Herzegovina--Boundaries--Extent--Physical
Features--Mountains--Mineral Products--Story of Hadji Ali
Pacha--Forests--Austrian Timber
Company--Saw-Mill--Rivers--Towns--Villages--Population--Greek
Catholics--Church Dignitaries--Roman Catholics--Monks--Franciscan
College--Moral Depravity--Fine Field for Missionary Labour.
Herzegovina[C] or Bosnia Inferior, formerly the duchy of Santo Saba, is
bounded on the N. by Bosnia, on the E. by Servia, on the W. by Dalmatia,
and on the S. by Montenegro and the Adriatic.
Its greatest length, from Duvno in the NW., to Priepolie in the S., is
about a hundred and twenty miles, and its greatest breadth from Konitza,
on the Bosnian frontier, to the port of Klek, is about seventy-two
miles.[D] It contains an approximate area of 8,400 square miles, with a
population, of about thirty-five souls to the square mile.[D] A glance
at any map, imperfect in detail as those yet published have been, will
convey a tolerable idea of the nature of the country.
The ranges of mountains which intersect the greater part of the province
are a portion of the Dinaric Alps. Along the Dalmatian and Montenegrin
frontiers these are barren and intensely wild, and in many places, from
the deep fissures and honeycomb formation of the rocks, impassable to
aught save the chamois, the goat, or the indigenous mountaineer.
Proceeding inland, the country assumes a more habitable aspect: plains
and pasture-lands capable of high cultivation are found at intervals,
while even the mountains assume a more fertile appearance, and have a
better depth of soil, which is well adapted for the cultivation of the
olive and the vine. Dense forests, too, of average growth cover the
mountain sides as we approach the Bosnian frontier, which, although
inferior to those of Bosnia itself, would prove most remunerative to the
government were they properly worked. But, unfortunately, the principle
of isolation which the Porte has adopted with regard to these remote
provinces, together with the want of enterprise among its inhabitants,
the result of four hundred years of indolence on the one hand and
oppression on the other, renders it problematical whether their ample
resources will ever be developed. Should Turkey, however, arise from her
lethargy, should genuine civilisation spread its branches over the land,
we may then confidently anticipate a glorious future for her
south-Slavonic provinces, doubting not that they will some day become
'the noblest jewel in their monarch's diadem.'
To convey an accurate idea of a province so little known as the
Herzegovina, it will be best to enumerate the various physical features
by which it is distinguished. Thus the highest and most important
mountains are Dormitor in the district of Drobniak, on the Montenegrin
frontier, and Velesh, which forms a rugged background to the plain of
Mostar, the highest point being 6,000 feet above the level of the sea.
Besides these, there are many others of nearly equal altitude, viz.
Flam, Hergud, Prievolie, Vrau, Hako, Fartar, Belen, Stermoshnik,
Bielevoda, Chabolie, Vrabcha, and Zavola. The perfect sea of rock which
the southern part of the province presents to the eye is of grey
limestone, varied however by a slatey stratum. Of the mineral products
of the mountains little accurate knowledge prevails; gold, silver, and
lead are said to exist, but I could not hear of their having ever been
found to any extent. A firman was granted some years ago to one Hadji
Ali Pacha, ceding to him for fifteen years the privilege of exploring
Bosnia and Herzegovina, and working any mines which he might there
discover. His application for this firman does not, however, in any way
prove the existence of these minerals throughout the country generally,
since it has proved to have been a mere cloak for diverting suspicion
from many previous dishonest actions of which he had been guilty. His
story is worthy of narration, as being no bad instance of the career of
a Turkish _parvenu_, whose only qualifications were a little education
and a large amount of effrontery.
Hadji Ali Pacha commenced his career as a clerk in the pay of the great
Mehemet Ali Pacha, Viceroy of Egypt, but, having deserted to the Turks,
he was employed by them in the capacity of Uzbashee or Captain. Fearful
of falling into the hands of the Egyptians, he fled from his post, and,
having made his way to Constantinople, contrived, by scheming and
bribery, not only to efface the memory of the past, but to secure the
appointment of Kaimakan or Lieut.-Colonel, with which grade he was sent
to Travnik in command of a regiment. Tahir Pacha, the Governor of
Bosnia, had about this time been informed of the existence of some gold
mines near Travnik, and ordered Hadji Ali to obtain samples for
transmission to the Porte. This he did, taking care to retain all the
valuable specimens, and forwarding those of inferior quality, which, on
their arrival at Constantinople, were declared worthless. No sooner was
this decision arrived at, than Hadji Ali imported the necessary
machinery and an Austrian mechanic, to separate the gold from the ores,
and in this way amassed immense wealth. Rumours having got abroad of
what was going on, and the suspicions of Tahir being aroused, the
unfortunate Austrian was put secretly out of the way, and, as a blind,
the unprincipled ruffian procured the firman to which allusion has been
made. It need hardly be said that he never availed himself of the
privileges which it conferred upon him. Some time after these
transactions, he applied for leave to visit Austria, on the plea of
ill-health, but doubtless with the view of changing the gold. This was
refused, and he was obliged to employ a Jew, who carried it to Vienna,
and disposed of it there. In 1850, when Omer Pacha came to restore order
in Bosnia, which had then revolted, Hadji Ali was sent with two
battalions to the relief of another detachment; upon this occasion he
communicated with the enemy, who cut off his rear-guard, and otherwise
roughly handled the Turkish troops. Upon this, Omer Pacha put him in
chains, and would have shot him, as he richly deserved, had he not known
that his enemies at Constantinople would not fail to distort the true
features of the case. He therefore sent him to Constantinople, where he
was shortly afterwards released, and employed his gold to such good
purpose, that he was actually sent down as Civil Governor to Travnik,
which he had so recently left a prisoner convicted of robbery and
treason. He was, however, soon dismissed for misconduct, and entered
once more into private speculations. In 1857 he purchased the tithes of
Bosnia and Herzegovina, and employed such ruffians to collect them as to
make perfect martyrs of the people, some of whom were even killed by his
agents. Exasperated beyond endurance, the people of Possavina rose en
masse, and although the movement was put down without difficulty, it
doubtless paved the way for the discord and rebellion which has been
attended with such calamitous results. This is precisely one of those
cases which has brought such odium on the Turkish government, and which
may so easily be avoided for the future, always providing that the Porte
be sincere in its oft-repeated protestations of a desire for genuine
reform. Ali Pacha was at Mostar in the beginning of 1858, when the
movement began, but was afraid to venture into the revolted districts to
collect his tithes. The Governor, therefore, made him Commandant of the
Herzegovinian irregulars, in which post he vindicated the character
which he had obtained for cruelty and despotism. Subsequently he was
appointed Kaimakan of Trebigné, but the European Consuls interfered, and
he has now decamped, owing a large sum to government, the remnant of his
contract for the tithes.
The sides of some of the mountains are covered, as I have before said,
with dense forests of great value. There the oak, ash, elm, beech,
walnut, red and white pine, and the red and yellow maple, grow in rich
profusion, awaiting only the hand of man to shape them into 'the tall
mast' and the 'stately ship.' But man, in these benighted lands, is
blind to the sources of wealth with which his country teems, and to
nature it is left in the lapse of years to 'consume the offspring she
has herself produced.' The difficulty of transporting the timber to a
market has been always alleged by the natives as their reason for
neglecting to turn the forests to account; but this is a paltry excuse,
for with abundance of rivers to float it to the coast, and a neighbour
so anxious to monopolise the trade of the country as Austria has shown
herself, little doubt can be entertained of the possibility of its
advantageous disposal. As far back as 1849 an Austrian Company,
foreseeing the benefits which would accrue from the employment of
capital in these parts, obtained a concession of the pine forests for
twenty years. Saw-mills were built near Mostar, and roads and shoots
were constructed. About 5,000 logs had been cut and exported, when the
works were stopped by Omer Pacha on his arrival to suppress rebellion in
the country in 1850. This arbitrary measure on his part has been much
reprehended, and does without doubt require explanation.
It should, however, be remembered that the contract, which was likely to
prove most remunerative to the Company, and of but little advantage to
the Turkish government, had been granted by Ali Pacha of Stolatz, the
last Civil Governor, to whom a tithe of the products was being paid. He
had in the meanwhile thrown off his allegiance, and consequently the
only blame which can attach to Omer Pacha is a want of judgement, caused
by over-zeal for the interests of his government. The case was
afterwards litigated, and the Porte was mulcted 200,000 florins as an
indemnity for their breach of the contract. This was liquidated from Ali
Pacha's property, and the firman has been renewed for fourteen years
since 1859. The Austrian government has, however, forbidden the Company
to avail themselves of it, as its members are engaged in legal
proceedings. The only saw-mill which I met with in the country was one
at Boona, worked by an Hungarian, who is apparently doing a lucrative
business.
The rivers in the country are of no great size or importance, but might
in most cases be turned to account for the transport of timber or for
irrigation. The waters of some of the large rivers, it is true, are
injurious to vegetation from their hardness, but this does not apply to
all. After the Narenta, the following are the most important:--the
Trebenitza, Pria, Taro and Moratcha, Yanitza, Boona, Boonitza, Bregava,
Kruppa, Trebisat or Trebitza, Drechnitza, Grabovitza, Biela,
Kaladjin-Polok, and the Drina. It might be expected from its vicinity to
Bulgaria, where such fine lakes are found, that the same would be the
case in Herzegovina; but it is not so: Blato, which is marked as a lake
in all maps, is only such in winter, as with early spring the waters
disappear.
The only towns in the province worthy of mention, besides Mostar, are
Fochia and Taschlijeh. They each contain about 10,000 inhabitants. The
other towns are nothing more than large villages, with a bazaar. They
are the seats of the district governments, such as Stolatz, Trebigné,
Konitza, Niksich, Duvno, Chainitza, and others. The houses in these are
not conspicuous for cleanliness, while those in the smaller villages are
still less desirable as residences. They generally consist of some
scores of huts, built of rough stones, without windows or chimneys, and
roofed with boards, which are again covered with straw. They seldom
contain more than one room, which the family occupies, in conjunction
with the poultry and domestic animals. The furniture of these luxurious
abodes consists of a hand-loom, two or three iron pots, a few earthen
vessels, and some wooden spoons. The bedding is a coarse woollen
blanket, which serves as a cloak in rainy or wet weather, and as a
mattress and coverlet for the whole family, without distinction of sex.
The population of the Herzegovina amounts to about 182,000, divided as
follows:--
Catholics 52,000
Greek Church 70,000
Mussulmans 60,000
Originally these were all of the same stock; and their present
divisions, while constituting an element of safety for Turkey, are most
prejudicial to the well-being of the country. The Greek faith
predominates in the southern and eastern parts of the province. Its
adherents are distinguished for their activity and cunning,--qualities
which have rendered them far wealthier than their brethren of the
Catholic communion. The possession of comparative wealth, and the
consciousness of the moral support granted them by Russia, has made them
presumptuous and over-bearing, hating alike all sects and creeds which
differ from their own. Their ignorance is only equalled by the
fanaticism which often results therefrom; and so bitter is their
detestation of the Roman Catholics, that more than one instance has been
known of its leading to foul acts of murder. Unoffending peasants have
been taken in the revolted districts, and ordered to kneel and make the
sign of the cross, to prove the truth of their assertions that they were
not Mussulmans. The wretched creatures confidently did so in accordance
with the Roman Catholic form, and their lives were unceremoniously
forfeited to the bigotry and ferocity of their unrelenting judges. Nor
are either tolerance or humanity in any way advocated by the priests,
who are generally as illiterate and narrow-minded as their flocks, and
whose influence, which is very great, is generally employed for evil.
The priesthood are divided into Archimandrite, Igumens (chiefs of
monasteries), Monks, and Priests, all of whom are natives of the
province, where their whole lives have been passed. Of late years,
however, many have been sent to receive their education in Russia. Some
of these have now returned, but have not given signs of any desire to
ameliorate the spiritual condition of the people. The Church has always
been governed by a Vladika or Metropolitan, named from Constantinople.
Like most other appointments from that capital, this was generally paid
for, and its possessor consequently did not hesitate to employ every
means in his power to reimburse himself. This, and the fact that he was
never a native of the country, rendered him most unpopular; so that
while the priests (little as they may deserve it) are regarded with
reverence by the people, the Vladika was respected by neither the one
nor the other. At present the office is vacant, none having been
appointed since the demise of the last who occupied the episcopal chair.
That event occurred in the commencement of 1861, and his attempts at
extortion were so frequent and undisguised, that his death must have
been felt as a great relief by the people. Petitions were sent at that
time to Constantinople, praying for the appointment of a Slavish
Metropolitan; but, independently of the difficulty of finding anyone of
sufficient education among the Bosnian clergy, political considerations
have induced the Porte to prevent the Patriarch complying with the
demand; for, however bad in other respects they may have been, the
Metropolitans have always remembered that their allegiance was due to
the Patriarch of Constantinople, and not to the schismatic branch of the
Greek Church, over which the Czar exercises both temporal and spiritual
sway. Were a Slavish Metropolitan appointed, Russian influence would be
dangerously augmented, and the task of transferring the allegiance of
the people from their proper ecclesiastical head to the Russian Emperor,
as has been attempted in Bulgaria, would here become easy of
accomplishment.
In the N. and W. the Romish faith finds the greatest number of
supporters, who look to Austria as their guiding star in all matters
connected with religion. In their ranks are comprised the
agriculturalists and artisans of the province, few being engaged in
commerce. As regards education or enlightenment they are no farther
advanced than their Greek compatriots: few can read or write their own
language, and the knowledge of any other tongue is most exceptional.
Learning, in its broader sense, is indeed confined exclusively to the
convents, and, until very recently, no attempt of any kind was made by
the priests to promote a desire for education or advancement among the
people, their whole thoughts being bent on self-aggrandisement, and the
acquisition of personal wealth. Careful enquiry has established the fact
that no less than 60,000_l._ is annually paid in fees, penances, and
gifts to the Church by the Roman Catholic section of the population; and
we may fairly infer that the Greek priests extort an equally large sum.
Of late schools have been established in different parts of the
province, but the subjects of education are too confined to work any
salutary change in the rising generation. Nor is it probably intended
that such should be the case.
The Roman Catholics cordially return the hatred of the Greeks, marriages
with whom are forbidden by the Catholic clergy. They are also inimical
to the Mussulman population, by whom they are regarded as serfs. But
this hostility is nurtured in secret, rarely displaying itself in overt
acts of aggression. Four hundred years of oppression have completely
broken their spirit, and they only ask to be allowed to enjoy in peace a
fair portion of the fruits of their labour.
The Church is governed by two bishops. One, resident at Mostar, bears
the title of Bishop of Azotto, and Vicar-Apostolic of the Herzegovina.
The other, called the Bishop of Trebigné, lives at Ragusa, which is also
included in his see. He has, however, a Vicar resident in the district
of Stolatz. As in Bosnia, the monks are all of the Franciscan order.
Considerable attention is paid to their education, and they are in every
way immeasurably superior to the parochial clergy. In connection with
that brotherhood a college has been for some years established, about
twelve miles distant from Mostar. The subjects of education there are
Latin, Italian, Slavish, Church History, and Theology. From this college
the students proceed to Rome, where they are admitted into the
Franciscan order.
In the above remarks, I have endeavoured to show that the Christianity
which exists in these provinces is merely nominal, since it is devoid of
all those gentle and humanising principles which should distinguish it
from Islamism, whose tenets have been ever propagated by conquest and
the sword. The vices which more especially accompany and mar the beauty
of true Christian civilisation here hold unrestrained dominion, and both
Greeks and Catholics present a painful combination of western cunning
and intrigue and oriental apathy, while they are devoid of that spirit
of devotion and dignified resignation to the will of Providence which
preeminently characterise the religion of Mahomet. Living on the
confines of the two hemispheres, they have inherited the sins of each,
without the virtues of either the one or the other. Nearly all adults
are addicted to drunkenness, while the use of foul and indelicate
language is almost universal,--men, women, and children employing it in
common conversation. So long as such a state of things shall prevail, it
is clearly impossible that any material improvement can be brought
about; and until the people show some inclination to improve their own
condition, the sympathy or consideration of others is uncalled-for and
misplaced. The perpetual Russian whine about eight millions of
Christians being held in galling subjection by four millions of Turks is
a miserable deception, which, although it may serve as a pretext for
their own repeated acts of interference, cannot mislead those who have
seen anything of these countries, or who have been brought into contact
with their Christian inhabitants. The most effective course, probably,
which either the bitterest enemy or the warmest friend of the Ottoman
government could pursue, would be to disseminate the seeds of true
Christianity throughout the length and breadth of the land. And I say
this advisedly; for on the future conduct of the Porte would depend
whether such a course might lead to the establishment of Turkish
supremacy, or to its irretrievable overthrow. That an enlightened
nation, 'at unity in itself,' could cast off the yoke of an oppressive
and tottering despotism can easily be imagined, while, on the other
hand, a throne based upon principles of justice and progression would
acquire fresh stability with each step made by its subjects in the path
of civilisation. It is, indeed, strange that so fine a field for British
missionary labour has been so long uncared-for and untried. Nowhere is
there more ample scope for exertion of this nature than in the European
provinces of Turkey; for while the Christian population could not but
contrast the simple purity of the missionary life with the vicious
habits and grasping avarice of their own clergy, the Mussulmans would
see Christianity in a very different light from that in which they have
been accustomed to regard it. Nor would any obstacles be thrown in the
way by the Turkish government; nay, instances have even occurred of
Protestant missionaries receiving encouragement and support: for,
whatever may be said to the contrary, no nation is more tolerant of the
exercise of other religions than these same much-abused Moslems.
Whatever is to be done, however, should be done at once, for never was
it more urgently needed. The American struggle seems to have paralysed
the missionary labours of that nation, which had heretofore displayed
much energy in proclaiming the glad tidings of great joy in these
benighted lands. For England, then, it would appear, is reserved the
noble task of rescuing these unfortunates from a state of moral
darkness, as profound as that which envelopes the savage tribes of
central Africa, or the remotest islands of the Pacific. That we have
remained so long indifferent to the urgent appeals of the talented and
earnest, though somewhat prejudiced, advocate of Slavonic institutions,
Count Valerian Krasinski, is a matter of surprise and deep regret; for
surely no country can be more replete with interest to Protestant
England than that which may be regarded as the cradle of Protestantism,
and whose fastnesses afforded a refuge during four centuries of
persecution to the 'early reformers of the Church, the men who supplied
that link in the chain which connected the simplicity of primitive
doctrines with the present time.'
The affinity which exists between the Church of England in the early
days of the Reformation and the Pragmatic section which glory in Huss
and Jerome, is too close to be easily overlooked. Nor need Bosnia (taken
collectively) succumb in interest to any Slavonic province, whether it
be regarded as the stronghold of freedom of religious opinion, or as the
scene of one of the greatest and most important triumphs of Islamism.
[Footnote C: Or the territory governed by a Herzog or Duke.]
[Footnote D: This includes Austrian subjects, who are not included in
the statistics.]