The bituminous coal-mines of Chesterfield, near Richmond, are connected
with the river James by a short railway adapted only for horses, which
is 12 miles long, and cost 15,000 dollars a mile, inclusive of the
cars, depots, &c. Once delivered at the river, the coal is easily
transported along the whole coast, where it comes into competition with
the English and Nova Scotia coals.
The anthracite beds of Pennsylvania have caused the construction of a
much more extensive series of works. At present hardly any other fuel
is consumed on the coast for domestic and manufacturing purposes than
the anthracite, which is found only in a small section of Pennsylvania,
lying between the Susquehanna and the Delaware. It gives a more intense
and sustained heat than wood, which had also become very dear, and is
much better suited to the rigourous winters, which are experienced
in the United States, under the latitude of Naples. It is also much
preferable to the bituminous coal, which is the only sort of coal in
use with us; it makes no smoke, and is much more cleanly, not soiling
the carpets and drapery. The fire is very easily kept up, and a grate
needs to be filled only two or three times during the whole twentyfour
hours, to maintain a fire night and day. The servants, whom it spares
a great deal of trouble, prefer it, and on this point, as on several
others, their opinion is more important than that of their masters.
The only inconvenience attending it is, that it sometimes diffuses a
sulphurous smell. It is also beginning to take the place of wood in the
steamboats. The anthracite trade has, therefore, become considerable,
and several canals and railroads have been made or are making, to
transport the fuel from the mines to the points of consumption.
The principal of these lines are the following: 1. The Schuylkill
canal, which extends from Philadelphia to the vicinity of the mines
about the head of the Schuylkill. Its length from Philadelphia to Port
Carbon, is 108 miles; it cost, inclusive of the double locks, 3,000,000
dollars, or 28,000 dollars a mile, and yields a net income of 20 to 25
per cent.; 400,000 tons of coal are annually brought down upon it. 2.
The Lehigh canal runs from the Delaware to the mines near the heads of
the Lehigh; it is 46 miles long, and cost 1,560,000 dollars, or 34,000
dollars a mile. 3. The lateral canal along the Delaware starts from
Easton, at the mouth of the Lehigh, and ends at Bristol, the head of
navigation for sea-vessels. It transports to Philadelphia, the coal
that is brought down the Lehigh canal; it is 60 miles long, and cost
1,238,000 dollars, or 20,600 dollars a mile. This work was executed by
the State of Pennsylvania, and has been before enumerated among the
State works. 4. The Morris canal starts from Easton, and ends at Jersey
City, opposite New York. It serves to supply the New York market with
coal. The change of level is here for the most part effected, not by
locks, but by inclined planes, the operation of which is very simple;
the length of this work is 102 miles, cost 2,650,000 dollars, or 25,000
dollars a mile. 5. The Delaware and Hudson canal extends from the
Roundout creek on the Hudson, near Kingston, 90 miles above New York,
to the anthracite mines near the upper Delaware. The coal is brought
down to the canal, at Honesdale, from the mountains, at Carbondale,
on a railroad 16 miles in length; the canal is 109 miles long, and
cost 2,250,000 dollars or 20,000 dollars a mile; the railroad cost
300,000 dollars or 17,500 dollars a mile. 6. The Pottsville and Sunbury
railroad is designed to bring down to the Schuylkill the products of
the mines lying in the heart of the mountains between the Susquehanna
and the heads of the Schuylkill. It is remarkable for the boldness
of the inclined planes, some of which have an inclination of 25 and
33 per cent., and which are worked by very ingenious and economical
contrivances. It is 45 miles in length, and cost 1,120,000 dollars, or
25,000 dollars a mile. 7. The Philadelphia and Reading railroad, now
in progress, will enter into competition with the Schuylkill canal; it
is 56 miles in length, and cost, including the necessary apparatus,
26,300 dollars a mile. It is proposed to continue it to Pottsville,
35 miles from Reading; there would then be a continuous railroad from
Philadelphia to the centre of the Susquehanna valley.
Beside these seven great lines, several mining companies have
constructed various railways of less importance, which branch from
them in different directions. At the end of 1834, there were 165 miles
of these smaller works, constructed at an expense of about 1,125,000
dollars, which, added to the 542 miles, and 13,280,000 of the seven
works above enumerated, gives a total of 707 miles and 14,400,000
dollars, or deducting the Delaware canal, which has been before
reckoned, of 647 miles and 13,162,000 dollars. The aggregate length
of all the works which I have already enumerated, including only those
that are finished or far advanced, is 3,025 miles of canal, and 1,825
miles of railroad, made at a cost of above 112 millions. If we add
several detached works, such as the Ithaca and Owego, the Lexington
and Louisville, the Tuscumbia and Decatur (Alabama) railroads, and
various canals in New England, Pennsylvania, Georgia, &c., we shall
have a total of 3,250 miles of canal, and 2,000 miles of railroad,
constructed at an expense of upwards of 120 million dollars. (See _Note
22_.) The impulse is, therefore, given, the movement goes on with
increasing speed, the whole country is becoming covered with works in
every direction. If I were to attempt to enumerate all the railroads,
of which the routes are under survey, which have been or are on the
point of being authorised by charters from the several legislatures,
for which the subscription is about to be opened, or has already been
filled up, I should be obliged to mention all the towns in the Union.
A town of 10,000 inhabitants, which has not its railroad, looks upon
itself with that feeling of shame, which our first parents experienced
in the terrestrial paradise, when, after having eaten of the fruit of
the tree of knowledge, they saw that they were naked.
I have here spoken of the more perfect means of intercommunication,
canals and railroads, and not of common roads. If I had undertaken
to speak of these, I should have mentioned at their head, the great
work called the National or Cumberland road, which, starting from
Washington, or strictly speaking, from Cumberland, on the Potomac,
strikes the Ohio at Wheeling, and extends westwards, across the
centre of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, to the Mississippi; it has
been constructed wholly at the expense of the Federal government, and
up to the present time there have been expended upon it 5,400,000
dollars. It was begun in 1806, and is now nearly finished to Vandalia
in Illinois. A dispute between Illinois and Missouri in respect to its
termination, has delayed the completion of the last division. From
Washington to Vandalia, the distance is 800 miles, and from Cumberland
to Vandalia, 675 miles. The doctrine of the unconstitutionality of
Congress engaging in internal improvements having prevailed since the
accession of General Jackson to the presidency, Congress has offered
the National Road to the States within which it lies, and they have
accepted it on condition of its being first put in a state of perfect
repair. Several of the States have also spent considerable sums in
improving the condition of their roads; South Carolina, for instance,
has devoted about a million and a half to this object.
The public works of the United States are generally managed with
economy, as the statements above made testify; for the cost has been
much less than that of similar works in Europe, although the wages
of labour are two or three times higher than on the old continent.
The canals constructed by the States are, nevertheless, pretty well
finished; their dimensions are less than those of our canals, but
greater than those of England; the locks are almost always of hewn
stone.[CI] The bridges, viaducts, and aqueducts are generally wooden
superstructures resting on abutments and piers of common masonry.
The river-dams are always of wood. The railroads constructed by the
States, those of Pennsylvania in particular, have been built at a great
expense; they have a double track with stone viaducts and some tunnels;
the rails are wholly of iron, resting on stone blocks or sleepers. The
Lowell railroad company also wished to have their road constructed in
the most solid manner, and have displayed a luxury of granite, which,
if not injurious, is certainly superfluous. The Baltimore and Ohio
railroad has two tracks, but except for a short distance is on wood. In
the Northern States and near the large towns most of the railroads have
an iron edge rail and a roadway prepared for two tracks, but with only
one track laid. Such are the Worcester, Providence, and Amboy railways,
and such will be the Philadelphia and Reading road; but the rails rest
upon wooden cross-pieces, which, independently of their cheapness,
have some advantage over the stone sleepers, in regard to wear of the
cars, superior ease of motion, and greater facility of repairs. Those
railroads in the North on which there is less travel, and which are
more remote from the large towns, and all those of the South, have
but a single track, with no preparation for a second, and consist of
an iron bar, about two inches wide and half an inch thick, resting on
longitudinal sleepers.
On most of the American railroads, the inclinations are much greater
than what in Europe are usually considered the _maxima_. A rise of 35
feet to the mile, for instance, seems moderate to American engineers,
and even 50 feet does not frighten them. Experience has shown that
these inclinations, the latter of which is double of the _maximum_
established by our engineers, do not endanger the safety of travellers.
They do, indeed, diminish the rate of speed, unless additional power
is applied at certain points, to increase the force of traction; but
the Americans think that these inconveniences are more than overborne
by the reduction of the first cost of construction. The curves are
also greater; on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, on which locomotives
are used, there are several with a radius of 400 or 500 feet, but
the consequence is, that on this road the mean rate of speed does
not exceed 12 or 13 miles an hour, only half as great as that on
the Liverpool railroad, but twice as great as that of a coach on an
ordinary road. In general, however, the American engineers endeavour
to avoid curves of less than 1000 feet radius. In France the Board of
Public Works (_Ponts et chaussées_), in their surveys and plans, have
fixed upon 2,700 feet as the _minimum_.
On some of the American railroads, however, even the rules of European
science have been exceeded; on the Lowell railroad the _minimum_
radius is 3,000 feet; on the Boston and Providence railroad there is
no curve of a less radius than 6,000 feet. The rate of velocity on the
American railroads is as various as the manner of their construction,
and the amount of their inclinations and curvatures. On the Boston and
Lowell road the rate is nearly 25 miles an hour, on the Boston and
Providence and Worcester roads it is about 20 miles; on the Camden and
Amboy railroad the mean velocity has been reduced to 15 miles; on the
Charleston and Augusta road, it is only about 12, and it is still less
on the Baltimore and Ohio railway.
One of the chief means of economy in the construction of these works
in this country, is the use of wood for bridges. The Americans are
unequalled in the art of constructing wooden bridges; those of
Switzerland, about which so much has been said, are clumsy and heavy
compared with theirs. The American bridges have arches of 100 and 200
feet span,[CJ] and they are not less remarkable for their cheapness,
than for their boldness. The bridge over the Susquehanna at Columbia
is 6,000 feet long and cost 130,000 dollars; it is roofed over, has
two carriageways and two side-ways for foot passengers. In general
the wooden superstructure of a covered bridge, with a double carriage
way, may be built at the rate of 8,000 to 14,000 dollars, according to
the locality and the character of the work, per 600 feet; a similar
structure with us would be built of hewn stone, and would cost at least
200,000 to 300,000 dollars. The masonry is generally of uncut stone,
or of undressed hewn stone, and is not, therefore, expensive. Three
different plans are followed in the construction of bridges; one is
that of a carpenter Burr, a second that of Col. Long, and the third,
which is the newest, most interesting, and most suitable for railroads,
on account of its firmness, is that of Mr Town; they are all remarkable
for requiring scarcely any iron. There are, however, some bridges
of hewn stone on the American railroads; such is the Thomas Viaduct
over the Patapsco, on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, wholly of fine
granite; it is 700 feet long, and cost only 120,000 dollars, although
it has two road-ways, and is 60 feet high.
The greatest difficulty which the Americans encountered in the
execution of their public works, was not to procure the necessary
capital, but to find men capable of directing operations. In this
respect also, New York has done the Union signal service; the
engineers, who were formed by the construction of the Erie canal, have
diffused the benefits of the experience acquired in that work, over
the whole country. Mr Wright, the most eminent among them, and still
the most active of American engineers, notwithstanding his advanced
age, has been engaged in the superintendence of an inconceivable number
of undertakings.[CK] His name is associated with the construction
of canals from the Chesapeake to the Ohio, from the Delaware to the
Chesapeake, from the Hudson to the Delaware, from the James to the
Kanawha, on the St. Lawrence, and even on the Welland, as well as with
those of the railroads just mentioned. Within the last ten years the
number of able engineers in the United States has become considerable,
and they have written the records of their skill and science on the
soil of their country. General Bernard contributed not a little
to this result, by carrying with him into the New World the most
improved processes of European art, and setting an example of their
application. Mr Moncure Robinson, also a pupil of the French schools
of science, who excels in the art of combining great economy with
great solidity and neatness of execution, has constructed the inclined
planes of the Portage Railroad over the Alleghany, and has built the
Chesterfield, Petersburg and Roanoke, the Little Schuylkill, and the
Winchester railroads; he is, at present, engaged on the Pottsville
and Sunbury, the Philadelphia and Reading, and the Fredericksburg
and Richmond roads. Major McNeil has just finished the Boston and
Providence railway, and is engaged on the Stonington and the Baltimore
and Susquehanna roads. Mr Douglass, after having completed the Morris
canal, and the Brooklyn and Jamaica railroad, is preparing, for
the coming season, the operations on the New York water-works. Mr
Fessenden, who has executed the Worcester railroad, is now engaged on
the Eastern and Western railroads on the right and left of Boston. Mr
Knight, the principal engineer of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad,
is occupied in devising plans for topping the Alleghanies. The late
Mr Canvass White assisted in the construction of the Louisville and
Portland canal, and had finished the fine canal from the Raritan to the
Delaware, not long before his death. Mr Allen has built the Charleston
and Augusta railroad. Mr Jervis, who is now directing a part of the
great works of canalisation in New York, constructed the Carbondale and
Honesdale road.
To supply the want of men of science, demanded by the spirit of
enterprise, the Federal government authorises the officers of the
engineer corps and of the topographical engineers to enter into the
service of the companies. It also employs them itself, in surveying
routes and preparing plans, or constructing works on its own account.
General Gratiot, the chief engineer, therefore, performs the duties
of president of a board of public works (_directeur-général des
ponts et chaussées_). Cols. Albert and Kearney of the topographical
engineers, take an active part in the construction of the great canal
from the Chesapeake to the Ohio, of which the Federal government is
the principal share-holder. Capt. Turnbull superintends the canal from
Georgetown to Alexandria; Capt. Delafield the works on the National
Road, and Capt. Talcott the improvements of the navigation of the
Hudson. Col. Long passes from route to route, and conducts at one time
the surveys from Memphis to Savannah, at another those from Portland to
Montreal and Quebec. On the other hand, architects become engineers,
and Mr Strickland of Philadelphia, and Mr Latrobe of Baltimore,
superintend the construction of the railroad between these two cities;
and even simple merchants take upon themselves the responsibility of
great works, as in the case of Mr Jackson of Boston, who is in fact,
chief engineer of the Lowell railroad.
The spectacle of a young people, executing, in the short space of
fifteen years, a series of works, which the most powerful States of
Europe with a population three or four times as great, would have
shrunk from undertaking, is in truth a noble sight. The advantages
which result from these enterprises to the public prosperity are
incalculable, and the political effects are not less important. These
numerous routes, which are traversed with so much ease and speed,
will contribute to the maintenance of the Union more than a regularly
balanced national representation. When New York shall be only six or
eight days from New Orleans, not merely for a class of the rich and
privileged, but for every citizen, every labourer, a separation will be
impossible. Distance will be annihilated, and this colossus, ten times
greater than France, will preserve its unity without an effort.[CL]
It is impossible not to turn back my thoughts to Europe, and to make a
comparison, by no means favorable to the great kingdoms which occupy
it. The partisans of the monarchical principle maintain, that it is
as powerful in promoting the greatness and welfare of peoples, and
the progress of the human race, as the principle of independence and
self-government, which prevails on this side the Atlantic. For myself,
I believe them to be in the right; but it is necessary that some
tangible proofs of the correctness of their opinion should be given,
if we do not wish that the contrary doctrine should make proselytes.
It is by the fruits that the tree must be judged. Now the European
governments dispose of the property and the persons of more than 250
millions of men, that is, of a population twenty times more numerous
than that of the United States at the time these great works were
begun. The extent of territory which demands their care, is not quite
four times as great as that at present occupied by the States and the
organised Territories. The millions which the European nations raise so
easily for war, that is to say, to destroy and slaughter each other,
would not certainly be wanting to their princes for the execution
of useful enterprises. The latter have only to will it, and all the
peoples of Europe will be so completely blended together in interests,
feelings, and opinions, that the whole continent would be like a single
state, and a European war would be looked upon as no less sacrilegious
than a civil war. By putting off the day of these useful works, do not
the sovereigns give countenance to the reasonings of those, who assert
that the cause of kings is irreconcileable with the cause of nations?