Introduction of Christianity--Origin of Slavonic Element--First
Appearance of the Patarenes in Bosnia--Their Origin--Tenets--Elect
a Primate--Disappearance--Dookhoboitzi, or Combatants in
Spirit--Turkish Conquest--Bosnian Apostasy--Religious
Fanaticism--Euchlemeh--Commission under Kiamil Pacha--Servian
Emissaries--National Customs--Adopted Brotherhood--Mahommedan
Women--Elopements--Early Marriages.
Authorities differ as to the time when Christianity was first introduced
into Bosnia. Some say that it was preached by the apostle St. James,
while others affirm that it was unknown until the year 853
A.D., when St. Cyril and Methodius translated the Scriptures
into the Slavonic tongue; others again say that it dates back as far as
the seventh century, when the Emperor Heraclius called the Slavonic
nations of the Chorvats or Croats, and the Serbs or Servians, from their
settlement on the N. of the Carpathian Mountains, to the fertile regions
S. of the Danube. The warlike summons was gladly obeyed by those valiant
men, who had unflinchingly maintained their independence, whilst their
Slavish brethren, inhabiting the country between the Volga and the Don,
had submitted to the iron yoke of the all-conquering Avars. These last
were in their time expelled by the Croats and Serbs, and thus was
Slavism established from the Danube to the Mediterranean. But these
important results were not achieved without great sacrifice; and,
wearied of war and bloodshed, the successful Slavonians devoted
themselves to agriculture and industry, neglecting those pursuits which
had procured for them a permanent footing in the Greek empire. Taking
advantage of this defenceless state, resulting from their pacific
disposition, Constans II. made war upon the country of Slavonia, in
order to open a communication between the capital on the one side, and
Philippi and Thessalonica on the other. Justinian II. (685-95 and
708-10) also made a successful expedition against the Slavonians, and
transplanted a great number of prisoners, whom he took into Asia Minor.
The Greek empire having become reinvigorated for some time under the
Slavonian dynasty, Constantine Copronymus (741-75) advanced in his
conquest of Slavonia as far as Berea, to the S. of Thessalonica, which
is evident from an inspection of the frontiers of the empire, made by
order of the Empress Irene in 783. The Emperor Michael III. (842-67)
sent an army against the Slavonians of the Peloponnesus, which conquered
them all with the exception of the Melugi and Eseritœ, who inhabited
Lacedæmonia and Elis, and they were all finally subjugated by the
Emperor Basilicus I., or the Macedonian (867-86), after which the
Christian religion and Greek civilisation completely Hellenised them, as
their brethren on the Baltic were Germanised.[E] That the Latin faith
subsequently obtained a permanent footing in these provinces, is due to
the influence of the Kings of Hungary, who took the Bosnian Bans under
their special protection; and thus it happened that the Bosnian nobles
almost universally adopted the religion of their benefactors,--not so
much from conviction, it is surmised, as from an appreciation of the
many feudal privileges which it conferred, since they afterwards
renounced Christianity entirely, rather than relinquish the rights which
they had begun to regard as hereditary. The remote position of these
countries, however, and the antagonism of the Eastern and Western
Churches, combined to retard the development of the Papal doctrines,
while a still more important counterpoise presented itself, in the
appearance of the sect of Patarenes, towards the close of the twelfth
century. The sect was founded by an Armenian doctor, named Basil, who
was burnt for his opinions by the Emperor Alexius Comnenus, and whose
followers, being banished, retired into Bulgaria, where they made many
converts, and took the name of Bogomili--'chosen of God,' or 'implorers
of God's mercy.' They thence spread their tenets into France by means
of pilgrims and traders, who were on their return to that country, and
by degrees laid the seeds of doctrines subsequently taken up by Peter
Bruysius, and afterwards by Henry and by Peter Valdo, the founder of the
Waldenses, and by others in other places. Availing themselves of the
various Caliphs' tolerance of all Christian sects, they carried their
opinions with their commerce into Africa, Spain, and finally into
Languedoc, a neighbouring province, to Moorish Iberia, where Raymond,
Count of Toulouse, gave them shelter and protection.[F]
The same opinions were held by the Paulicians of Spain, who, having
received much encouragement from the Kings of Arragon and Castile, also
disseminated their doctrines throughout France, in the southern
provinces of which they met with great success. There they received the
name of Albigenses, from the town of Albiga or Alby. They afterwards
spread into Italy, where they received the name of 'Patarenes,' as some
suppose from the 'sufferings' which they endured, though other fanciful
reasons are assigned for the bestowal of the name. The tenets of these
early reformers 'have been transmitted through various sects under the
different denominations of Vallenses, Paulicians, Patarenes, Cathari
(Puritans), Bogomili, Albigenses, Waldenses, Lollards, Bohemian Brethren
or Hussites, Lutherans, Calvinists, and other Protestants to the present
day.' No very lucid account of their articles of faith has been handed
down to our times, and some suppose that they entertained the Manichæan
doctrines of the existence of the two principles, and of the creation of
the spiritual world by the good, and of matter by the evil One.
Krasinski appears to favour this supposition; but it is far more
probable that, with the name indiscriminately bestowed as a term of
opprobrium upon all who differed from the canons of the Romish Church,
they have received the credit of supporting the doctrines of the
Manichæans. This much, however, is certain,--that they denied the
sovereignty of the Pope, the power of the priests, the efficacy of
prayers for the dead, and the existence of purgatory;[G] while they
rejected all images, relics, and the worship of the saints. Whether the
advent of the sect into Bosnia was from the Bulgarian or Italian side is
unknown; but, be this as it may, it is beyond a doubt that they were
most favourably received (in 1197) by Kulin, who was at that time Ban of
the province. His wisdom was so great, and his reign so prosperous, that
long after his death it was a proverbial saying in Bosnia, upon the
occurrence of a fruitful year, 'the times of Kulin are come back.' Both
he himself, his wife, and Daniel, Bishop of Bosnia, embraced the new
doctrines, which consequently gained ground rapidly in the country.
In obedience to a summons from Pope Innocent III., Kulin repaired to
Rome to give an account of his conduct and faith. Having succeeded in
diverting suspicions about his orthodoxy, he returned to Bosnia, where
he gave out that the Pope was well satisfied with his profession of
faith,--a slight equivocation, which will hardly bear an enquiry,--and
thus induced many more to join the Patarenes. Hearing of this, the Pope
requested the King of Hungary to compel Kulin to eject them from the
country, at the same time ordering Bernard, Archbishop of Spalatro,
publicly to excommunicate Daniel, the refractory Bishop.
'Never was heard such a terrible curse.
But what gave rise
To no little surprise
Was, that nobody seemed one penny the worse;'
though possibly the believer in the validity of Papal bulls, bans, and
so forth, may plead in excuse that the curse was never actually
pronounced. The King also contented himself with a friendly caution to
the Ban, who thenceforward demeaned himself with more circumspection. On
the death of Kulin, Andrew, King of Hungary, gave the Banate of Bosnia
to Zibislau, under whom the doctrines of the Patarenes continued to
flourish. The fears of Pope Honorius II. being aroused, he sent
Acconcio, his Legate, into Bosnia to suppress them. So far from
effecting this, he saw their numbers daily and hourly increase, until in
1222 they elected a Primate of their own, who resided on the confines of
Bulgaria, Croatia, and Dalmatia, and governed by his Vicars the filial
congregation of Italy and France.[H] They destroyed the cathedral of
Crescevo, and Bosnia became entirely subject to their influence. From
that time, until the latter part of the fourteenth century, they
contrived to keep a footing in the country, although subjected to much
persecution by successive Popes and the Kings of Hungary, and oftentimes
reduced to the greatest straits. Occasional glimpses of sunshine buoyed
up their hopes, and the following anecdote, quoted by Sir Gardner
Wilkinson, is illustrative of the sanguine view which they were
accustomed to take of the ways of Providence. 'Many of the Patarenes had
taken refuge, during the various persecutions, in the mountains of
Bosnia; and on the eve of St. Catherine (November 24) in 1367, a fire
was seen raging over the whole of the country they occupied, destroying
everything there, and leaving the mountains entirely denuded of wood.
The Roman Catholics considered this event to be a manifest judgement of
heaven against the wicked heretics; but the Patarenes looked on it as a
proof of divine favour, the land being thereby cleared for them and
adapted for cultivation.' In 1392 the sect flourished under Tuartko
(then King of Bosnia), and, further, made great progress during the
first half of the following century. Their cause was openly espoused by
Cosaccia, Duke of Santo Saba, or Herzegovina, and by John Paulovich
Voivode of Montenegro. So far all went well; but Stephen, King of
Bosnia, having in 1459 ordered all Patarenes to leave his kingdom or
abjure their doctrines, their cause received a severe shock, and 40,000
were obliged to take refuge in the Herzegovina, where they were welcomed
by Stephen Cosaccia. From that time no farther direct trace remains of
this important and widely-spreading sect; though Krasinski speaks of the
existence of a sect in Russia called 'Dookhoboitzi,' or combatants in
spirit, whose doctrines have great affinity to those professed by the
Patarenes, and whom he believes to have been transplanted from Bosnia to
Russia, their present country.
But this triumph of Papal oppression was not destined to be of long
duration. Already was the tide of Mussulman conquest threatening to
overrun Germany; and Bosnia, after suffering severely from the wars
between Hungary and the Turks, was conquered, and annexed by the latter
in 1465. The religious constancy of the Bosnian nobles was now sorely
tried, for they found themselves compelled to choose between their
religion and poverty, or recantation and wealth. Their decision was soon
made, and the greater portion renounced Christianity and embraced
Islamism, rather than relinquish those feudal privileges, for the
attainment of which they had originally deserted their national creed.
Their example was ere long followed by many of the inhabitants of the
towns, and thus an impassable gulf was placed between them and the great
body of the people, who remained faithful to Christianity, and regarded
the renegades with mistrust and abhorrence. These for the moment were
benefited greatly by their apostasy, receiving permission to retain not
only their own estates, but also to hold in fief those belonging to such
as had refused to deny Christ. With the bitterness characteristic of
renegades, they now became the most inveterate enemies of those whose
faith they had abjured, oppressing them by every means within their
power. The savage tyranny which they exercised would doubtless have
driven very many to emigration, had a place of refuge presented itself;
but in the existing condition of the surrounding countries such a course
would have in no way profited them, but would rather have aggravated
their misery. A few, indeed, succeeded in escaping into Hungary, but
the mass submitted to their fate, and were reduced to poverty and
insignificance.
The rancorous ill-treatment which they experienced at the hands of their
fanatical oppressors, was without doubt increased by the fact that these
found themselves a small and isolated band, all-powerful upon the
immediate spot they occupied, but surrounded by states which were
implacable enemies to their religion; while the remote position of these
provinces, and the difficulty of communication, have combined to render
the people, even now, less tolerant than the more legitimate devotees of
Mahometanism. That idea of superiority over other peoples and religions,
which the Mussulman faith inculcates, was eagerly embraced by them at
the time of their first perversion, and conspired to make them zealots
in their newly-adopted creed. The feeling was inherited, and even
augmented, with each succeeding generation, until it has become the
prominent feature of the race. To such an extent has this been indulged,
that the Bosniac Mussulmans of the present day not only despise all
other religions, but look upon the Mahommedans of other parts of the
empire as very little superior to the Christians. The apathy and
indifference to progress which has inevitably ensued upon the adoption
of Islamism, has made its effects strikingly apparent in these
provinces; and although entirely deprived of all those Seignorial
rights which their ancestors possessed, the Mussulman population appear
perfectly satisfied with the lazy independence procured for them by the
produce and rents of the land, of which they are the sole proprietors.
The Christians, on the other hand, are invariably the tenants, as it is
beneath the dignity of a Mussulman to turn his hand to any kind of
manual labour, i.e. so long as he can find a Christian to do it.
The Euchlemeh, or arrangement for the tenure of land, has long existed
in this part of the empire, and has worked well whenever it has not been
abused. The original terms of the contract provided that the proprietor
should give the land and the seed for sowing it, receiving in return
one-third of the produce in kind. The commission of which Kiamil Pacha
was President in 1853, endeavoured, whilst regulating the taxation of
Bosnia and Herzegovina, to ameliorate the condition of the tenant as
regards the rental of land. They decreed that he should be supplied with
animals, implements, seeds, and also a house in which to live, while
yielding to the proprietor in return from 25 to 50 per cent. of the
products, according to the more or less prolific nature of land in the
different parts of the provinces. These terms were cheerfully accepted
by the agriculturalists, by whom they were considered just. The internal
state of the Ottoman empire, unfortunately, renders it impossible that
these conditions should in all cases be adhered to, and without doubt
the tenants are often compelled to pay from 10 to 20 per cent. more than
the legal rent. These instances, however, are less frequent than they
were a few years ago, and very much less frequent than the depreciators
of Turkey would have us to believe. The most scrupulous observance of
the terms of the Euchlemeh will be enforced by the Ottoman government if
it be alive to its own interests, and the more so that the infraction of
it has been, and will always be, turned to account by those who would
fain see rebellion and discord prevailing in the Turkish provinces,
rather than unity and peace.
In 1860 no fewer than nine Servian emissaries were caught in the
Herzegovina, who were endeavouring to fan the discontent and ill-feeling
already existing amongst the agricultural classes. That province has
indeed been for a long time employed by the advocates of Panslavism, or
by the enemies of Turkey in general, as a focus of agitation, where
plans are hatched and schemes devised, the object of which is to
disorganise and impede the consolidation of the empire. The conduct of
Servia, as well as of greater and more important nations, has been most
reprehensible, and with it the forbearance of Turkey, notwithstanding
the corruptness of her government and the fanaticism of the Mussulman
population, has contrasted most favourably. Little wonder, then, that
ill-blood should have existed between these rival factions, and that the
party possessing power should have been prompted to use it for the
oppression of those whom they have had too much reason to regard as
their implacable foes. Yet, in spite of these opposing elements, many
points of striking resemblance still remain inspired by, and indicative
of, their former consanguinity of origin and identity of creed. The most
important of these, perhaps, is their retention of the Slavonic tongue,
which is employed to the exclusion of Turkish, almost as universally by
the Mussulmans as by the Christians. Some of their customs, too, prove
that a little spark of nationality yet exists, which their adoption of
Islamism has failed to eradicate. Thus, for example, the principle of
adopted brotherhood is eminently Slavonic in its origin. The tie is
contracted in the following manner:--Two persons prick their fingers,
the blood from each wound being sucked by the other. This engagement is
considered very binding, and, curiously enough, it is sometimes entered
into by Christians and Mussulmans mutually. Again, a man cuts the hair
of a child, and thus constitutes himself the 'Coom,' or, to a certain
degree, assumes the position of a godfather. It not unfrequently happens
that a Mussulman adopts a Christian child, and vice versâ.
In their domestic arrangements they vie in discomfort and want of
cleanliness, notwithstanding the post-prandial ablutions common to all
Easterns.
The Mussulman females, up to the time of their marriage, show themselves
unreservedly, and generally appear in public unveiled; while in one
respect, at any rate, they have the advantage of many more civilised
Christians than those of Turkey,--that they are permitted, in the matter
of a husband, to choose for themselves, and are wooed in all due form.
Parents there, as elsewhere, are apt to consider themselves the best
judges of the position and income requisite to insure the happiness of
their daughters, and where such decision is at variance with the young
lady's views, elopement is resorted to. Of the amount of resistance
encountered by the bridegrooms on these occasions, I regret that I am
not in a position to hazard an opinion. Polygamy is almost unknown, a
second wife being seldom taken during the lifetime of the first. Since
it is to the expense attendant upon this luxury that such abstinence is
probably to be attributed, it really reflects great credit upon the
Bosnian Benedicts that the meal-sack has been so seldom brought into
play,--that ancient and most expeditious Court of Probate and Divorce in
matrimonial cases. After marriage, the women conceal themselves more
strictly than in most other parts of Turkey. Perhaps in this the
husbands act upon the homœopathic principle, that prevention is better
than cure; for divorces are unheard of, and are considered most
disgraceful. Marriages are contracted at a much earlier age by the
Christian than by the Mahommedan women, and it is no uncommon thing to
find wives of from twelve to fourteen years of age. This abominable
custom is encouraged by the Roman Catholic clergy, whose revenues are
thereby increased.
[Footnote E: Krasinski.]
[Footnote F: See Sir G. Wilkinson's 'Dalmatia,' Napier's 'Florentine
History,' and Sismondi's 'Literature du Midi de l'Europe.']
[Footnote G: Sismondi.]
[Footnote H: Gibbon.]