak
their mother-tongue or who have preserved their ancient customs.
Such are the _Chimilas_ of the Sierra-Perija; the _Tunebos_, true
cliff-dwellers, eastward of Bogota; the _Arahuacos_, dwelling to the
number of 3000 in the Sierra-Nevada of Santa Marta. The latter have
nothing in common with the true Arawaks, unless it be their name,
which, however, they repudiate as an insult; the name they give
to themselves is _Cöggaba_, that is to say, “Men.”[643] As to the
_Chibcha_ or _Muisca_ Indians of the Rio Magdalena, who were the most
civilised of all the peoples speaking the Chibcha tongue, no survivors
are to be found.
2. _The Quechua Linguistic Family_ is one of the most far-reaching of
South America. The Quechua dialects are still spoken to-day on the
coast, and along the chain of the Andes from Quito to the 30th degree
S. latitude. This is practically the extent of the ancient empire of
the _Incas_, the best known nation among the Quechua peoples. But the
influence of the Inca civilisation and the Quechua language extended
even farther, to Columbia, the borders of Ucayale, and the Bolivian
table-land on the north, to the edge of the Pampas on the south (among
the Calchaquis). For the western part of South America the Quechua
tongue was the _lengua general_, as the Tupi-Guarani tongue was the
_lingua geral_ for the east (Brazil, Paraguay, etc.). This language
is not at all superseded by Spanish; on the contrary, the Whites learn
it, and several Quechua words: _guano_, _pampa_, _condor_, _quina_,
have found their way into the languages of all civilised nations.[644]
The principal tribes are: the _Huancas_ to the north-east of Lima,
the _Lamanas_ near Trujillo, the _Incas_ in the vicinity of the Rio
Apurimac, the _Aymaras_ of the high table-lands of Bolivia (600,000
individuals, of whom two-thirds are of pure blood).
In spite of the diversity of dialects all the Quechuas and Aymaras
present a remarkable uniformity of physical type. They are of low
stature (1 m. 60 according to D’Orbigny, 1 m. 57 according to Forbes),
thick-set, and very strong. The chest is broad, the head massive and
globular, the nose aquiline, forehead retreating. This last peculiarity
should however be attributed to the custom of deforming the head,
very widespread among all the Quechuas and neighbouring peoples; this
deformation is still practised in the same way as in the days of the
Inca civilisation. It is very unlikely that the frequent occurrence of
the “Inca bone” (p. 67) in Peruvian skulls has any connection with this
deformation. The greatest part of the population of Peru is composed of
Quechuas and Aymaras, or of Quechua-Spanish half-breeds.[645]
[Illustration: /Fig./ 165.--Guaraunos chief (Mouth of the Orinoco) with
his two wives.
(_Phot. Crevaux, Coll. Mus. Nat. Hist. Paris._)]
The _Calchaquis_,[646] the ancient inhabitants of the modern
south-west provinces, Argenton, Catamarca, Rioja, Santiago, etc.,
probably also spoke a Quechua dialect. It was a very civilised
population; the only one in the South American continent which knew how
to construct buildings of freestone. Although partly borrowed from the
Peruvians, the Calchaqui civilisation has a character of its own, and
in several respects recalls that of the Pueblo Indians, particularly
the Zuñis (arrangement of their cities in a series of seven, copper
tools and weapons, etc.).
[Illustration: /Fig./ 166.--Guaraunos of the mouth of the Orinoco.
(_Phot. Crevaux, Coll. Mus. Nat. Hist. Paris._)]
The last Calchaqui tribe, the _Quilmes_, was transported in 1670 by the
Spaniards near to Buenos Ayres, where it forms the village of this name.
3. _Unclassified Tribes._--In Columbia let us note the following
tribes:--
The _Cuna_ Indians, also called _Tula Dariens_, etc., of southern
Panama. They are people of low stature (1 m. 50, according to Brinton),
thick-set, of light yellow complexion, very brachycephalic (ceph.
ind. 88.6, according to Catat), with broad faces, somewhat resembling
the Guaymis, their neighbours in the east (p. 545). It is asserted
that individuals with grey eyes and chestnut or reddish hair are not
rare among them. They are not numerous; the tribe of the _Changuina
Dorasks_, which formerly numbered 5000, had dwindled down in 1883 to
a dozen individuals, still speaking their mother-tongue; the _Sambu
Chocos_, who occupied the whole of the lower valley of the Atrato,
and extended westward to the Pacific coast, are now scarcely 600 in
number in southern Darien. They are short (1 m. 55), brachycephalic
(ceph. ind. on the liv. sub., 84.1), very broad-faced.[647] To the
eastward of the _Chibchas_ (p. 545) dwelt several families of the
_Paniquitas_ and _Paezes_, included in a distinct linguistic group, of
which the other representatives, _Colimas_ and _Manipos_, have entirely
disappeared. In central Columbia (state of Antioquia) dwell the last
remnants of the _Nutabehs_ and _Tahamis_, tribes resembling the Muisca
Indians (p. 546) in their customs and social state.
As to the Ando-Peruvian region, several ethnic groups, using special
dialects, are also found there, having no relation with the Quechuas.
Such as the small tribe of the _Puquinas_ in the neighbourhood of Lake
Titicaca, the _Yuncas_ or _Cuna-Yuncas_ (“inhabitants of the hot lands”
in the Quechua tongue), settled on the Pacific coast between the 5th
and 10th degrees of S. latitude; finally, the _Atacameños_, fishers of
the Loa valley, and the _Shangos_ or _Changos_, more to the south, in
the desert of Atacama. These two tribes are characterised by their low
stature (1 m. 60, according to D’Orbigny).
It may be as well to class with the Andeans the _Araucans_, or
_Mapu-che_ as they call themselves, whose linguistic affinities are
still obscure, but whom we must connect with the Central American
race by their physical characters; stature almost low (1 m. 61),
sub-brachycephalic (ceph. ind. on the liv. sub., 82, skull 81),
elongated face, with slightly projecting cheek-bones, straight or
convex nose, etc., the general appearance recalling the Aymaras and
the Quechuas;[648] certain ethnic characters (perfected weaving of
stuffs, irrigation, hoe-culture, metallurgy, etc.) place them in the
same category as the Andeans, and point to Peruvian influence. They
are only found, in fact, to the north of the Bio-Bio river (37°-38°
S. lat.)--that is to say, only in those places reached by the Inca
civilisation. South of this line, with the exception of the coast,
where European influence makes itself felt, the Araucans have remained
until recent times hunters or nomadic shepherds, almost uncivilised. It
is estimated that there are 40,000 Chilian Araucans. At a comparatively
recent period some Araucan tribes migrated to the eastern slope of
the Cordilleras (the Manzanieros)[649] and into the Argentine pampas,
as far as the neighbourhood of Buenos Ayres. In these parts they have
been pushed back, firstly by the European colonists, then by the
Argentine soldiers, farther and farther south, beyond the Rio Negro.
This population is a very mixed one; we find in it Patagonian, Quechua,
Chaco, and even European elements (see p. 574).
From the social point of view, all the Araucans have preserved their
ancient organisation of hordes governed by a hereditary chief. Little
is known about their religious ideas; it is understood that they hold
in the highest reverence an evil spirit called “Pilgan” by the Andean
Araucans, “Nervelu” (“bird with metal beak and claws”) by the Araucans
of the Pampas. Formerly, the Araucan warriors were buried with their
weapons, their horse was felled on the grave and consumed.[650]
Among the Andean populations we must also mention the _Yurucares_, to
the west of the Rio Mamoré, of very high stature, their skin being, it
is said, almost as white as that of Europeans.
II. _The Amazonians._--The vast plains and impenetrable forests, rich
in birds and arboreal mammalia, watered by the great tropical streams,
the Amazon and the Orinoco, are peopled by a large number of tribes who
may be grouped to-day--thanks to the recent works of philologists--into
four families. Two of these, the Carib and Arawak, or Maypure families,
comprise the tribes of the eastern part of the country;[651] the two
others, which are less important, the _Miranha_ and _Pano_ families,
are composed of the tribes of the western part of the country.
1. _The Carib Family._--It was thought until recently that the peoples
of this linguistic group had settlements only in the Guianas and the
Antilles, but recent studies have shown that they extended much farther
over the South American continent, as far as the source of the Yapura
on the west, and the 14th degree of S. latitude on the south. As the
speech of the southern Caribs is purer, less sprinkled with Arawak
words than that of their northern brethren, philologists suppose that
the original home of the Caribs in general should be found somewhere
in the centre of Brazil, to the south of the Amazon. It is from there
that they must have migrated into Guiana, whence their hordes moved
towards the Antilles probably two centuries before the arrival of
Columbus. There they found already the Arawak tribes (see p. 557), whom
they supplanted in the lesser Antilles, and against whom they directed
their maritime expeditions as far as the east coast of the island of
Haiti. These _Antillian Caribs_ have been exterminated by the European
colonists, and except in the islands in the vicinity of the Guianas,
like Trinidad, there remain to-day but 192 individuals in the island
of St. Vincent (census of 1881) and 200 individuals, of whom there are
barely a dozen unhybridised, in the island of Dominica. Most of the
Caribs of the island of St. Vincent were transported by the English in
1796 to Ruatan Island and Trujillo, on the north coast of Honduras.
Their descendants, crossed with Negro blood, numbering about 6000, live
in these places as well as in British Honduras, where they are known by
the name of “Black Caribs.”
The most southerly tribes of the Caribs are the _Bakairis_ (Fig. 172),
and the _Nahuquas_ of the upper Xingu, as well as the _Palmellas_ of
the lower Guapore, a sub-tributary of the right of the Rio Madeira.
The _Apiacas_ of the lower Tocantins, who must not be confounded
with the Tupi tribe of the same name (p. 569), form the link between
this distant branch and the bulk of the Caribs peopling Guiana. The
latter are known as _Apotos_ and _Waywai_ in Brazilian Guiana; as
_Roucouyennes_ and _Galibis_ in French Guiana; as _Kalinas_ in Dutch
Guiana (Figs. 167 and 168). The Caribs of British Guiana belong
chiefly to the _Macusi_ tribe, those of Venezuela are represented
by the _Makirifares_ in the east, and farther away to the west, by
the _Motilones_, who keep to the borders of Colombia (Ernst). The
ancient Carib tribes of Venezuela called _Chaimas_ and _Kumanas_ are
represented at the present day by the Indians of _Aguasai_ (87 miles
north of Bolivar), who speak Spanish, but who have preserved the Carib
type (Ten Kate). It is the same with the _Aborigines of Oruba Island_,
to the north-east of the Gulf of Venezuela (Pinart). Lastly, in the
upper basin of the Yapura, outside of Brazilian territory, there are
likewise known members of the Carib family, particularly the _Uitotos_
or _Carijonas_, who live side by side with the Miranhas (p. 560)
(Crevaux). To judge from some ethnographical analogies (similarity of
tattooing, etc.), the _Araras_ or _Yumas_, who wander on the right
bank of the Amazon, in the neighbourhood of the mouths of the Xingu,
Tapajos, Madeira and Purus, belong also to the Carib family, but as yet
nothing is known about their language.[652]
[Illustration: /Fig./ 167.--Kalina or Carib of Dutch Guiana.
(_Coll. Mus. Nat. Hist., Paris._)]
The physical type of the Caribs of Guiana and Venezuela differs
slightly from that of the Caribs of the upper Xingu. The former are
of low stature (1 m. 58 for men, 1 m. 45 for women), and mesocephalic
(mean ceph. ind. in the liv. sub., 81.3), while the Caribs of the
upper Xingu are below the average height and sub-dolichocephalic (1
m. 61 for men, 1 m. 52 for women; mean ceph. ind. on the liv. sub.,
79.6).[653] What is characteristic of certain Carib tribes of the south
(Bakairis, etc.) is the frequent occurrence of individuals with wavy
or frizzy hair and convex nose, in the midst of the common type having
straight hair, short and somewhat broad nose, etc. The ancient Caribs
of the Antilles were short, somewhat light-skinned, and had the custom
of deforming the head by flattening the frontal region of the skull.
[Illustration: /Fig./ 168.--Same subject as Fig. 167, in profile.
(_Coll. Mus. Nat. Hist., Paris._)]
From the ethnic point of view, the Caribs are distinguished by their
acquaintance with the hammock; a plaited (not woven) texture; and a
particular kind of cassava squeezer (p. 188); by their fondness for
painting the body; by the practice of the “couvade” (p. 240), etc. The
blow-pipe and poisoned arrows are not their “national weapons,” as has
sometimes been said; the Caribs of the south are unacquainted with
them, and, on the other hand, several non-Carib tribes of the Amazon
basin make use of them. Their favourite weapon is or was the battle-axe
of polished stone (basalt, diabase). The slight difference between the
mode of life of the Caribs of the Antilles and that of the Caribs of
the present day was due to the existence of anthropophagy, the presence
of “communal houses” (_Carbets_), and to some other characteristics
which denote their superiority over the modern Caribs from the social
point of view.[654]
2. The Arawak linguistic family, as constituted by L. Adam, at
first by the name of _Maypure_, has been called by Von den Steinen
“_Nu-Arawak_,” from the prenominal prefix “nu” for the first person,
common to all the Arawak tribes, scattered from the coast of Dutch
Guiana and British Guiana to the upper basins of the Amazon and
Orinoco. The principal tribes are: the _Aturai_ and the _Vapisiana_
of British Guiana; the _Maypures_ and the _Banivas_ of Venezuela;
the _Manaos_ and the _Aruacos_ of the Rio Negro; the _Yumanas_ and
the _Passehs_ of the left bank of the Solimães; the _Marauas_ more
to the south; the _Paumary_ and the numerous _Ipurina_ tribes of the
Purus basin; lastly the half-civilised _Moxos_ or _Mohos_ of the upper
Mamoré, and the _Canopos_ or _Antis_ of the forests of the upper
basin of the Ucayale (Peru), of average stature, brown-coloured skin,
skilful hunters.[655] The tribes of the upper Xingu are the _Vaura_
and the _Mehinacu_. Let us also note the _Parecis_ of the region of
the sources of the Tapajos, among whom we observe the influences of
the Quechua civilisation (Pandean pipes) or the Peruvian (a particular
head-dress of birds’ feathers and porcupine quills, cotton textiles,
plaited hats, etc.). In upper Paraguay, as far as the 21st degree of
S. latitude, are also found tribes speaking the Arawak tongue; the
_Quinquinaos_, the _Layanas_, etc. (This is the Moho-Mbaure group of
L. Quevedo) On the other hand, in the marshy island of Marajos, in the
middle of the estuary of the Amazon, there dwelt a few decades ago the
_Aruan_ people, who spoke an Arawak dialect, while in the north of
Venezuela, the peninsula of _Goajira_ is occupied by the _Goajires_
tribe, which also belongs to the same linguistic family. De Brette
estimates its numerical force at 30,000 individuals (1890-95).[656]
The pre-Columbian aborigines of Porto Rico, Haiti, Jamaica, and
Cuba were Arawaks, to judge from the toponymy of these islands. The
authors of the eighteenth century speak of the _Ciboneys_ in Cuba,
Bahama, and the west of Haiti, and of the “Aravagues” in the east of
this latter island and in Porto Rico. These aborigines, although in a
state of constant warfare with the Caribs, resembled them in certain
characteristic customs (cranial deformation, colouring of the body,
etc.). They were exterminated by the Whites, being reduced to 4000 in
Cuba as far back as 1554. In 1848 there remained of these tribes but a
few hybrid families in the Sierra Maestra of Cuba and the village of
Boya to the north of the town of San Domingo.[657]
[Illustration: /Fig./ 169.--Miranha Indian of Rio Yapura.
(_Phot. Crevaux, Coll. Soc. Anthr. Paris._)]
Physically the Arawaks present several types, as might have been
expected from the wide diffusion of this group. Those of the Guianas,
as well as the Ipurinas and their congeners are a little lower in
stature (1 m. 55 and 1 m. 59 according to Ten Kate and Ehrenreich) and
a little more brachycephalic (ceph. ind. 83.4) than the Caribs of the
same regions. Those of the upper Xingu, on the contrary, are a little
taller (1 m. 64) and more dolichocephalic (ceph. ind. 78.2) than their
Carib-speaking neighbours. Their face is somewhat broader and their
eyes often oblique. The difference between the tribes of the north
and those of the south is thus more pronounced among the Arawaks than
among the Caribs. The Ciboneys, to judge from the skulls found in Cuba
and Jamaica, were hyper-brachycephalic in consequence of deformations
(Haddon). The occurrence of individuals with wavy or frizzy hair is
also as frequent among the Arawaks as among the Caribs. From the
ethnographical point of view there are some differences between the
Arawaks of the north and the south. The use of the blow-pipe is
very general among the Arawak tribes of the upper Amazon and its
tributaries, but it is unknown among others. With the exception of
tribes influenced by the Quechua-Peruvian or European civilisation, the
Arawaks are unacquainted with the weaving of cotton, and are still in
the stone, and especially the wood age. Their scanty garments are made
with plaited fibres or with beaten bark; their ornaments are birds’
feathers and the teeth of mammalia.
[Illustration: /Fig./ 170.--Same subject as Fig. 169, seen full face.
(_Phot. Crevaux, Coll. Soc. Anthr. Paris._)]
3. The tribes composing the _Pano_ linguistic group, as established
by R. de la Grasserie,[658] chiefly inhabited the north-west of
eastern Peru, but they are likewise met with in the west of Brazil (the
_Karipunas_ of the banks of the Madeira), and in the north of Bolivia
(the _Pacaguara_), separated from their racial brothers by a series
of tribes speaking the Arawak dialects. The principal Pano tribes in
Peru are: the _Kassivo_, cannibals of the upper Ucayle who resemble the
Fuegians; the _Conibos_ of the same river, very low in stature;[659]
the _Panos_, of whom there remain but a few families.[660] The
_Araunos_, of the region comprised between the two principal branches
of the Madeira (Madre de Dios and Beni) speak a Pano language, but with
a considerable admixture of Quechua elements.
4. The tribes of the banks of the Iça and the Yapura have received
from their neighbours the name of _Miranhas_, which, it appears, means
“rovers.” Ehrenreich employed this name to designate various tribes
whose dialects presented a certain family likeness. Of these tribes,
which are rarely visited by the Brazilian-Portuguese merchants, the
following are the chief: the _Miranhas_ properly so called (Figs. 169
and 170), between the Iça and the lower Yapura, mentioned long ago by
Martius; the _Kœrunas_ on the left bank of the Yapura; the _Tucanos_
and the _Jupuas_ to the east of the last-named, in the vicinity of the
river Uaupes. The Miranhas have maintained their primitive condition.
Of a very warlike disposition, they use as their principal weapon
a particular kind of club, a sort of broadsword of hard wood. They
employ the _drum language_ (see p. 134). Though living on the banks
of fish-yielding rivers, they do not fish, but confine themselves to
hunting, like the ancient Quechuas, by means of nets stretched out
between trees, into which they drive, with cries and gestures, the
terrified animals (Crevaux).
In addition to the tribes forming the four families just described,
several others, _whose languages have not yet been classified_, should
be mentioned.
It is in the basin of the Orinoco that we meet with most of these
tribes who have as yet been little studied; the _Otomacs_ between
the Apure and Meta rivers, geophagous and monogamous; the _Guamos_
of the Rio Apure, reduced to a few families; the _Piaroas_, whose
sub-brachycephalic heads are often deformed; the _Chiricoas_ and the
_Guahibos_, veritable “gypsies” of South America, who are encountered
between the Meta, the Orinoco, and the Rio Branco; lastly, the
_Guaraunos_ or _Warraus_ of the coast between the mouths of the
Orinoco and the Corentin (Figs. 165 and 166), probably allied to the
_Guayqueris_ of the country around Cumana in Venezuela. The latter,
however, are sub-dolichocephalic (ceph. ind. on five liv. subjects,
78.5 according to Ten Kate), while the Guaraunos are all mesocephalic
(ceph. ind. 81.5 according to the same author). In the upper valleys
of the numerous rivers which combine to form the Amazon, there are
likewise dwelling tribes of undetermined linguistic affinities, whose
names only are known. The most important, that of the _Zaparos_ or
_Jeberos_ (about 15,000 individuals), is stationed between the Pastaza
and Napo rivers, as well as along the Maranon from the mouth of the
Zamora to that of the Morona. Farther north in the Cordilleras, in
a state of complete independence, dwell the _Jebaros_ or _Jevaros_
(_Civaros_), fierce warriors, celebrated for their skill in preparing
the heads of their vanquished enemies; these are hideous mummified and
shrivelled objects with their long hair left on them.[661] To the east
of the Jevaros are the _Maynas_, and on the Rio Javary, the _Yameos_
or _Lamas_. Farther east again, near the Rio Napo, wander the hunting
tribes, the _Tecunas_ or _Triconnas_, and the _Orejones_, so named from
their habit of inserting wooden plugs into the lobe of the ear, a
practice which, however, is also found among several other peoples.
III. _The Indians of East Brazil and the Central Region of South
America_ belong on the one side to the Ges or Ghes linguistic family
(formerly called _Tapuyas_, _Botocudos_, etc.), and on the other form
several tribes whose affinities are yet to be determined. Lastly, the
_Tupi-Guarani_ linguistic family (see p. 567) is also represented in
this region. From the ethnological point of view these three groups of
population have felt the influence of environment and habitat; we must
therefore consider separately the Indians of east Brazil and those of
the central region, and lastly the _Tupi-Guarani_ family.
[Illustration: /Fig./ 171.--Bakairi, Carib tribe of upper Xingu.
(_Phot. Ehrenreich._)]
1. _East Brazil_ is composed of plateaux formed of friable rocks
rising to the east of the Tocantins between the wooded _Sierras_.
These plateaux do not afford so many resources as the Amazon region;
thus it is that the tribes inhabiting them are more uncivilised, often
more wretched than the Amazonians. The rarity of hard rocks suitable
for the manufacture of tools causes many of them to be still in the
wood age. The greater part belong to the _Ges_ or _Ghes_ linguistic
family. This term, which comes from the syllable “ges” placed at the
end of most of the tribal names, was adopted by Martius to designate
the Botocudos and some neighbouring tribes. But of recent years Von
den Steinen and Ehrenreich have widened the meaning of this word.[662]
Henceforth it denotes a collection of tribes which, besides linguistic
character, exhibit many other common features in their habits and mode
of life (great phalansterial houses with private hearths for each
family, absence of hammocks, ignorance of navigation,[663] use of
“botocs” or ear and lip plugs, arrows barbed on one side, etc.). Among
the tribes of the Ges tongue we must distinguish those which dwell
on the right bank of the Tocantins in east Brazil and those who have
migrated to the west of this river into the centre of Southern America.
The former have retained much better their individual character, but
they have been partly decimated by the European colonists, and are not
very numerous at the present day. Of the ancient _Kamakans_, of the
_Patacho_, and so many other tribes, there remain but the memory or a
few hybrid descendants, but three tribes have yet preserved themselves
more or less intact in the midst of their forests: the _Botocudos_,
the _Kayapos_, and the _Cainguas_. The _Botocudos_ or _Aymoros_,[664]
who call themselves _Burus_, dwell between the Rio Doce and the Rio
Pardo (Minas Geraes Prov.). They are men of low stature (1 m. 59
according to Ehrenreich), dolichocephalic (mean ceph. ind. 74.1 on
the skull, according to Rey, Peixoto, etc.; 78.2 on the liv. sub.),
and their skulls recall very strongly those of the prehistoric race
of Lagoa Santa and the “Sambaquis,” while the living subjects are
closely allied to the Fuegians, as much by the size and form of the
head as by the lines of the face, the prominent supraciliary ridges,
the sunk nose narrow at the root, etc. I have given (pp. 160, 210,
etc.) several characteristics of the ethnography of the Botocudos.
The Kayapos,[665] who were believed to be an extinct race, and who,
on the contrary, are one of the most important and warlike tribes
of Brazil, are divided into three sections. The _Northern Kayapos_
occupy the middle Tocantins, and overflow on one side into the sterile
“Sertaos” of the province of Maranon, and on the other into central
Brazil, on the left bank of the lower Araguaya; the _Western Kayapos_,
who keep in the upper valley of the Xingu, have been described by
Ehrenreich and Von den Steinen under the names of _Suya_ and _Akua_
(the _Chavantes-Cherentes_ of the Brazilians). They differ from
the Botocudos in physique, being brachycephalic, tall, and very
light-skinned. As to ethnical characteristics, these are for the most
part borrowed from their Carib and Arawak neighbours. The _Southern
Kayapos_ (near the river Parana, 20° S. lat.) are merely known by name.
The _Kaingans_ or _Kame_, wrongly called _Coroados_ (see p. 545),
inhabit the mountains of the Brazilian provinces of São Paulo, S.
Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul; they are tribes of uncivilised and
nomadic hunters.
Besides the clans of the Ges family, we must also mention in the
eastern region of Brazil the following tribes _whose languages have
not been classified_, and whose affinities with the Ges are not very
clear. The more important of these tribes are the _Puris_ or _Pouris_
and the _Kiriris_, wrongly called “Tapuyas” or “Coroados” (see p. 545).
At the beginning of the century the _Puris_ in fairly large numbers
still inhabited--together with the _Koropos_--the mountains between
Rio de Janeiro and Uro Preto. There is but a small remnant left at the
present day, consisting of a few individuals living together in the
hamlet of San Laurenço and in the “aldeamento” of Etueto, near to the
boundary line of the Minas Geraes and Spiritu Santo provinces. Formerly
the _Puris_ comprised several tribes, hunters and fishers. They plaited
their hammocks, had special ceremonies when their daughters arrived at
the age of puberty, believed in a superior spirit, “Tupan,” having the
form of a white bird, etc.
The _Kiriris_ or _Sabuyas_ of the province of Pernambuco formed, two
centuries ago, a powerful and semi-civilised nation; there are now only
600 left, living under wretched conditions in the lower valley of the
São Francisco.
2. _The central region of South America_ is formed of table-lands and
wooded chains which cover the south-east of Bolivia and the Brazilian
province of Matto Grosso (twice as big as France). Corresponding to
the diversity of the elevations and climates there is a diversity of
peoples inhabiting the country. We have already observed in this region
tribes of Carib speech (Bakairi, etc.), of Arawak (Paressi, etc.), of
Ges (western and southern Kayapos), and we may further notice tribes
of Tupi speech (the Chiquitos, etc.). But outside of these classified
peoples there are other ethnic groups occupying the table-lands of
Matto Grosso, whose affinities are not yet well known, the more
important of them being the Karayas, the Trumai, and Bororos.[666]
The _Karayas_ are divided into two sections which know nothing of each
other. It was the northern Kayapos of Ges speech who thus separated the
Karayas, driving them, on the one side, into the valley of the Xingu,
and on the other, into the valley of the Araguaya. Like the Ges, the
Karayas are unacquainted with the use of the hammock, but, unlike them,
are good boatmen and draughtsmen. It has been observed that they have
a special language for the women, which appears to be the ancient form
of the present language of the men. They are fairly tall (1 m. 69) and
dolichocephalic (ceph. ind. 73), their nose is convex, and their hair
sometimes curly.
The Trumai of the sources of the Xingu are, on the contrary, short (1
m. 59) and mesocephalic (ceph. ind. 81.1), and they have convex noses
and retreating foreheads.
The _Bororos_ (Fig. 173), scattered from the upper Paraguay to the
upper Parana, are hunters; they have great bows and arrows of bamboo
or bone. Polygamy exists among them, and there are also cases of
polyandry. They are tall (1 m. 74) and mesocephalic (ceph. ind.
81.5).[667]
[Illustration: /Fig./ 172.--Aramichau Indian (Tupi or Carib tribe of
French Guiana).
(_Coll. Mus. Nat. Hist., Paris._)]
In spite of the diversity of language and race, several of the tribes
of the central region, living side by side, have the same manners
and customs, and the same kind of existence, as a result of mutual
borrowings.[668] The best example of this is furnished by the Caribs,
Arawaks, Ges, Tupis, and Trumai of the upper Xingu. They all go naked,
the women sometimes wearing the triangular palm-leaf which plays the
part of the fig-leaf; their huts are grouped around the “house of
flutes,” or the dwelling of the young men--a Carib importation--in
which are preserved symbolic masks, which, like the pottery, are of
Arawak invention. The tools are primitive, frequently of stone.[669]
One might almost say that these tribes in ploughing imitate the
movements of burrowing animals, for in this operation they make use
of the long claws of the front paws of a great armadillo (_Dasipus
gigas_), two of them attached together. The throwing-stick and blunt
arrows are used by the Trumai, as by the Tupi tribes. They have no
domestic animals, but keep some wild animals in captivity--parrots,
lizards (to hunt insects), etc. The custom of the couvade and the
existence of witch medicine-men are common to all these tribes.
3. _The Tupi-Guarani._--In South America there exist a great number of
tribes scattered from Guiana to Paraguay, from the Brazilian coast to
the eastern slope of the Andes, who speak the different dialects of the
Tupi linguistic family.[670] They may be divided into two groups: on
one side, to the east, the tribes speaking the ancient Tupi language,
which, in imitation of Quechua, was a “lingua geral,” and on the other,
the numerous tribes to the west, speaking different dialects which have
only a vague resemblance to Tupi, according to L. Adam. At the time
of the conquest the Tupi tribes, called _Tupi-namba Tanuyo_, who were
cannibals, occupied not only the whole of the Brazilian coast from
Para to Santos, but also the valley of the Amazon as far as Manaos.
These primitive Tupis have mostly been exterminated by the Portuguese,
but their language, which has become that of the converted Indians,
has spread as far as the valley of the Rio Negro, a tributary of the
Amazon, where there have never been any Tupi tribes.
[Illustration: /Fig./ 173.--Bororo woman (unclassified tribe of Matto
Grosso).
(_Phot. Ehrenreich._)]
_The Eastern or Guarani Tupis_, formerly so numerous in the Brazilian
provinces of São Paulo and the Rio Grande do Sul, are reduced at the
present time to a few families; on the other hand, they still form the
bulk of the population of Paraguay, and the territory of Missiones
in the Argentine Republic. The Guarani of Paraguay, “tamed” in the
commanderies by the Jesuits, have intermingled their blood with that
of the Spaniards, and adopted their mode of life. However, there still
remain in the depths of the forest some tribes who have kept intact
their type and manners. Among the more interesting of these we must
note the _Cainguas_ or _Kaigguas_[671] of south-east Paraguay and
Missiones (Argentine), scattered in little groups, obeying one cacique
or chief. They are short (1 m. 60), mesocephalic (mean ceph. ind. of
12 men, 80.4), of bronzed complexion; their hair is lank or wavy,
often reddish in the children; the nose is straight, the cheek-bones
are prominent. From ten to twenty thousand Cainguas are estimated to
be in Paraguay alone. Extremely fond of dancing and music, they like
drawing as well, and possess as a rule a quick understanding. They are
husbandmen, going almost naked, obtain fire by friction, are acquainted
with weaving and pottery, have barbed and sometimes blunt-pointed
arrows.[672] Other tribes, the _Jacunda_, the _Pacajas_, the _Tacunas_,
keep to the lower valley of the Xingu. The _Mauhés_, stationed between
this latter river and the Madeira, are at the extreme limit of the
expansion towards the west of the pure Tupis. On turning again towards
the south we come across the _Apiacas_ of Tapajos (who must not be
confounded with the similarly named tribe of the Carib family), the
_Camayuras_ of the upper Xingu, the _Chiquitos_ and the _Chiriguanos_
of Bolivia, now Hispanified.
The migrations of the Tupis from the south to the north, conjectured
in D’Orbigny’s day, have now been absolutely demonstrated. Paraguay and
the east of Bolivia were the starting-points of these migrations. The
exodus of the Tupis took place at first towards the coast, then along
the seaboard to the mouth of the Para, and thence further northward
into French Guiana, where some Tupi tribes are still to be found, the
_Emerillons_ of the valley of the Saï, a left tributary of the Inini,
the _Ovampis_ of the upper Oyapoc, etc. The _Aramichaux_ (Fig. 172),
who were believed to be extinct, and who dwell between the Uaqui and
the Arua,[673] seem to be also of the Tupi stock. Another stream of
migration may be traced straight towards the north-east; it passes
through the upper basin of the Xingu, to terminate eastward of the
Tocantins (the tribe of the _Guajajaza_). An isolated Tupi group exists
far to the north-west of the territory occupied by the bulk of this
family. It consists of the _Omaguas_ and the _Cocomas_, half-civilised
tribes of the upper valley of the Maranon (Peru), to the eastward of
the Jivaros. Individuals with wavy or frizzy[674] hair are not rare
among these hybrid peoples.
The family of the _Western Tupis_, whose linguistic affinities are less
clear, comprises, provisionally, the _Mundrucus_, or _Mundurukus_, of
the middle Tapajoz, the _Yurunas_ of the lower Xingu, the _Anetö_ of
the upper course of this river, etc.
Physically, the Tupis differ but little from the Caribs; those of the
north, the Mauhés and the Mundurukus for example, studied by Barboza
Rodriguez, are 1 m. 58 and 1 m. 60 in stature, whilst the _Kamayuras_
and the _Anetö_ of the upper Xingu are taller (1 m. 62 on an average);
the cephalic index of the latter is 79 (Ehrenreich). The Guarani should
be, according to D’Orbigny, more than 1 m. 66 in height.[675] But the
anthropological study of the Tupis is still to be made.
If we consider the accounts of the different dialects of the four
great linguistic families which we have just described: Carib, Arawak,
Ges, and Tupi, we are bound to admit the following hypothesis as to
the migrations of the peoples belonging to these families. There have
been two movements, centrifugal and centripetal. From the centre of
the continent the _Tupis_ have spread radially in all directions, and
the _Caribs_ towards the north-east, reaching as far as the Antilles.
On the other hand, towards this centre converge the migrations of
the _Arawaks_ arriving from the north, perhaps from Columbia and the
Antilles, and the migrations of the _Ges_ coming from the east. Did the
centrifugal movement of the Tupis and the Caribs and the centripetal
movement of the Arawaks and the Ges take place simultaneously or in
some order of succession? We have not sufficient information as yet
to solve this problem, but the first supposition appears to be more
probable, for we still see in our own day both movements going on
simultaneously.
IV. _The Pampeans and the Fuegians._--That portion of the American
continent situated beyond the 30th degree of S. lat., between the
Andes, the Atlantic, and the Strait of Magellan, is a vast plain which
passes imperceptibly from the rich pasturage of Chaco to the monotonous
Pampas, and from the latter to the bare plateaux of Patagonia.
This plain is occupied by various tribes who have nothing in common but
the nomadic and pastoral mode of life determined by the environment
since the introduction of the horse. Of the ancient peoples who
occupied these regions as well as Uruguay at the time of the conquest,
there remain but the _débris_, or descendants hybridised to the
furthest extent possible.
The _Charruas_ and their congeners the _Minuanes_ and the _Yaros_, who
fought so valiantly during the centuries of the Spanish domination,
at first with their clubs and bows, then, becoming horsemen, with
“bolas” and the lasso, were exterminated only in 1832. The four last
representatives of the race were exhibited as curiosities in Paris in
1830. The _Charruas_ had a very dark-coloured skin and were of somewhat
high stature (1 m. 68), like their neighbours on the other side of the
Rio de la Plata, the _Chanases_, and especially the _Querandis_, whose
bands were decimated at the end of the sixteenth century, after their
last attack on Buenos Ayres.[676]
Their hybrid descendants, called _Talhuets_, were still fairly numerous
in 1860 between Buenos Ayres and Rio Negro. The _Abipones_ to the west
of the Paraguay, so well described by Dobrizhoffer,[677] were destroyed
at the end of the eighteenth century, partly through conflicts with
their congeners the _Mocovis_, of whom there are no survivors.
All these tribes probably belonged to the _Guaycuru linguistic family_,
established by L. Quevedo, whose most numerous representatives are
now the _Tobas_ of southern Choco to the north of Pilcomayo, and
the _Matacos_ who wander about between the latter river and the
Vermejo.[678] We must further add to this group the _Caduves_ or
_Caduvei_ of the Brazilian bank of the Paraguay, between 20° and 23°
S. lat., a hundred or so of unhybridised individuals, all that remain
of the ancient _Mbaya_ people, and the _Payaguas_, an ancient warlike
and plundering tribe thought to have disappeared, but of which there
remain between two and three score representatives in the immediate
neighbourhood of Assumption, peaceful basket-makers, potters, or
fishers.[679]
The _Lenguas_ of the ancient authors (a term used by them to describe
very different tribes), who lived side by side with the Tobas, and
of whom there remain but a few individuals, seem to form, with the
_Guanes_ of southern Chaco, the _Sanapanas_, the _Angaites_, and other
tribes between the Salado and the Yababeri (tributaries on the left of
the Paraguay), a separate linguistic family, which Boggiani proposes to
call _Ennema_. Their neighbours, the _Samucos_ or _Chamococos_ of the
Bolivian Chaco also constitute a special linguistic group, but their
manners and customs approximate to those of the southern Arawaks.[680]
The _Guatos_ of the marshes which extend from the Paraguay to the Sao
Laurenço also speak a special language. They are excellent boatmen,
who fish with their great bows and bone-pointed arrows. They are also
renowned as hunters of jaguars.[681]
Most of the _Guaycurus_ and their neighbours seem to be of high stature
and to have a brownish-yellow skin; but almost nothing is known either
as to the shape of their head or their other somatic characters.
To the south of the Choco, between the Rio Salado de Santa Fe and the
Rio Chubut, in the Pampas and the north of the Patagonian table-land,
the primitive population which spoke the Guaycuru language in the north
and the Patagonian language in the south, has disappeared. It has been
absorbed or modified by the invasions of the Araucans coming from the
west, and by the encroachments of the Europeans coming from the east.
The interminglings have given birth to new tribes like the _Puelches_,
sprung from the Patagonians and the Araucans (p. 551), with a strain
of Guaycuru blood, and the _Gauchos_, Guaycuru-European hybrids. The
invasion of the Europeans increasing, the Puelches and the Araucans
(_Pehuenches_, _Rankels_, _Huilitches_) have been pushed back farther
and farther to the south. After the war of extermination waged by
General Roca in 1881, the “Pampeans” migrated in a mass to the south
of the Rio Negro, where they absorbed a portion of the Patagonians,
driving away the remainder to the south of the Rio Santa Cruz.[682]
[Illustration: /Fig./ 174.--Kamanakar Kipa; young Yahgan Fuegian girl;
height, 1 m. 40; ceph. ind., 79.7.
(_Phot. Cape Horn Scient. Mission._)]
Cramped between this river and the Strait of Magellan, the
_Patagonians_ or _Tehuelches_, who call themselves by the name of
_Tsoon-ké_, are now reduced to 2000 individuals. Those dwelling far
from the coasts, as well as the _Onas_ of Tierra del Fuego (the only
Patagonian tribe that does not possess horses), have perhaps better
preserved the characteristics of the Patagonian race. They are very
tall (from 1 m. 73 to 1 m. 83 according to different authors), very
brachycephalic (average ceph. ind. on the living sub., 85), have an
elongated face, thinnish nose, eyes slightly oblique, projecting
cheek-bones.[683]
[Illustration: /Fig./ 175.--Tualanpintsis, Yahgan Fuegian
(height 1 m. 59, ceph. ind. 81.6); and his wife Ticoaeli (height 1 m.
40, ceph. ind. 80.1).
(_Phot. Cape Horn Scient. Mission._)]
The Fuegians (Figs. 48, 174, and 175) inhabit the southern and western
coasts of Tierra del Fuego, as well as the archipelagoes which lie to
the west and south of this great island. They form a population by
themselves, divided into two tribes, the _Yahgans_ to the south of
the chain running from Sarmiento to Mount Darwin, and the _Alakalufs_
to the north of this chain. I have mentioned several facts concerning
the somatic characters (pp. 89, 108, etc.) and the ethnic ones (p.
146, note 2, pp. 181, 189, 214, etc.) of the Fuegians. Let me further
add that the predominant type among them is that of the Palæo-American
sub-race. Their language is not yet classified. The Alakalufs are at
the present day reduced to 200 individuals. The Yahgans, who numbered
about a thousand individuals in 1884, no longer exist to-day as an
independent tribe. The last survivors of ravages caused by epidemics
are gathered together in the two missionary stations called Ushuaia
(Beagle Channel) and Tekenika; numbering about 90, they are dressed in
the European fashion, speak English, and are employed in the various
works at the mission.[684]
APPENDIX I.
AVERAGE HEIGHT OF MEN, 288 SERIES
(see p. 29).
----------+-----------------------------------------------+---------
| | Height
Number of | ETHNIC GROUPS. |in Milli-
Subjects. | |metres.
----------+-----------------------------------------------+---------
| |
| LOW STATURES (UNDER 1 M. 60, OR 63 INCHES). |
| |
| _Africans_. |
| |
38 | Akka Negrilloes of the country of the |
| Monbuttus | 1,378
64 | Kalahari Bushmen of Angra Pequena, etc. | 1,529
| |
| _Asiatics_. |
| |
42 | Aeta Negritoes of the Philippines | 1,465
115 | Andamanese | 1,485
28 | Black Sakais or Menings of Gunong-Inas | 1,490
36 | Jakuns and Mantras of Johor | 1,535
25 | Ostiaks of the Yenisei (Turukhansk) | 1,540
33 | Pure Veddahs of Central Ceylon | 1,554
99 | Samoyeds (of Asia and Europe) | 1,555
75 | Kurumbas of Wynaad (India) | 1,556
58 | Irulas (Nilgiri plains) | 1,560
33 | Malé (Nayar and Arrayan) of Southern India | 1,564
32 | Japanese (workmen and coolies) | 1,570
95 | Annamese of Cochin China | 1,571
29 | Paniyans of Malabar | 1,574
26 | Cherumas of Calicut | 1,574
200 | Mal Paharias (Dravidians of Bengal) | 1,577
100 | Dravidian Bhuiyas of Chota Nagpur | 1,577
155 | Veddhas of Ceylon generally | 1,578
300 | Trao Mois of French Indo-China | 1,579
210 | Ostiaks | 1,581
45 | Solorese of Flores and Solor | 1,582
359 | Annamese in general | 1,583
457 | Mois in general (French Indo-China) | 1,585
2,500 | Japanese (1,260 of them soldiers) | 1,585
125 | Islanders of Bavean (between Java and Borneo) | 1,587
100 | Munda Kols of Chota Nagpur | 1,589
1,100 | Japanese of the upper and middle classes | 1,590
76 | Annamese of Tonkin | 1,590
56 | Laotians of Lower Laos | 1,590
76 |Sundanese of Java | 1,591
90 |Bhumij (Bils of Chota Nagpur) | 1,592
100 |Chakamas (Araknese-Bengali half-breeds) | 1,596
29 |Timurians (of the western part of the Island) | 1,597
| |
| _Americans_. |
| |
28 |Caribs of the three Guianas and Venezuela | 1,572
26 |Eskimo of Labrador | 1,575
139 |Yahgan and Alakaluf Fuegians | 1,577
50 |Mauhe and Mundurucus (probably Tupis) | 1,588
| |
| _Europeans_. |
| |
259 |Lapps of Scandinavia | 1,529
25 |Lapps of Russian Lapland | 1,555
126 |Vogules | 1,591
| |
| STATURES BELOW THE AVERAGE (1600-1649 MM.,|
| OR 63-65 INCHES). |
| |
| _Asiatics_. |
| |
105 |Teneggerese of Eastern Java | 1,604
58 |Battas of Lake Toba (Sumatra) | 1,605
27 |Rotti Islanders (south-west of Timur) | 1,605
30 |Siamese | 1,607
100 |Kurmis (Kols of Chota Nagpur) | 1,608
90 |Maghs or Arakanese of Chittagong | 1,608
45 |Sumba Islanders (south of Flores) | 1,609
31 |Bugis of Celebes | 1,609
27 |Kulu-Lahulis of Nepal | 1,610
45 |Dards of Ghuraiz, Hunza and Ghilgit | 1,611
58 |Tipperahs of Chittagong (Lushai-Kumis) | 1,611
83 |Baltis | 1,612
100 |Santals | 1,614
25 |Southern Chinese Long-Chow (Kwang-si) | 1,615
80 |Javanese | 1,616
100 |Kharvars (Dravidians of Chota Nagpur) | 1,617
149 |Malays of Sumatra and Malacca | 1,617
500 |Oraons of Chota Nagpur | 1,621
15,582 |Southern Chinese (principally Hakkas) | 1,622
45 |Singhalese of Colombo and Candy | 1,625
80 |Kling Tamils born at Sumatra | 1,629
25 |Kothas of the Nilgiris | 1,629
296 |Kalmuks or Mongol Torgots of Dzungaria | 1,629
695 |Hindus of the province of Behar | 1,630
82 |Brahmans of Southern India | 1,631
26 |Nicobarese | 1,631
685 |Dravidians N.W. prov. and Oudh (Chero, etc.) | 1,634
1,443 |Dravido-Hindu castes, N.W. prov. and Oudh | 1,634
1,616 |Malayalim of Southern India | 1,634
142 | Hindus of various castes, N.W. prov. | 1,635
40 | Singhalese in general | 1,635
387 | Kirghiz-Kazaks of the three Hordes | 1,638
25 | Uru-Kurubas of Southern India | 1,639
100 | Karens of Lower Burma | 1,640
92 | Derbete-Kalmuks of Astrakhan | 1,646
117 | Cambodians (Khmers) | 1,648
64 | Tamils of Ceylon | 1,649
37 | Chukchis | 1,649
231 | Burmese | 1,649
| |
| _Europeans_. |
| |
4,220 | Jews of Russian Poland | 1,612
3,313 | Chuvashes (3,076 of them conscripts) | 1,612
100 | Permiaks | 1,618
119 | Votiaks | 1,619
6,607 | Sardinians (soldiers) | 1,619
1,200 | Magyars of West Hungaria (conscripts) | 1,619
247 | Jews of Kuba and Kutais (Caucasus) | 1,621
167,677 | Poles of Russian Poland (conscripts) | 1,624
6,517 | Volga Tatars (principally conscripts) | 1,627
1,210 | Cheremisses (1,141 of them conscripts) | 1,627
31,707 | Conscripts of German Switzerland | 1,629
500 | Corsicans | 1,633
132 | Austrian Jews of Hungary | 1,634
25 | Lesgian Udes of Elizabetopol | 1,634
32,024 | Sicilians (soldiers) | 1,635
2,532 | Conscripts of Italian Switzerland | 1,635
382 | Rumanians of Hungary | 1,635
61 | Jews (Spaniol) of Bosnia | 1,636
961 | Bielorousses or White Russians | 1,636
800 | Portuguese | 1,637
292 | Hungarians (conscripts) | 1,637
4,894 | Spanish Basques | 1,638
1,955 | Bulgarians of Western Bulgaria | 1,638
2,252 | Mordvinians | 1,639
890 | Lithuanians of Russian Poland | 1,639
1,355 | Ruthenes of the Plains (Galicia) | 1,640
1,771,948 | Russians of European Russia (conscripts) | 1,642
437 | Karelians of Russia (conscripts) | 1,642
100 | Esthonians | 1,642
2,000 | Jews of the Ukraine | 1,642
4,701 | Lithuanians of Lithuania (conscripts) | 1,643
1,831 | Gruzin Georgians (mostly conscripts) | 1,644
344,371 | Italians in general (soldiers) | 1,645
7,396 | Spaniards | 1,645
77,579 | Magyars of Hungary (soldiers in 1868) | 1,646
447,172 | French in general (conscripts) | 1,646
9,456 | Conscripts of French Switzerland | 1,646
1,483 | Mingrelian Georgians | 1,646
33,541 | Piedmontese (soldiers) | 1,649
| |
| _Americans_. |
| |
90 | Salishans (Harrison Lake, British Columbia) | 1,613
30 | Salishans of the Frazer River delta |
| (British Col.) | 1,618
28 | Guaranis (Kamayuras and Anetos) | 1,620
614 | Eskimo of Greenland | 1,621
73 | Zuñis of New Mexico | 1,623
54 | Moquis | 1,629
85 | Eskimo of Alaska | 1,630
55 | Kwakiutl Indians (British Columbia) | 1,639
| |
| _Africans_. |
| |
50 | Mzabites (Berbers of M’Zab, Algeria) | 1,620
36 | Batekes of the Congo | 1,641
| |
| _Oceanians_. |
| |
31 | Aborigines of the island of New Britain | 1,602
67 | Papuans of German New Guinea | 1,608
156 | Natives of the Solomon Islands | 1,616
38 | Melanesians of the archipelago of New Britain | 1,620
40 | Australians of Southern New South Wales | 1,630
142 | Papuans of New Guinea in general | 1,640
| |
| STATURES ABOVE THE AVERAGE (1650-1699 MM., |
| OR 65-67 INCHES). |
| |
| _Asiatics_. |
| |
32 | Kols (of N.W. provinces and Oudh) | 1,650
108 | Hajemi Persians (principally of Teheran) | 1,651
792 | Armenians of the province of Tiflis |
| (conscripts) | 1,652
40 | Badagas of the Nilgiri plains | 1,658
362 | Osmanli Turks (288 of them in Asia Minor) | 1,660
60 | Baluchis of Baluchistan | 1,662
60 | Khatris (Punjab caste) | 1,662
72 | Chuhras (do.) | 1,666
979 | Brahmans and other higher castes of the N.W. |
| provinces and Oudh | 1,666
56 | Tamils of Southern India | 1,667
54 | Sartes of Russian Turkestan | 1,668
33 | Aissores of neighbourhood of Lake Urmia |
| (Cauc.) | 1,668
74 | Kara Kirghiz of Russian Turkestan | 1,668
53 | Turkomans of the Transcaspian | 1,670
54 | Chinese of the north (Che Fu and Kuldja |
| provinces) | 1,674
38 | Sibos (Manchu Tunguses) | 1,675
120 | Uzbegs of Russian Turkestan | 1,683
444 | Punjabi in general | 1,684
140 | Kurds of the Caucasus | 1,686
80 | Pathans (Punjab caste) | 1,687
155 | Tajiks and Galchas of Russian Turkestan | 1,692
192 | Armenians of Transcaucasia | 1,694
239 | Aderbaijanis of Persia and Transcaucasia | 1,698
| |
| _Europeans_. |
| |
59,761 | Rumanians of the kingdom of Rumania (soldiers)| 1,650
226 | Abkhasians of the Caucasus | 1,650
71 | Greeks of the kingdom of Greece | 1,651
140 | Meshtcheriaks of Perm and Orenburg | 1,652
2,012 | Saxons of the Halle-Mansfeld district |
| (Prussia) | 1,653
61 | Gypsies of Hungary (soldiers) | 1,654
1,838 | Gruzin Georgians | 1,654
100 | Jews of Bukovina | 1,654
84,141 | Russians of Asiatic Russia | 1,654
35,416 | Belgians in general | 1,655
493 | Dutch of the province of Zeeland (conscripts) | 1,655
1,481 | Mingrelians | 1,656
2,865 | Imer Georgians | 1,656
1,003 | Lithuanian Jmudins (conscripts) | 1,656
31 | Gypsies of Crimea | 1,657
142 | Svane Georgian highlanders | 1,658
370 | Bashkirs of Orenburg and Ufa | 1,658
1,305 | French Basques | 1,658
231 | Crimeans of the south coast | 1,664
187 | Ruthenian highlanders (Galicia) | 1,666
20,509 | Venetians | 1,666
6,909 | Thuringians of the Saxon prov., Prussia |
| (conscripts) | 1,667
60 | Slovens | 1,668
200 | Ukrainians or Little Russians of Kief | 1,669
200 | Ruthenes of the Bukovine (soldiers) | 1,670
200 | Rumanians of the Bukovine (soldiers) | 1,673
28 | Lesgians (Avars and Kazi Kumyks) | 1,676
22,979 | Karelians of Finland | 1,680
458 | Ossets | 1,680
1,220 | Swedes of the province of Kalmar (conscripts) | 1,681
80 | Tavastians or Western Finns | 1,682
44 | Kabards (Cherkesses) of the Caucasus | 1,684
9,345 | Dutch (conscripts) | 1,685
3,000 | Danes | 1,685
4,964 | Sleswickians (soldiers) | 1,692
89,021 | German emigrants to the United States | 1,693
741 | Inhabitants of Wales | 1,695
41 | Gypsies of Bosnia | 1,695
176 | Tatar (Kabard) highlanders (Caucasus) | 1,697
| |
| _Africans_. |
| |
32 | Arabs of Algeria | 1,656
28 | Mushikongos of the Congo | 1,658
1,103 | Berbers of Tunis | 1,663
29 | Abyssinians | 1,669
35 | Danakils of Tajura | 1,670
52 | Berbers of Biskra (Chauia tribe?) | 1,673
244 | Kabyles of Great Kabylia | 1,677
180 | Berbers of Algeria | 1,680
27 | Bashilange of the Kasai | 1,680
2,020 | Negroes of the United States | 1,681
863 | Mulattos of the United States | 1,682
28 | Bechuanas | 1,684
25,828 | Negroes and Mulattos of the United States | 1,693
| (conscripts) |
| |
| _Oceanians_. |
| |
50 | Aborigines of Southern Australia | 1,657
65 | Australians in general | 1,667
233 | Australians of Central Australia | 1,670
52 | New Caledonians (Melanesians) | 1,673
72 | Papuans of British New Guinea | 1,674
58 | Australians of Victoria | 1,677
50 | Maoris of New Zealand | 1,680
| |
| _Americans_. |
| |
61 | Tinné of the S.W. (interior of British |
| Columbia) | 1,658
32 | Hupa Indians (Tinné of Oregon) | 1,661
121 | Ute Indians | 1,661
26 | Bilkula Indians | 1,661
37 | Tsimshian Indians (Brit. Columbia) | 1,666
165 | Shushwap Indians (Salish) | 1,670
104 | Cherokis of the East | 1,677
74 | Comanches | 1,678
30 | Klamath Indians | 1,679
59 | Chicasaw Indians | 1,679
68 | Piute Indians | 1,683
57 | Cree Indians | 1,685
147 | Apaches and Navajos | 1,686
37 | Flathead Indians (Salishan Têtes plates) | 1,687
32 | Papagos of California | 1,695
71 | Sahaptin Indians (Nez percés) | 1,697
28 | Ottawa Indians | 1,699
| |
| HIGH STATURES (1 M. 70, OR 67 INCHES AND |
| UPWARDS). |
| |
| _Americans_. |
| |
111 | Indians of the south of the State of |
| California (Yuma?) | 1,700
260 | Choctaws | 1,700
100 | Pimas | 1,703
21,645 | Canadian soldiers (chiefly descendants of |
| French) | 1,703
76 | Cherokis of the west | 1,712
198 | Ojibwas of the south | 1,712
41 | Pawnees | 1,713
92 | Delawares and Blackfeet | 1,715
79 | Micmacs and Abenakis | 1,717
315,620 | Citizens of the United States born in the |
| country | 1,719
29 | Maricopas of California | 1,722
1,413 | Ojibwas of the east | 1,723
612 | Siouans | 1,726
94 | Iroquoians or Iroquois | 1,727
517 | Indians of the United States (chiefly |
| Iroquois) | 1,730
91 | Omahas and Winnebagos | 1,732
213 | Crow Indians | 1,732
53 | Creek Indians | 1,735
35 | Mohaves of California | 1,740
50 | Cheyennes | 1,745
| |
| _Africans_. |
| |
31 | Mandingans in general | 1,700
25 | Bejas (called Nubians) | 1,708
72 | Kafirs (Ama-Xosa and Ama-Zulu) | 1,715
56 | Western Zandehs (Mandjas, Akungs, Awakas, |
| etc.) | 1,717
56 | Somalis (Eyssa, Habis, Awals, etc.) | 1,723
30 | Toucouleurs or Torodos | 1,725
62 | Wolofs, Serers and Leybus | 1,730
25 | For Negroes of Darfur | 1,730
35 | Fulahs or Fulbés of French Sudan | 1,741
| |
| _Asiatics_. |
| |
33 | Awan (Ghazikhan tribe, Punjab) | 1,706
97 | Sikhs of the Punjab | 1,709
29 | Gypsies of Russian Turkestan (Lulis, etc.) | 1,719
| |
| _Oceanians_. |
| |
25 | Polynesians of the Samoan Islands | 1,726
414 | Polynesians in general | 1,730
32 | Polynesians of Tahiti, Pomotu, Tubuai | 1,733
202 | Polynesians of the Marquesas Islands | 1,743
| |
| _Europeans_. |
| |
605 | Dutch of the province of Overijssel |
| (conscripts) | 1,701
61 | Cossacks of Kuban (Little Russians) | 1,701
68 | Letts of Esthonia | 1,704
232,367 | Swedes in general (soldiers) | 1,705
1,107 | Serbs of the Kingdom of Servia (conscripts) | 1,709
763 | Bosnian-Herzogovinians (soldiers) | 1,710
6,194 | English in general | 1,712
1,489 | Finns of Finland in general (682 of them |
| soldiers) | 1,713
325 | Dalmatians | 1,715
9,979 | Swedes of the province of Helsinghe (soldiers)| 1,716
8,585 | Inhabitants of the United Kingdom of Great |
| Britain and Ireland | 1,719
106,446 | Norwegians (soldiers) | 1,720
346 | Irish | 1,725
100 | Livonians | 1,736
1,304 | Scotch in general | 1,746
134 | Scotch of the north (Ayrshire, etc.) | 1,782
75 | Scotch agriculturists of Galloway | 1,792
APPENDIX II.
CEPHALIC INDEX, 336 SERIES (see p. 75).
---------------+------------------------------------+--------------
NUMBER. | | CEPH. IND.
-------+-------+ +-------+------
Living| | ETHNIC GROUPS. |Living |
Sub- | | Sub- |
jects.|Skulls.| |jects. |Skulls.
-------+-------+------------------------------------+-------+------
| | | |
| | DOLICHOCEPHALS, BELOW 77 (75). | |
| | _Oceanians_. | |
| | | |
-- |73 (S.)| Islanders of Viti-Levu (Fiji) | -- | 67.2
204 | -- | Natives of the Caroline Archipelago| 69.4 | --
-- | 52 | Natives of the smaller Fiji Islands| -- | 69.0
-- |148 | Papuans of Misore Island | -- | 70.2
-- |24 (S.)| Islanders of Mallicollo (New | |
| | Hebrides) | -- | 70.4
-- | 71 | New Caledonians | -- | 70.7
10 |29 (S.)| Islanders of Lifu (Loyalty Islands)| 72.4 | 70.8
-- |118(S.)| Natives of the Duke of York Islands| |
| | (New Britain) | -- | 71.7
-- |16 (S.)| Natives of Engineer Island | |
| | (Louisiade Archipelago) | -- | 71.9
27 |82 (S.)| Various Australians | 74.2 | 71.2
-- | 10 | Australians of Queensland | -- | 72.2
-- | 20 | Natives of Ruck Island (Carolines) | -- | 72.8
-- | 51 | Maoris of New Zealand | -- | 73.6
20 | -- | Natives of the Solomon Islands | 76.3 | --
-- | 24 | Papuans of the Fly River | |
| | (New Guinea) | -- | 74.2
-- | 25 | Tasmanians | -- | 74.9
23 |30 (S.)| Natives of New Britain Archipelago | 76.7 | 72.4
| | | |
| | _Asiatics_. | |
| | | |
95 | -- | Badagahs of the Nilgiris | 71.8 | --
40 | -- | Cashmerians | 72.2 | --
32 | -- | Kols of the N.W. Prov. and Oudh | 72.4 | --
979 | -- | Brahmans, Rajputs, and other high | |
| | castes of the N.W. Prov. | 72.6 | --
685 | -- | Kolarians, N.W. Prov. | 72.7 | --
80 | -- | Sikhs of the Punjab | 72.7 | --
1,616 | -- | Hindus of various castes (N.W. | |
| | Prov. and Oudh) | 72.8 | --
103 | -- | Baltis | 73.6 | --
1,443 | -- | Dravido-Hindus (N.W.Pr.& Oudh) | 73.8 | --
45 | -- | Todas | 74.1 | --
25 | -- | Kotas of the Nilgiris | 74.1 | --
444 | -- | Punjabi (Hindus, Baluchis, etc.). | 74.2 | --
54 | -- | Malayalim of the Shevaroy Hills . | 74.3 | --
27 | -- | Kulu-Lahuli | 74.6 | --
100 | -- | Malé or Assal (Dravid. of Bengal) | 74.8 | --
90 | -- | Bhumij of Chota Nagpur | 75.0 | --
55 | 43 | Veddahs of Ceylon | 75.1 | 71.5
58 | -- | Irulas of the E. slope of the Nilg.| 75.1 | --
15 | -- | Gypsies of Lycia | 75.2 | --
100 | -- | Kharvars (Dravidians of Chota | |
| | Nagpur) | 75.6 | --
45 | -- | Dardi (India) | 75.6 | --
100 | -- | Kurmi of Chota Nagpur | 75.7 | --
695 | -- | Hindus of the Prov. of Behar | 75.7 | --
100 | -- | Mal-Paharia (Drav. of Beng.) | 75.8 | --
25 | -- | Urur-Kurubas of Mysore | 75.8 | --
100 | -- | Bhuiyas (Drav. of Beng.) | 76.0 | --
20 | -- | Dums of Chota Nagpur | 76.0 | --
100 | -- | Santals of Chota Nagpur | 76.1 | --
-- | 12 | Alfurus of Ceram | -- | 74.3
-- | 37 | Ainus of Saghalien | -- | 74.8
64 | -- | Tamils of Ceylon | 76.3 | --
80 | -- | Pathans (Afghans) of Punjab | 76.5 | --
33 | -- | Kanarese of Mysore | 76.8 | --
1,570 | -- | Bengalese | 76.9 | --
27 | -- | Islanders of Rotti (to the S. of | |
| | Timur) | 76.9 | --
| | | |
| | _Africans_. | |
14 | -- | Mushikongo and Bakongo | 72.5 | --
36 | -- | Bateke (Congo) | 73.6 | --
30 | -- | Toucouleurs | 73.8 | --
30 | 30 | Jagga (Bantu of Kilimandjaro) | -- | 71.9
15 | -- | Hottentot-Orlans | 74.3 | --
37 | -- | Fulahs or Fulbés | 74.3 | --
35 | -- | Danakils of Tajura | 74.5 | --
14 | -- | Duala or Dwala of the Cameroons | 75.1 | --
27 | -- | Negro-Krus | 75.1 | --
62 | 13 | Wolofs, Serer, and Leybus | 75.2 | 69.8
29 | 10 | Various Mandingans | 75.5 | 78.8
13 | -- | Kakongo | 75.6 | --
47 | -- | Arabs of Algeria | 76.3 | --
-- | 56 | Kafirs (Ama-Zulus and others) | -- | 72.5
184 | -- | Betsimisaraka (Madagascar) | 76.3 | --
13 | -- | Kabyles of Palestro | 76.4 | --
27 | -- | Bashilanges of the Kasai | 76.8 | --
13 | -- | Ashantis | 76.9 | --
| | | |
| | _Americans_. | |
12 | -- | Karayas (Amazon Basin) | 73.0 | --
-- | 76 | Hurons | -- | 74.7
614 | 31 | Eskimo of Greenland | 76.8 | 72.4
-- | 152 | do. E. America | -- | 71.3
-- | 16 | do. W. America | -- | 74.8
10 | 33(S.)| Botocudos | 76.8 | 73.9
| | | |
| | _Europeans_. | |
-- | 417 | Portuguese | -- | 74.3
500 | -- | Corsicans | 76.6 | --
502 | -- | Spaniards of Valencia | 76.8 | --
| | | |
| |SUB-DOLICHOCEPH. 77-79.6(75-77.6). | |
| | _Asiatics_. | |
12 | -- | Ladaki | 77.0 | --
17 | -- | Inhabitants of Nagar, Hunaza, and | |
| | Yasin | 77.0 | --
20 | -- | Chinese of the North | 77.0 | --
75 | -- | Kurumbas (to the E. of the | | --
| | Nilgiris) | 77.3 | --
136 | -- | Tamils of the South of India and | |
| | Ceylon | 77.4 | --
360 | -- | Mois of French Indo-China | 77.5 | --
17 | -- | Sikas (Central Floris) | 77.7 | --
11 | 92 | Ainus of Yezo | 77.8 | 76.5
23 | -- | Turkomans of the Transcaspian | 77.9 | --
18 | -- | Lio (Central Floris) | 78.1 | --
208 | -- | Aderbaijanis | 78.1 | --
168 | -- | Persians in general | 78.4 | --
11 | -- | Disfulis of Susa | 78.4 | --
332 | -- | Kurds | 78.5 | --
78 | 64 | Japanese of all classes | 78.5 | 80.2
68 | -- | White and Yellow Sakais(Malay P.) | 78.7 | --
30 | -- | Atoni of the west of Timur | 78.8 | --
142 | -- | Singhalese | 78.8 | --
20 | -- | Yuruks of Lycia | 78.9 | --
28 | -- | Black Sakais of Gunong Inas | |
| | (Malay Peninsula) | 79.5 | --
29 | -- | Tates of the Transcaucasus | 79.0 | --
106 | -- |Moormen of Ceylon | 79.1 | --
45 | 44 |Sumbawa Islanders | 79.1 | --
-- | 37 |Nias Islanders | -- | 77.6
106 | 37 |Ostiaks | 79.3 | 74.3
16 | -- |Tatar-Tchern (Altaians) | 79.5 | --
25 | -- |South Chinese of Lang-Choo | 79.5 |
| | | |
| | _Africans_. | |
| | | |
50 | -- |M’Zabits of Algeria | 77.3 | --
56 | -- |Western Zandeh (Mandja, etc.) | 77.9 | --
-- | 14 |Bushmen | -- | 75.9
-- | 139 |Negroes of Fernand-Vaz | -- | 75.9
-- | 13 |Hausas | -- | 77.3
| | | |
| | _Americans_. | |
| | | |
-- | 62 |Half-caste Algonquians | -- | 76.2
-- | 315 |Natives of Santa Barbara Archip. | -- | 76.9
14 | -- |Arawaks of the Rio Xingu | |
| | (Mehinaku, etc.) | 78.2 | --
31 | -- |Indians of Arizona | 78.6 | --
419 | -- |Pimas of New Mexico | 78.4 | --
123 | -- |Ute Indians | 79.5 | --
28 | -- |Tupis of the Xingu (Kamayuras | |
| | and Anetos) | 79.1 | --
114 | 37 |Eskimo of Alaska | 79.2 | 77.0
-- | 103 |Indians of the Californian coast | -- | 77.3
135 | -- |Iroquoians | 79.3 | --
26 | 27 |Yahgan Fuegians | 79.5 | 76.8
570 | 42 |Indians: Algonquians, Abenaki, | |
| | Cree, etc. | 79.8 | 77.4
261 | 136 |Siouans | 79.8 | 78.9
| | | |
| | _Oceanians_. | |
| | | |
163 | -- |Natives of Solomon Islands | 77.6 | --
-- |12 (S.)|Morioris of the Chatham Islands | -- | 76.2
-- | 30 |Natives of the Marquesas Islands | -- | 76.4
22(S.)|22 (S.)|Natives of the Gilbert Islands | |
| | (Kingsmill) | 78.4 | 73.8
59 | -- |Various Polynesians | 79.7 | --
| | | |
| | _Europeans_. | |
| | | |
122 | -- |Catalans of the Balearic Islands | 77.7 | --
6,579 | -- |Sardinians | 77.5 | --
1,410 | -- |Castillians | 78.5 | --
574 | -- |Catalans of Spain | 78.1 | --
8,368 | -- |Spaniards in general | 78.2 | --
-- | 48 |Swedes of the central provinces. | 78.2 | 76.0
50 | -- |French Catalans of Roussillon | 78.6 | --
-- | 59 |Chuvashes | -- | 77.2
32,526 | -- |Sicilians | 79.0 | --
325 | -- |Spanish Basques | 79.3 | --
129 | 18 |Cheremisses | 79.2 | 76.8
362 | -- |Belgian Flemings | 79.5 | --
| | | |
| |MESOCEPHALS, 79.7-81.9 (77.7-79.9). | |
| | | |
| | _Americans_. | |
| | | |
10 | -- |Bakairis of Brazil | 79.0 | --
84 | 10 |Pawnee Indians | 80.0 | 78.8
16 | -- |Yakis | 79.8 | --
257 | 38 |Crow and Cheyenne Indians | 80.5 | 79.8
28 | -- |Southern Caribs of the Rio Xingu | 79.8 | --
20 | -- |Bororos of the Amazon basin | 81.2 | --
15 | -- |Nahuquas of Brazil | 80.6 | --
30 | -- |Caribs of the four Guianas | 80.9 | --
225 | 99(S.)|Omahas | 81.8 | 80.5
| | | |
| | _Asiatics_. | |
| | | |
130 | -- |Tenggerese of the east of Java | 79.7 | --
60 | -- |Baluchis of Baluchistan | 80.0 | --
-- | 125 |Chinese in general | -- | 78.3
36 | -- |Nicobarese | 80.4 | --
13 | -- |Dungans of Kuldja | 80.5 | --
58 | -- |Tipperahs of Chittagong | 80.5 | --
20 | -- |Achinese | 80.5 | --
58 | -- |Battas of Lake Toba | 80.6 | --
22 | -- |Jakuns of Johor | 80.9 | --
61 | 84(S.)|Southern Chinese (princ. of Canton) | 81.2 | 78.2
19 | 24 |Andamanese | 81.4 | 81.6
90 | -- |Magh or Arakanese of Chittagong | 81.8 | --
11 | -- |Teleuts or Telenghits (Siberia) | 81.8 | --
-- | 14 |Eskimo of Asia | -- | 79.0
| | | |
| | _Europeans_. | |
| | | |
35 | -- |Gypsies of Hungary | 79.9 | --
37 | -- |Tatars of the Crimea | 80.0 | --
55 | -- |Jews of Bosnia | 80.1 | --
171 | -- |French of the dep. du Nord | 80.4 | --
60 | -- |Letts of the Baltic provinces | 80.5 | --
1,000 | -- |Limousins and Perigourdins | 80.7 | --
463 | -- |Spaniards of the Cantabrian region | 80.3 | --
30(S.)| 47(S.)|Dutch of the prov. of Gröningen | 81.0 | 77.6
1,000 | -- | Normans (Calvados, Seine-Inf., | 81.3 |
| | etc.) | |
-- | 87 | Dutch of the province of Friesland | -- | 78.1
-- | 206 | Inhabitants of the prov. of Prussia| -- | 79.2
-- |96 (S.)|Cherkess (Abkhazians, Chapsug, etc.)| -- | 79.4
-- | 159 | Franconians of N.W. of Bavaria | -- | 79.8
59,165| -- | Italians of the South (Abruzzi, | |
| | Puglie, etc.) | 81.2 | --
54 | -- | Magyar-Szeklers | 81.4 | --
67 | -- | Georgian-Mingrelians, and Imers | 81.4 | --
91 | -- | Provençals | 81.7 | --
59 | -- | Meshtcheriaks | 81.8 | --
| | | |
| | _Oceanians_. | |
| | | |
14 | -- | Islanders of Fakaofu (Takelau | |
| | Arch.) | 80.6 | --
12 | -- | Natives of New Ireland | 81.0 | --
| | | |
| | SUB-BRACHYCEPHALS, 82-85.2 | |
| | (80-83.2). | |
| | | |
| | _Asiatics and Eurasians_. | |
| | | |
22 | -- | Parsees of Bombay | 82.0 | --
20 | -- | Kouïs of Cambodia | 82.0 | --
97(S.)|51 (S.)| Kalmuks of the Volga | 82.1 | 81.4
11 | 14 | Coreans | 82.6 | 81.6
25 | -- | Man-Tien of Kaobang (Tong King) | 82.5 | --
182 | -- | Annamese in general | 82.8 | --
49 | -- | Malays of Sumatra and Penang | 82.8 | --
231 | -- | Burmese | 83.1 | --
139 | -- | Yakuts | 83.1 | --
14 | -- | Tsiams of French Indo-China | 83.2 | --
-- |18 (S.)| Tunguse Reindeer-holders | -- | 81.2
21 | -- | Solorese (E. of Flores and Solor) | 83.4 | --
56 | -- | Laotians of Lower Laos | 83.6 | --
30 | -- | Cambodians | 83.6 | --
76 | -- | Annamese of Tong King | 83.8 | --
152(S.)|15 (S.)| Samoyeds | 83.8 | 82.4
13 | 13 | Takhtadji of Lycia | 84.2 | --
26 | -- | Ansariehs of Antioch | 84.2 | --
100 | -- | Chakama (Arakan-Bengali mongrels) | 84.3 | --
197 | 14 | Kalmuks of Kuldja and Tarbagat | 84.5 | 83.3
12 |30 (S.)| Bugis of Mangkassar | 84.6 | 80.6
-- | 12 | Islanders of Madura (N. of Java) | -- | 82.6
66 |88 (S.)| Javanese | 84.6 | 83.0
18 | -- | Negrito Aetas (Philippines) | 84.7 | --
107 | 27 |Uzbegs of Russian Turkestan | 84.8 | --
74 | -- |Tajiks | 84.8 | --
| | | |
| | _Americans_. | |
| | | |
60 | -- |Arawaks of Dutch Guiana | 82.6 | --
63(S.)| -- |Haidas | 82.7 | --
77 | -- |Maricopas (Yuma Indians) | 82.9 | --
129 | -- |Zuñi Indians | 83.0 | --
16 | -- |Indians of S. Oregon | 84.0 | 82.2
-- | 22 |Navajos (deformed) | 84.2 | --
26(S.)| -- |Bilculas | 84.5 | --
74 | -- |Comanches | 84.6 | --
16 | -- |Yucatecs of Mexico | 84.7 | --
193 | -- |Moquis or Mokis | 84.9 | --
18 | |Patagonians | 85.2 |
| | | |
| | _Africans_. | |
| | | |
20 | -- |Saras of Shari | 82.4 | --
| | (Basin of Lake Chad) | |
14 | -- |Hovas of Madagascar | 84.0 | --
| | | |
| | _Oceanians_. | |
| | | |
10 | -- |Islanders of Fanafuti | 82.4 | --
| | (Ellice group) | |
23 | 19 |Islanders of Tonga Arch. | 82.6 | 84.2
-- | 177 |Hawaiians of Sandwich Islands | -- | 80.4
23 |13 (S.)|Samoans | 83.7 | 77.5
43 |52 (S.)|Polynesians of Tahiti, Marquesas, | |
| | Pomotu, and Tubuai Islands | 85.1 | 76.0
| | | |
| | _Europeans_. | |
| | | |
126 | -- |Votiaks | 82.0 | --
100 | -- |Permiaks | 82.2 | --
36 | -- |Zyrians | 82.2 | --
199 | -- |Belgian Wallons | 82.2 | --
30,970 | -- |Italians of Liguria and Tuscany | 82.3 | --
290 | -- |Bielorousses or White Russians | 82.4 | --
775 | -- |Alsatians of Lower Alsace | 82.5 | --
294 | -- |Italians in general | 82.7 | --
261 | -- |Ossets | 82.6 | --
3,000 | -- |Bretons (France) | 82.7 | --
30 | -- |Tatars of Kassimov | 82.8 | --
447 |421(S.)|Great Russians of the Central | |
| | and N. provinces | 82.9 | 80.7
220 | -- |French Basques | 83.0 | --
98 | -- |Wurtembergers | 83.1 | --
168 | -- |Mordvinians | 83.3 | --
416 | -- |Jews of Galicia and Western Russia | 83.4 | --
1,355 | -- |Ruthenians of the Plain (Galicia) | 83.4 | --
90 | -- |Georgian-Gruzins | 83.5 | --
17 | -- |Veps or Chud of Olonetsk | 83.5 | --
187 | -- |Ruthenians of the Mountains | |
| | (Galicia) | 83.6 | --
15,914 | -- |French in general | 83.6 | --
170 | -- |Tatars of the Mountains (Caucasus) | 83.6 | --
165 | -- |Cherkess-Kabards | 83.7 | --
20 | -- |Russian Lapps | 83.8 | --
19 | -- |Georgian-Svanes | 83.9 | --
6,800 | -- |Inhabitants of Baden | 84.1 | --
53,020 | -- |Italians (Lomb., Umbr., March.) | 84.1 | --
226 |40 (S.)|Magyars in general | 84.5 | 82.3
78 | -- |Eastern Chechen | 84.5 | --
200 | -- |Little Russians of Kiev | 84.6 | --
52 | -- |Lesghi-Didos | 84.6 | --
44 | -- |Kumyks of the Caucasus | 84.7 | --
52,410 | -- |Italians of Venetia-Emilia | 85.1 | --
-- | 134 |Swiss of Untervalden | -- | 83.8
53 | -- |Jews of Akhaltsikh (Caucasus) | 85.2 | --
| | | |
| | BRACHYCEPHALS, 85.3-86.9 | |
| | (83.3-84.9). | |
| | | |
| | _Asiatics_. | |
56 | -- |Galchas (Russian Turkestan) | 85.5 | --
-- | 16 |Tunguse-Orochons | -- | 83.4
17 | 17 |Siamese | -- | 83.0
341 | -- |Armenians in general | 85.6 | --
-- | 13 |Burmese of Arakan and Talaing | -- | 83.7
21 | 18 |Sundanese (West Java) | 86.3 | 85.5
20 (S.) |35 (S.)|Giliaks | 86.3 | 83.4
16 (S.) | -- |Bicols of Luzon (Philippines) | 86.6 | --
333 | -- |Taranchi of Russian and Eastern | |
| | Turkestan | 86.6 | --
270 | -- |Armenians of Transcaucasia | 85.6 | --
| | | |
| | _Europeans_. | |
-- |1000(S.)|Bavarians of old Bavaria | -- | 83.2
32,790 | -- |Piedmontese | 85.9 | --
16 | -- |Tatar Nogai of the Caucasus | 85.8 | --
130 | -- |Lesghi-Darghis of the Caucasus | 86.2 | --
200 | -- |Rumanians of Bukovina | 86.3 | --
25 | -- |Lesghi-Udes | 86.6 | --
27 | -- |Georgian Lazes | 86.8 | --
235 | -- |Savoyards | 86.9 | --
| | | |
| | _Oceanians and Americans_. | |
20 | 20(S.)|Islanders of Tahiti | 85.5 | 76.6
-- | 36 |Aleuts | -- | 84.8
-- | 100 |Araucans of Argentine Republic | -- | 83.9
| | | |
| | HYPER-BRACHYCEPHALS, 87 (85) | |
| | AND ABOVE. | |
| | | |
| | _Europeans_. | |
-- | 65(S.)|Romanches of Switzerland | -- | 85.0
30 | -- |Dalmatians | 87.0 | --
19 | -- |Jews of Daghestan (Mountaineers) | 87.0 | --
105(S.)| 41(S.)|Scandinavian Lapps | 87.4 | 85.0
69 | -- |Magyars of Rumania | 87.8 | --
140 | -- |French (Haute-Loire, Lozère, | |
| | Cantal) | 87.4 | --
| | | |
| | _Asiatics_. | |
384 | -- |Kirghiz-Kasaks and Karakirghiz | 87.2 | --
33 | -- |Aissors of Transcaucasia and Urmia | 88.7 | --
APPENDIX III.
NASAL INDEX OF LIVING SUBJECTS, 71 SERIES
(see p. 79).
---------+-------------------------------+------+-----------------------
Number | | |
of | ETHNIC GROUPS. |Nasal |
Subjects.| |Index.| Observers.
---------+-------------------------------+------+-----------------------
|_Leptorhinians (less than 70)._| |
| | |
110 |Armenians | 60.4 |Pantiukhof
62 |Georgian Imers | 60.8 |Pan., Chantre, Erckert
1,969 |Brahmans, Rajputs and other | |
| high castes, N.W. province | |
| and Oudh | 63.0 |Crooke, Drake-Brocken
100 |French (fair type, dolicho.) | 63.0 |Collignon
41 |Georgian Mingrelians | 63.1 |Pan., Chantre, Erckert
49 |Georgian Gruzins | 64.5 |Pan., Chantre, Erckert
50 |Lorraines | 64.6 |Collignon
30 |French Catalans (Eastern | |
| Pyr.) | 65.1 | „
20 |Anglo-Scotch | 65.1 |Beddoe
23 |Arabs of Tunis | 65.2 |Collignon
50 |French dolichoceph. of the | |
| South | 65.7 | „
184 |Various Kabyles | 66.5 |Prengruber
160 |French of Normandy | 66.5 |Collignon
88 |Sardinians | 66.6 |Gilbert d'Hercourt
27 |Galchas of Turkestan | 66.8 |Ujfalvy
237 |Ossets | 66.8 |Ghiltchen., Ch., Erck.
168 |Mordvinians | 66.9 |Maïnof
21 |English | 67.0 |Beddoe
1,443 |Dravido-Hindus, N.W. Prov. | 67.0 | --
1,000 |French in general | 67.3 |Collignon
70 |Bretons | 67.5 | „
80 |Pathans of the Punjab | 68.4 |Risley
80 |Sikhs | 68.8 | „
98 |Parisians | 69.1 |Collignon
60 |Baluchis of Baluchistan | 69.4 |Risley
120 |Tunisians (2nd Berber race) | 69.8 |Collignon
| | |
| _Mesorhinians_ (70-84.9). | |
| | |
10 |Scotch | 70.0 |Beddoe
1,334 |Tunisians in general | 70.2 |Collignon
444 |Punjabis | 70.2 |Risley
865 |Dravidians(Kharvars, Korwas, | |
| Cheros, Khunjas) of N.W. | |
| Prov. | 71.0 |Crooke, Drake-Brock.
20 |Baltis of Cashmere | 71.4 |Ujfalvy
50 |Berbers (brachycephalic race ) | 72.5 |Collignon
29 |Singhalese | 74.9 |Deschamps, Manouv.
36 |Kalmuks of the Volga | 74.7 |Deniker, Erck., Chantre
40 |Kara-Kirghiz of Semiriechie | 74.9 |Seeland
27 |Todas | 74.9 |Thurston
40 |Badagas of Nilgiris | 75.6 | „
23 |Siouans | 75.9 |Denik., Laloy, Manouv.
33 |Kanarese of Mysore | 76.8 |Thurston
40 |Tamil-Brahmans of Madras | 77.2 | „
22 |Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills | 79.2 | „
36 |Malayalim of the Chevaroy | |
| Hills | 74.4 | „
20 |Dums of Chota Nagpur | 79.1 |Risley
695 |Hindus of Behar | 80.0 | „
1,616 |Hindus of the N.W. Provs. | |
| and Oudh | 80.9 | „
17 |Rhodias of Ceylon (both | |
| sexes) | 81.3 |Deschamps
32 |Kols of the N.W. Provinces | |
| and Oudh | 82.2 |Risley and Oude
100 |Kurmis of Chota Nagpur | 82.6 | „
90 |Maghs or Arakanese of | |
| Chittagong | 82.7 | „
30 |Annamese of Cochin-China | 83.3 |Deniker, Laloy
34 |Irulas of the Nilgiris | 83.4 |Thurston
100 |Chakamas (Arakanese-Bengalis) | 85.4 |Risley
23 |Zuñis | 84.9 |Ten Kate
| | |
| _Platyrhinians_ (85-99.9). | |
| | |
23 |Annamese of Tong King | 86.2 |Deniker, Laloy
90 |Bhumij of Chota Nagpur | 86.5 |Risley
27 |Bashilanges | 87.0 |}Maistre
21 |Bubangis | 87.2 |} „
100 |Santals of Chota Nagpur | 88.8 |Risley
15 |Kurumbas of Wynaad | 88.8 |Thurston
100 |Munda-Kols of Chota Nagpur | 89.0 |Risley
13 |Polynesians | 89.8 |After Collignon
11 |New Caledonians and New | |
|Hebridians | 93.8 |Collignon
17 |Fulahs or Fulbés | 95.3 |Deniker, Collignon
44 |Negroes of Tunis | 96.3 |Collignon
21 |Toucouleurs | 99.9 |Deniker
| | |
| _Ultraplatyrhinians_ | |
| (_over_ 100). | |
| | |
23 |Leybus and Serers |100.1 |Deniker, Collignon
52 |Negroes of Zambesi |101.5 |After Collignon
21 |Mandingans and Bambaras |101.6 |Deniker, Collignon
13 |Ashantis |107.5 |Deniker
11 |Australians |107.6 |After Collignon
14 |Angolese Negroes (both sexes) |107.9 |Deniker
INDEX OF AUTHORS.
Abbott, 511
Adam, L., 552
Adrianof, 363
Amat, 432
Ambialet, 177
Ameghino, 512
Ammon, 74, 318
Anderson, G., 307
Anderson, J., 397
Andree, R., 109, 128, 198, 201, 206, 227, 250, 255, 274, 341, 425,
428
Anuchin, 262, 277, 373
Aranzadi, 348
Aubin, 140
Aymonier, 393, 394, 399, 400, 402
Baber, C., 400
Bachofen, 233
Baden-Powell, 247
Baelz, 51, 62, 64, 107
Bahnson, 520
Bain, 294
Balfour, H., 262, 272
Ball, 409
Bancroft, H. H., 249, 521
Bandelier, 536
Barcena, 292
Bartels, Max, 95, 227, 230
Barth, 446
Barthel, 429
Bastian, A., 460
Batchelor, 373
Bates, H., 159
Beddoe, 50, 314, 348
Bell, 23
Béranger-Féraud, 442, 447, 450
Bergaigne, 394
Bergemann, 146
Bernard, A., 497, 505
Berthelot, S., 431
Bertholon, 433
Bertillon, A., 80
Bertin, S., 435
Bertrand, 321
Betz, 134
Biart, 537
Biddulph, 415
Billet, 400, 401
Binger, 447, 449, 451
Bischoff, 18, 98
Blanchard, 97
Blandford, 362
Blumentritt, 490
Boas, 520, 531
Boggiani, 573
Bonaparte, Prince Roland, 351
Bordier, 121
Borlase, W., 312
Bouchereau, 469
Boulart, 15, 18, 94
Boule, M., 301, 309, 511
Bourne, 400
Bowditch, 106
Boyd, 18
Bremer, 335, 340
Breul, 46
Brigham, 183
Brinton, 122, 490, 514, 517, 518, 521, 527, 535, 536, 544, 547
Broca, 16, 48, 55, 57, 61, 62, 64, 72, 73, 83, 85, 98, 177, 348
Bruhl, 536
Buch, 263
Buchner, M., 134
Bunge, 145
Burrows, 454
Buschmann, 534
Butler, J., 396
Buttikofer, 451
Calori, 76, 100
Campbell, J. M., 115
Capart, 427
Capus, 415
Cardi, Comte de, 453
Cardoso, 413
Carol, J., 469
Carr, 514
Cartailhac, 300, 309, 314, 362, 364
Castelnau, 564
Castren, 366
Catat, 469, 549
Catlin, 521
Cauvin, 477
Cavendish, A., 387
Chalmers, 493, 494
Chamberlain, B., 373, 391
Chantre, 355, 423
Chapman, R., 475
Chastaing, 387
Chauvet, 362
Christian, F., 475
Chudzinsky, 95
Clercq, De, 420
Clozel, 458
Codrington, 497
Colini, 561
Collignon, R., 5, 79, 88, 334, 348, 427, 433, 435, 450, 470
Colocci, 425
Colquhoun, 381, 400
Comte, P., 441
Cooper, 273
Couillault, 427
Courant, 387
Crampel, 442, 454
Crooke, W., 231, 404, 408, 413
Cunningham, D., 15, 84
Curr, 223, 477
Cushing, 516, 534
Cuvier, 5, 69
Dall, 520, 531
Dalton, 380, 408, 409
D’Amelineau, 426
Danielli, 486
Danilevski, 101
Darwin, 6, 7, 23, 110, 115, 118, 146
David, A., 362
Davidson, C., 172
Davy, 117
Dawkins, Boyd, 307
Deblenne, 400
Delafosse, 451
Delage, Y., 6
Delisle, 177
D’Enjoy, 255
Deniker, 15, 18, 24, 64, 78, 94, 108, 109, 214, 215, 220, 223, 231,
242, 284, 292, 325, 358, 367, 373, 375, 377, 378, 399, 425, 435,
436, 450, 453, 454, 458, 468, 470, 486, 493, 494, 500, 512, 533,
555, 576
Deschamps, 408, 418